SOC 301 FINAL
Family systems theory
- Focus on family as a group of people interacting together - Therapy might be focusing on an individual with a problem or relationship(s) with problems, but therapy is extended to whole family unit—so family becomes a focus of therapy as well - Assumes family is a system: an entity with interconnected parts (members, norms, roles) - A change in one part of family may cause change in another part --- e.g., parents conflicted relationship might be expressed in behavioral problems of one of the children
What special problems can occur when the stepchild is an adolescent
- For teens in remarried families, close ties to stepfathers are more likely to develop who the adolescent has close ties to his or her mother before the stepfather entered the family - Don't pursue a relationship with step parents
Interventions for abuse
- Therapeutic, compassionate; provide services (good over long term) - Short term effects but not always
What makes families prone to violence/abuse: *Ascribed (given by a society) not achieved (roles you choose for self) roles*
- Failure to follow role —> conflict - Manifest function of family: Overt, intended, often beneficial - Latent function of family: Covert (hidden, less obvious), unintended, may be beneficial but often aren't; here, may promote conflict
Many variations in divorce rate by group - class, religion, etc
- Underage 20 —> high divorce risk - Divorce divide: more divorce in lower income groups than middle class - Regional differences - Previous divorce: less important now
5 important elements associated with family "health": *Affect (emotional expression)*
- What is the prevailing "mood" of the family? - What expectations do members have for interaction with each other? - How well do members communicate their own feelings towards others? - How well do members understand others feelings? How empathetic are they?
2 broad explanations for abuse in families: *Sociocultural/sociological approach*
- force outside the abuser - cultural norms, poverty, using force as resource (violence as "ultimate resource"
2 broad explanations for abuse in families: *Medical/psychological*
- look for causes with the individual abuser (intraindividual causes) - Personality problems, psychopathology, & other forms of mental illness, substance abuse - Fewer than 10% of cases can be clearly tied to diagnosable clinical causes
Divorce trends
- very rare in colonial America --- Only men could sue for divorce — wife had committed adultery or desertion - Slow rise through 1800 until civil war - Somewhat fewer divorces due to somewhat lower marriage rates - 1/2 of marriage end in divorce - not exactly true now; Slight decline - Some people have multiple divorces —> increase rate
Difference in sexes in couples violence
-Mens: More frequent, more chronic; injuries often more severe - Some women's violence is defensive - "Common couples violence": both partners involved - Mid-1800s England: related abuse to women's low status & lack rights
How common is remarriage in the U.S.?
30% of all marriages are remarriages for one or both partners
Large study of families to identify factors associated with family "health"
5 important elements
Do experts agree on the effects of divorce on children
Outcomes for children depend a great deal on the circumstances before and after the divorce. In most cases, financially disadvantageous for children, children in high-conflict marriages seem to benefit from a divorce. When the conflict level is low, however, children are more surprised by the divorce and seem to suffer more emotional damage.
How do our expectations for marriage influence divorce rates?
People have set high expectations for marriages that put pressures on the relationship.The subsequent move from compassionate to individualistic marriage in the mid 20th cen put added pressure on marriage to meet each spouse's need for love but also personal happiness and life satisfaction
What are the social and emotional results of divorce?
People who have divorced have more health problems, more symptoms of anxiety and depression, more substance use, and greater overall mortality. Loss of social support and companionship, decline in standard of living, having to change residence, feelings of anger and sadness, and discontinuing measures associated with a healthy lifestyle. Re-enter workforce and marriage market.
Stress related growth
Personal growth and maturity attained in the context of a stressful life experience such as divorce
What is a "silver divorce"?
Phenomenon seen among older couples following long-term marriages
Why are remarriages less stable, that is, more likely to break up
Post divorce cohabitation is positively associated with remarital instability
Parallel parents
Post-divorce parental relationship in which formers partners parent alongside each other with minimal contact, communication, or conflict; associated with worse child outcomes
What makes remarriages of today different from remarriages of the past?
Remarriages have always been fairly common in the U.S. but are more frequent now then they were early in this century, and they now follow divorce more often than widowhood
How important is homogamy in remarriage, and how might heterogamy affect divorce rates for remarriages?
Remarrying couples differ from first-marrying couples in their degree of homogeny because choosing a remarriage partner differs from making a martial choice the 1st time inasmuch as there is a smaller pool of eligible on any give attribute. Work and other settings bring people together from more varied backgrounds.
When partners in remarried families have a mutual child, does this necessarily "cement" the marriage?
Research shows that a principle reason for the couple choosing to have a child together involves hope that the mutual child will "cement" the remarriage bond, however, there is little empirical support for the so called concrete body effect
Co-parenting
Shared decision making and parental supervision in such areas as discipline and schoolwork or shared holidays and recreation. Can refer to parents working together in a marriage or other ongoing relationship or after divorce or separation
How are sibling relationships affected after divorce
Siblings may respond in one of two ways: Sibling rivalry and conflict increases or siblings become closer and more supportive
Why are "baby boomers" having increasing divorce rates when most of the rest of the population does not?
Silver divorce is particularly true for baby boomers. Baby boomer generation is one of the largest number of marriages and divorces & the high rate of remarriage among this group also contributed to the high rate of divorce
do all divorcing people experience stress related growth
Whether a divorce can have a positive effect on adult adjustment depends on a range of moderating factors, such as income, level of distress in the marriage, and the presence of children. Social and emotional support also plays a role.
Divorce meditation
an alternative, nonadversaial means of dispute resolution by which a couple, with the assistance of a mediator, negotiate the settlement of their custody, support, property, and visitation issues
Interparental conflict perspective
conflict between parents
Who usually pays such support—moms or dads
dad
What makes families prone to violence/abuse: *Involuntary membership*
don't choose relatives — harder to escape bad relationships
Economic hardship perspective
economic hardships brought about
Who is most likely to become a noncustodial parent, a mom or a dad?
fathers
What is a "starter marriage"?
first marriage that ends in divorce within the first few years, typically before the couple has children
Six stations of Divorce: *Community divorce*
friends & family members adjust
mother-child
gatekeeper of the noncustodial fathers relationship with his children
Structural constrains
how well do your different roles fit together with marital role? (parenting, work, kin & friends)
enmeshment
is an extreme example of lack of boundaries between 2 people
Child support
money paid by the noncustodial to the custodial parent to support the children of a now-ended martial, cohabiting, or sexual relationship
Six stations of Divorce: *Psychic divorce*
persons own adjustment to a new status
Violence
physical harm intended by one person against another
Selection perspective
problems present before divorce due to marital problems
Physical custody
refers to where the child will live
Recoupled
remarry or to form another committed relationship after an earlier one dissolves
Divorce fallout
ruptures of relationships and changes in social networks that come about as a result of divorce
Cultural script
set of socially prescribed and understood guidelines for defining responsibilities and obligations and hence for relations to each other
Couples violence
- "Intimate partner violence": dating, cohabiting, married, same-sex, & opp sex couples - Much of earlier research was on violence against women - Violence against women often "institutionalized" as acceptable form of social control - Both sexes can abuse, but some differences
What are the advantages and disadvantages of joint custody
- *Pros*: bring the experiences of 2 parents closer together, providing advantages to each. Both parents may feel they have the opportunity to pass their own beliefs and values. Neither is overloaded with sole responsibility. Gives some down time from parenting. Kids have more realistic and normal relationship with parents. Closer relationship with both parents - *Cons*: Can be expensive; each maintaining things for the kid. Not all joint parents get along. Most don't enjoy the arrangement
Six stations of Divorce: *Emotional divorce*
- *Sense of separation from spouse* - Declining commitment to marriage (Ira Reiss) - Reward-tension balance; cross-benefit ratio - Normative inputs - Structural constrains - Divorce may not be mutually agreed upon — partner who does NOT want divorce will have a harder time adjusting
Child abuse cases/fixes
- 1874: case of "Mary Ellen" led to laws against child abuse - Late 1940s: X-ray technology revealed abuse injuries - 1962: Batter-child syndrome coined
5 important elements associated with family "health": *Degree of family "individuation"*
- Are members seen as distinct from each other? --- Generally it is good to see people as distinct individuals --- Sometimes boundaries between parent & child are "fuzzy" - Are members unique qualities respected? - How "permeable" is the family?—how open to outside influences is it? --- Moderate permeability is healthier --- Too open—> lose a sense of family unity --- Too closed—> too isolating
Six stations of Divorce: *Legal divorce*
- Court order dissolves marriage & specifies conditions (child custody, property settlement, financial support) - Gradual liberalizing of "grounds": approved of reasons under law for divorce - "No-fault divorce": 1970s California - reduce expense & conflict; non adversarial. Divide property by who needs what - "Irreconcilable differences"
5 important elements associated with family "health": *Acceptance of separation & loss*
- Healthy families accept changes & recognize it as inevitable (birth, death, divorce, kids leaving, etc) - Some changes aren't happy/positive, but healthy families learn to cope with it
Child abuse
- In past, parents had absolute rights over children - Abuse often served adult purposes:
What does it mean to say that the "cultural script" for remarriage is underdeveloped, and that remarriage is an "incomplete institution"
- Lacking a standard set of guidelines, couples planning a second marriage must make things up as they go. - Unlike first marriage, remarriage lacks social norms to guide behavior and therefore remarried couples do not have the tools to solve preambles and "get along
Legal changes regarding abuse
- Mandatory reporting: all 50 states --- Initial rise in rates followed by decline in actual abuse - Criminalization of family abuse - Better intervention by criminal justice system --- Police training, aggressive prosecution, & victim support - Mandatory arrest laws (may or may not work)
What makes families prone to violence/abuse: *Wide range of activities that may impinge on each other*
- Many tasks - "Zero-sum" activities - Making one choice may make another choice impossible
Elder abuse
- More of a modern problem: people live longer, may lack income in later years, may be more dependent on others due to health problems - *Typical victim*: woman, poor health, abuse is generally by caretakers (or a continuation of spousal abuse), older elderly, physically and/or financially dependent - About 20% of abuse cases involve physical violence. Rest is emotional, financial, exploration, & neglect - Abuser is often an untrained caretaker, often relative; often involuntary; sometimes will intentioned - Lack of laws dealing with care of dependent disabled people until 1980 - Victims may be unable to report, fear nursing homes, lover their abusers, shut-in
5 important elements associated with family "health": *Clarity & flexibility of family power structure*
- NOT about male vs female dominance or egalitarianism - Is it clear who makes various decisions - Is the power structure flexible enough to change when needed
What are the pros and cons of mediation?
- PRO: Couples who utilize divorce mediation have less relitigation, feel more satisfied with the process and the results, and report better relationships with the ex-spouse and children. Mediation produces higher levels of compliance [with court decisions] and lower relitigation rates than litigation. - CON: Women's advocacy groups have claimed that mediation may be biased against females in the they may be less assertive in the negotiation
Abuse often served adult purposes
- Religion: appease god with child sacrifice - Social solidarity: Show group loyalty, e.g. through painful rituals - Economic exploitation: slavery, prostitution, pornography - Population control: Infanticide of "less valued" children
Why did divorce rates rise throughout the 20th century
- Remarriage, married young, marrying someone of different race/ethnicity/religion, cohabitation before marriage, premarital sex/pregnancy/childbearing, having no children, parents or grandparents that divorced, blacks & hispanics, and military couples - Dips and swings surrounding historical events such as the Great Depression, Great Recession, and major wars
What makes families prone to violence/abuse: *Right to influence members*
- Right to socialize kids - To give advice - Exert power which may be resisted and cause conflict
Six stations of Divorce: *Economic divorce*
- Splitting of assets - Tangible vs non tangible assets
What makes families prone to violence/abuse: *High stress levels*
- Stressors from outside the family (work, etc) - Complex structure of the family - Life change (births)
Six stations of Divorce: Paul Bohannon
1) Emotional divorce 2) Legal divorce 3) Economic divorce 4) Coparental divorce 5) Community divorce 6) Psychic divorce
What is the difference between a "no fault" divorce and a "fault" divorce
A fault divorce required a legal determination that one party was guilty and the other innocents. With no fault, a marriage became a legally dissolvable when one or both partners declared it to be "irretrievably broken" or characterized by "irreconcilable differences
How are divorce trends different today for women with college degrees versus less educated women
A woman with a college degree has a 25% lower risk of divorce than one who did not complete high school
Now that more women are in the labor force, does that mean that families are no longer economically interdependent as they were in the past
A woman's earning a wage might give an unhappily married woman the economic power, the increased independence, and the self-confidence to help her decide on divorce
Researchers other than Wallerstein argue that children's outcomes of divorce are not necessarily so negative. On what grounds do they argue this?
Hetherington found that only 25% of her study had lasting problems due to divorce and that 75-85% were coping well
Why should we distinguish between psychological pain and clinical problems when assessing divorce effects?
Although children of divorced parents have an increased risk of social and emotional problems, they are not more likely than children with continuously married parents to exhibit "serious" issues, such as being in the clinical range for depression or anxiety.
Why has the rate of remarriage been declining?
Although the divorce rate has declined in the last 2 decades, roughly half of all marriages will still end in divorce. The majority of divorced people remarry and remarriage rates are much higher among men than women.
who usually gets child custody today, and why do mothers often have an advantage when seeking custody, particularly of younger children
Because mothers are typically the ones who have physically cared for the child, and because many judges still have traditional attitudes about gender, some courts continue to give preference for mothers
Sympathy
Feel with someone and share their feeling
Do most Americans today see divorce as morally unacceptable or acceptable?
Only 1/3 of Americans today see divorce as morally unacceptable. Religious views and differences in culture still affect peoples' attitudes toward divorce
Parental loss perspective
Both parents in same household is ideal
According to the influential Wallerstein research, with its generally negative "child of divorce" perspective, what stresses do children experience when their parents divorce?
Children appeared worst in terms of their psychological adjustment at one year after separation. After 5 years, most have adjusted. Effects child-father relationship.
How do kids affect these decisions?
Children making the weight of these decisions more important and valued
Levinger's model of divorce: *barriers*
Children, religion, and lack of financial resources
How does courtship for remarriage differ from that for first marriage
Courtship may proceed to be more rapid, with individuals viewing themselves as mature adults who know what they are looking for. Others are more cautious, with the partners feeling wary of repeating an unhappy marital experience.
Why do we use the crude divorce rate to look at changes over time
Crude data are the only long-term annual data available
Parental adjustment perspective
Custodial parent's psychological adjustment and the quality of parenting
the actual legal process of divorce can make distress over the breakup worse. Why?
Divorce, like death, creates the need to grieve, but the court is a rational, unceremonial exchange that takes only a few minutes. Secondly, the misery of the adversary system; just about getting the most out of the partner.
What are the economic effects of divorce for men
Economic losses aren't as great, but incomes still decline. Expenses, however, also decline
What makes families prone to violence/abuse: *Intensity of involvement*
Emotion
What does it mean to say that division of "tangible assets" equitably does not guarantee that wives will fare as well economically as their husbands after divorce
Even when tangible assets are equally split, that does not usually put her on an equal footing with her former husband for the future
What are the economic effects of divorce for children
Experience a substantial decline in their standard of living after a divorce. Mothers gone more for job
How does the absence or presence of stepchildren affect the risk of breaking up?
FIND ANSWER
Neglect
Failure to provide for needs of dependent person
What makes families prone to violence/abuse: *Privacy*
Family can become isolated intentionally to avoid detection of abuse
How is family law inadequate for remarried families?
Family law assumes that all marriages are first marriages. Therefore, many of the legal provisions that affect stepfamily life proceed from one or both partners' divorce decrees. Few legal provisions exist for the special circumstances of stepfamilies. Legal rights and responsibilities of stepparents are ambiguous. The preservation of stepparent-stepchild relations when death or divorce severs the marital ties is also a serious issue
Father-child relationship
Father's authority in the family gave weight once, but this vanishes in a nonresidential situation. Mothers facilitate relationship with kids. Low visitation. Among adolescents, relationship quality, closeness, and responsive parenting were found to reduce adolescents' problems and was associated with higher grades
role ambiguity
Few clear guidelines regarding what responsibilities, behaviors, and emotions stepfamily members are expected to exhibit
Most researchers believe the divorce rate has stabilized, and perhaps even declined in the last 30 years. Why?
Fewer people are marrying at younger ages. The standard of living has improved over the past few decades for 2-earner families with good jobs, a situation that leads to less tension at home and lower probability of divorce. Federally funded marriage education programs may have an impact. Children of divorce are determined to stay married. Cohabitation helps lower. Bad economy and high cost of obtaining a legal divorce keeps people married
How does divorce affect children's educations?
Financing college was found to be especially problematic, even among those who were middle class. 60% receive less education than their fathers.
Why are stepfamilies so diverse
Growth in the number of women having children outside of marriage, and increase in married couples with children living together, increasing involvement of nonresident parents in their children's lives, increasing awareness and tolerance of lesbian and gay relationships
5 important elements associated with family "health": *Perception of reality*
Healthier families perceive their situation — don't pretend they don't have problems that might arise
What makes families prone to violence/abuse: *Extensive knowledge of social biographies*
Intimate knowledge
Do Americans of value marriage less than they did back then?
It has just become easier to obtain a divorce
What limitations did Judith Wallerstein's research have that may have overemphasized the negative effects of divorce on children?
It was a small, unrepresentative sample recruited by offering free counseling to the family; it lacked a control group there was difficulty separating family troubles and mental health concerns that predate the separation and divorce from those that might be effects of divorce; and it looked at a time period when divorce was still a new trend
Levinger's model of divorce: *alternatives*
Least important in decision to divorce. Weigh their chances for a remarriage
Abuse terminology used
Mistreatment, maltreatment, abuse: general terms encompassing wide range of problems
Do all custodial mothers get legal (that is, court approved or ordered) support agreements with their exes?
Only half of custodial mothers have legal child support agreements. Custodial parent feeling that "the other parent provides what he/she can" or "other parent cant afford to pay"
What factors affect the kinds of experiences stepfathers have in their new families?
Many children have positive relationships with their stepfathers and men who eventually become their stepfathers. There is more ambiguity in the stepfather role among stepfathers who are cohabiting as opposed to married. These men are less involved with their stepchildren and have a shorter relationship. Men who decide to marry women with children come to their new responsibilities with varied emotions, typically quite different from those that motivate a man to assume responsibility for his biological children
How does being a custodial parent affect whether a woman will remarry? how about a man?
May prefer to keep their dating relationships and home lives separate.
How do remarriages compare to first marriages in happiness?
No difference in marital happiness, satisfaction, and other dimensions of marital quality between couples in 1st vs subsequent marriages, although remarried couples have been found to have higher levels of perceived marital instability.
Do all unhappy couples divorce, or are there some other solutions
Not all unhappy couples divorce. Separation helps
Crude divorce rate
Number of divorces per 1,000 *population*
Binuclear parents
One family in 2 household units. A term created to describes a post divorce family in which both parents remain involved and children have a home in both households
Levinger's model of divorce: *rewards*
One must decide whether divorce represents a healthy step away from an unhappy relationship that cannot be improved
How are the refined divorce rate and the crude divorce rate different & Which is the more valid measure
Refined is more accurate because it's limited to those who are actually married unlike crude which includes children and unmarried
in what ways do divorces have "fallout" effects?
Relationships with family members can be "reinterpreted"; redefinition of distant relative to a close relative, family relationships, ex-in laws in family. The expansions of the kinship system that is produced by links between ex-spouses and their new spouses and significant others and beyond to their extended kin, including grandparents, aunts, uncles, cousins, and friends
How are the kin networks of stepfamilies and remarried families different from those of first families?
Relationships with kin outside the immediate stepfamily are also complex and uncharted. There are few mutually accepted ways of defining and relating to new extended and ex-kin relationships, but it appears that new relatives do not so much replace as add kin
Why are financial strains common in stepfamilies
Some remarried believe that prior child support agreements need to be modified better to accommodate the needs of the current family. Whether legally required to or not, most stepparents help to support the stepchildren with whom they reside, either through direct contributions to the child's personal expenses or through payments toward general household expenses such as food and shelter.
Why don't some parents pay?
Some research suggest that the principal reason for a noncustodial parent's failure to pay is unemployment or underemployment. Sometimes fathers withhold child support from the mother as a "power play" to see their children more often.
What makes families prone to violence/abuse: *Time at risk*
Spend lots of time together (depends on stage of life cycle)
What kinds of problems and advantages do children have living in a stepfamily?
Stepchildren relationships vary with their interactions with stepparents and stepsiblings. Stepsiblings may not get along well. Children may have a lack of desire to see the relationship work out. - It's good to have extra adults to care for them, as well as their parents - enjoy a higher standard of living thanks to combined incomes
Life stress perspective
Stressful life event for all
boundary ambiguity
When applied to a family, a situation in which it is unclear who is in and who is out of the family
Stepmother trap
The conflict between 2 views society sentimentalizes the step mother's role and expects her to be unnaturally loving toward her stepchildren but at the same time views her as a wicked witch
How have divorce rates changed since 1920?
The frequency of divorce increased throughout most of the 20th century. Upward swing
What is the "divorce divide"
The gap in divorce rates between college-educated and less-educated men and women. The divorces rate has declined substantially among those who are college educated but not among the less educated
About what percentage of divorced people eventually remarry?
The majority of divorced people remarry, and remarriage rates are much higher among men than women ( 43/1,000 men & 23/1,000 women)
Why do some mothers give up custody of children voluntarily?
The most common reason for doing so is worry about how they will financially support their children.
Refined divorce rate
The number of divorces per 1,000 *married women*
When one partner wants a divorce and the other doesn't, who tends to feel more distress once the divorce happens
The one "left" experiences a greater loss of control and has much mourning yet to do — the divorce seeking spouse may have already worked through his or her sadness and distress
How have fathers been able to improve their custodial status
There has been a dramatic increase in fathers who have joint physical custody. Getting more involved in life and have support from mothers
Why do stepfathers find it often difficult to enter into a family that previously consisted of a single mom and her kids
To enter a single-mother family, a stepfather must work his way into a closed group — a reason that may stepfathers "tend to be marginalized in households where mothers are regarded as the disciplinarians". Mother and children share a common history, one that does not yet include the stepfather.
Shelters
Typically rely on local funding; often underfunded
Empathy
Understand other's feelings but not necessarily share it
What are the economic effects of divorce for women
Wives income declined considerably after divorce while husbands' disposable incomes increased. Unequal wages and different work patterns effect income disparity. Experiencing greater and more enduring loss. Women work more often in lower paying jobs
Who is more likely to initiate divorce
Women
Who tends to experience the greater loss economically following divorce, men or women?
Women have a greater loss economically
Why have mothers been increasingly agreeing to joint custody?
Women have been less inclined to have sole custody. Don't feel like they have to do it just on their own
how are women often disadvantaged because of this difference between tangible and nontangible assets?
Women usually have more invested in the tangible assets and lose them during a divorce
Tangible assets
assign a $ amount (bank account, house, cars, etc)
Normative inputs
beliefs about marriage, divorce, own relationship Inputs from religion, culture, friends & family, etc
Joint custody
both parents continue to take equal responsibility for important decisions regarding the child's upbringing
Nontangible assets
cant easily assign a $ amount (careers, degrees, etc). Harder to divide
Family instability perspective
transitions in and out of family settings
parentification
type of role reversal, boundary distortion, and inverted hierarchy between parents and other family members in which children or adolescents assume developmentally inappropriate levels of responsibility in the family of origin that go unrecognized, unsupported, and unrewarded
Six stations of Divorce: *Coparental divorce*
who has physical & legal custody
Legal custody
who has the right to make decisions with respect to a child's upbringing
