SOC360 Midterm

3 epochs of the history of whiteness, ethnicity

1790-1840: ambiguously white, particularly Northern and Western Europeans ("free white people") 1840-1924: whiteness fractured because immigration of Celts, Slavs, Hebrews, Iberics, Latins, Anglo-Saxons 1924-1965: all Caucasian again → all those Europeans from Southern and Eastern Europe are Caucasian and there shouldn't be a division

American expansionism, Imperialism,"manifest destiny

"Manifest destiny": the 19th-century doctrine or belief that the expansion of the US throughout the American continents was both justified and inevitable. the United States was bound for greatest and destined to expand Westward. This was seen through the Louisiana Purchase from France in which the United States obtained a large amount of land, but also its inhabitants. This was also seen when the United States fought in the Mexican-American war to obtain California and Texas from the Mexicans The United States buying Alaska from the Russians and overthrowing the Kingdom of Hawaii. Manifest destiny pushed the native inhabitants out of the their homelands as the Americans saw them as "savages" or "undesirable" or "unfit" There include the Mexicans, Native Americans, native Hawaiians, and Alaskan Eskimos. American expansionism and imperialism: fast-forward to the late 19th century with the rise of the European powers through the Industrial Revolution. These powers, including the United States, pushed past their borders and colonized international lands, specifically in Southeast Asia. The United States expanded into the Philippine Islands after the fall of Spanish colonization. Sought out to "civilize" the "uncivilized" Filipinos Some Americans at home did not want any savage Filipinos to enter the country or be considered Americans, just like with the Mexicans, and Native Americans.

critical transnational perspective

"Provokes us to think beyond the limits of the nation-state, that is, to be attentive to the global relations that set the context for immigration and immigrant life." -Yen Le Espiritu (2003) "We're here because you were there." -Britain's black population No one leaves home unless home is the mouth of a shark Immigration is not always a decision that someone makes. They might be forced to go somewhere safer Could be caused in large part caused by political tyranny, genocide, etc. More empathy is necessary.

beauty standards, whiteness

"black is beautiful" 1960s- black is beautiful cultural movement to counter mainstream media's depiction of black people's skin color, facial features, full lips, and different hair as "inherently ugly" Filipinos encouraging standards of light skin like advertising powder to make skin whiter, etc.

1978 UC Regents v. Bakke

* Bakke, a thirty-five-year old Caucasian, argued that his rejection to the university was based on his race; though he had higher qualifications consisting of college GPA and test scores, he was not admitted into the program despite applying twice. * The university, which had set aside sixteen out of one hundred spots for "qualified" minority groups, did this in attempt to correct unfair exclusions of minority races into the medical profession in the past. * After the court ruling, Bakke was admitted to the university and quotas were curbed, * affirmative action was still considered permissible. *This case brought light to racial capitalism, which assigns social and economic value according to racial identity; in this particular scenario, "whiteness" did not have racial capitalism because of these quotas universities strove to meet. Racial quotas are a no go but affirmative action is still bueno

1954 Brown v. Board of Education

*Brown v. Board of Education was filed against the Topeka, Kansas school board by representative-plaintiff Oliver Brown, parent of one of the children denied access to Topeka's white schools. Brown claimed that Topeka's racial segregation violated the Constitution's Equal Protection Clause because the city's black and white schools were not equal to each other and never could be. Ruled violation of 14th amendment. *Declared school segregation unconstitutional; sparked massive protests; bus boycott, marches, blocking roads, civil disobedience, public education campaigns (integrated bus tours with Freedom Riders), involved students/church groups/workers/volunteers. allowed nine African American students to attend a public high school in Little Rock, AK. Because of this integration, President Eisenhower assigned 1,000 soldiers to protect these nine students. * It paved the way from more schools to follow suit. during the mid 1960's civil rights movement, researchers conducted a survey regarding the impact of integration on school work, in which they found that attendance was increased, GPA was increased, and more credits were earned by students. By integrating students and curriculum, self-awareness was fostered, along with the desire to succeed.

American nativism, white American nationalism

American nativist organizers focused on the matter of catholicism and class. "Irishism" (alleged condition of depravity and degradation...applied to their children as well. Seen as "too vain, too lazy"). Focused on protecting country's border. America belongs only to a certain group of people. It keeps out the people who were "not good enough" such as people who were catholic, too barbaric, too lazy, unable to self govern. (American nativism's perspective of who was white=If you had a sickness, impairment, or deformity you could not be a citizen.) *focused on the outside of US White American nationalism: who was "white" (free, civilized, Christian). Times of expansionism (manifest destiny), exploration (ex reached alaska, alaskans called savages in late 19th century). The White League- the Knights of the White Camelia, Caucasian Clubs. Main function/object is the maintenance of white supremacy of the white race in the republic... quantum blood rule (percentage of ancestry who is native american For instance, a person who has one parent who is a full-blood Native American, and one who has no Native ancestry, has a blood quantum of 1/2.). *focused on the inside of US White American Nationalism is the belief that being American should be built around white ethnicity, and that white people should therefore maintain both a demographic majority and dominance of the nation's culture and public life

1915 lynching of Leo Frank

Another example of fractured whiteness White mob lynched Jewish "outsider" Leo Frank in Atlanta. Question if Jewish people were white or black. Twist: southern chivalry to hang Leo Frank because he allegedly killed a young girl in a factory. Leo was 'inconclusively white" and a pervert (believed that being a pervert could be detected in the eyes, nose, and lips) * entanglement with race, religion, sexual boundaries Took the word of a black man over the Jewish man (anti-semitism-hostility to or prejudice against Jews.)

anti-miscegenation, 1967 Loving v. Virginia

Anti-miscegenation- laws passed to prevent interracial marriage by criminalizing marriage between "whites" and "non-whites" Not allowed to marry outside of race before Loving v. Virginia. Landmark civil rights decision of the United States Supreme Court, which invalidated laws prohibiting interracial marriage. Two residents of Virginia, Mildred Jeter, a black woman, and Richard Loving, a white man, were married in the District of Columbia. The Lovings returned to Virginia shortly thereafter. The couple was then charged with violating the state's antimiscegenation statute, which banned inter-racial marriages. The Lovings were found guilty and sentenced to a year in jail (the trial judge agreed to suspend the sentence if the Lovings would leave Virginia and not return for 25 years).

1830 Indian Removal Act

Began with the fear of the unfamiliarity of American Indians, some thought that best way to solve indian problem was to civilize indians. Goal was to make Native Americans as much as white Americans by teaching them english, converting them to Christianity and allowing them to own land/property. Seen in Cherokee nation. Although they were seen as savages and lazy, the Cherokee tribe became very civilized and advanced to the point they published their own newspaper, charted their own Cherokee language into English, and owned a vast amount of land However, due to the Indian Removal Act, their land was given to white settlers/immigrants who desired for the American dream. * However, whites wanted the land that the Native Americans had and they didn't care how civilized they were. Whites immigrating land needed land to farm on and make a living, which led to the Indian Removal Act. *President Andrew Jackson, lands taken away and gives it to white settlers/immigrants. *Also has to do with manifest destiny They were seen as dependent savages who couldn't take care of themselves. Stereotype of inborn laziness

The doll test, Kenneth and Mamie Clark *please add*

Black vs white doll stereotypes ("which doll is the nice doll?", "what doll do you like playing with best?"), test kids → specifically African-American children Found that most kids chose the white doll, and found that the black doll was bad. Even the African-American kids who were tested preferred the white doll over the black doll because it was "prettier".

Re-segregation:

Chang argues that the United States is heading towards re-segregation, that racial differences have continued to worsen. May just be not as blatant which can be potentially worse because it is harder to fight. Economic resegregation; blacks, latinos do not have the same amount of economic opportunities than whites to. Opportunities in education A lot of schools have a dominant race Predominantly white schools are the better schools Predominantly black schools are not so great

We Gon' Be Alright-- Jeff Chang Main points

Chang explores the rise and fall of the idea of "diversity," the roots of student protest, changing ideas about Asian Americanism, and the impact of a century of racial separation in housing. He argues that re segregation is the unexamined condition of our time, the undoing of which is key to moving the nation forward to racial justice and cultural equity. Talks a lot about Ferguson and black lives matter. Can we, given all the pain that we have had inflicted upon us and that we have inflicted upon others, ever learn to see each other as lovers do, to find our way toward freedom of all? But redemption is out there for us if we are always in the process of finding love and grace. Chang argues that the United States is heading towards resegregation, that racial differences have continued to worsen.

1790 Naturalization Act

Citizenship for whites only. ("white supremacist law"-Jacobson) Limited number of naturalized citizens to "free white" people Excluded citizenship to blacks, immigrants of other races, and even most women (without citizenship there were no rights) Religion was first used to distinguish one from others, before modern science Whites were more evolved, black appeared more as primates was coined as a white supremacist law as it restricted citizenship to any alien being a free, white person This law also allowed for many European immigrants to make their way to the US in the nineteenth century, including the famine migration of Ireland, 48ers from Germany, Greeks, Poles, Italians, and Ukrainians Starting in 1790 due to the naturalization law, the idea of whiteness made its way into in a variety of state laws including voting, office-holding, and appointments

dichotomization

Dichotomization involves dividing populations into two groups. On one side are civilized whites, Christians, self-possessed citizens, and North-Western Europeans. On the opposing side are: non-white "Native American Savages" and "Mongrelized Mexicans", heathens, black slaves "unfit for self-government", and southern and eastern Europeans. The practice of dividing populations into 2 divided sides Split category of one vs the other- divided into 2 groups White, christians of europe, civilized europeans, white self possessed citizens, N + W Europeans as good material for citizenship Non white, heathens of Africa, Asia, Americas. Subjugated non white. Savage indians, mongrelized Mexicans. S +E Europeans as well as Asians shouldn't be allowed in the US

1891 lynching of Italian immigrants

Displayed... "Fractured Whiteness" *In 1891 in New Orleans, 11 Italians were imprisoned and accused of murdering a police officer. *During this time, lynching was a legal form of punishment. So due to this crime the Italians had supposedly committed, the White League and a group of white spectators lynched the 11 Italians. *Italians were not considered part of the white race as they did not act white and had good relations with African-Americans, so they were targeted for lynching just as much as African-Americans were *Italians were white enough to enter country but d/t relationship w/ non-whites, they lost the status of white

Al Jolson's The Jazz Singer (1927)

Distinguished himself from dark skin by black facing. Showed that once he took off the black face, he was white underneath (even though he was Jewish) Separated "ethnic whites" and other non-black minorities from African Americans

1898 U.S. v. Wong Kim Ark

Established birthright citizenship; court rule in favor of a chinese man born in the US to immigrant parents; jus soli: birthright citizenship → if you were born in the US, you're automatically a US citizen * Being born on American soil = jus soli (citizenship by birth). Jus sanguinis: citizenship comes from parents home country Birthright citizenship was established after this case

Eugenics

Eugenics- (google definition) the science of improving a human population by controlled breeding to increase the occurrence of desirable heritable characteristics. * Developed largely by Francis Galton as a method of improving the human race, it fell into disfavor only after the perversion of its doctrines by the Nazis. * Originated in 1800s as a way to purify race Used to pass the naturalization laws and immigrations laws limiting citizenship, and used oppress blacks into slavery, and take land from native americans Belief that some races were genetically inferior as "proven" by skull size etc. More reason not to procreate with a race other than white.

D.W. Griffith's Birth of a Nation (The Clansman) (1915)

First movie to be shown in the white house. By 1915, the black person was the enemy. Added religion to prevailing whites (Jesus pictured over white people after defeating the blacks). KKK seen as valiant soldiers Weird black and white silent movie she showed in class that made kkk heroes..

cultural equity, cultural inequity

INEQUITY- when "people do not have the same power to create, access, or circulate their practices, works, ideas, and stories. It is one in which people cannot represent themselves equally" (56). risks of underrepresentation and/or misrepresentation stereotypes vs. EQUITY- Goal: full humanity (56) Strategy: decentering whiteness by bringing diverse people out of the margins and out of stereotypical roles (63) akin to decentering "romance" out of Disney princess stories Tools: access, representation, and power Challenges: Profit, or the bottom line Political pressures Privatization of culture Why is it important... ? Alan Lomax: "arts produced by diverse groups of people are socially valuable because they offer us ideas, technologies, and values that help us figure out how to live together" (63). cultural diversity = biodiversity, creative ecosystem "we will still need to address the ways in which we see each other" (Chang 63) and ourselves!

Trail of Tears

In 1838 and 1839, as part of Andrew Jackson's Indian removal policy, the Cherokee nation was forced to give up its lands east of the Mississippi River and to migrate to an area in present-day Oklahoma. The Cherokee people called this journey the "Trail of Tears," because of its devastating effects. Many Cherokee passed away during the difficult journey. It can be seen as the Americans pushing away these "savage" Indians out of their new American lands. In 1836 Creeks (another tribe) were forced to go to Oklahoma as well. The federal government promised that their new land would remain unmolested forever, but as the line of white settlement pushed westward, "Indian country" shrank and shrank. In 1907, Oklahoma became a state and Indian territory was gone for good.

14th Amendment -- Birthright Citizenship

In 1868 people from African American descent were eligible for citizenship- citizens by name, not by practice. Convict leasing: owners kept laborers/workers Ex: Jim Crow laws that prevented African Americans from voting Just saying that even with this law, doesn't mean POC and women were treated equally.... but a step in the right direction for sure! Defined national citizenship and forbid states from restricting the basic rights of citizens or others All persons born or naturalized in the United States and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside 14th Amendment is jus soli- born on American soil vs. Jus sanguinis where citizenship comes from the parent.

Whiteness of a Different Color: Main Points

Jacobsen's ultimate objective, but at the same time no law can fully encompass race because it is a "historical fabrication" (Jacobsen, 280). Jacobsen would likely conclude that the connotations of race are so powerful, that even a law that is meant to be beneficial towards many, like affirmative action, has the potential of creating conflict. Discusses how whiteness is beyond just skin tone as ethnic whites were oppressed as well

Politics of abandonment linked with Displacement which is...........

Kinloch- expansion of Lambert St. Louis national airport. Meacham Park- cleared for Walmart complex, denial of building permits, housing lots turning into public parks. More profitable, desirable places and services at the cost of people losing their homes etc.

Madison Grant

Madison Grant- 1893: literacy test for incoming immigrants. Employers protested this because they were worried they wouldn't continue to recruit cheap labor from immigrants. Grant was fearful of conquest by procreation. Thought the idea of the melting pot was degrading the US (passing of the great race). Idea of race and hygiene: breeding only the desirables- promoted eugenics, influenced by science Author of The Passing of the Great Race (influenced Hitler)

Whiteness of a different color

Matthew Jacobson writes an overarching history of socially constructed whiteness throughout American history. In doing so he argues that whiteness is not just socially constructed, but that it's also much more fluid, overlapping, and historically contingent than we might think. Jacobsen's ultimate objective, but at the same time no law can fully encompass race because it is a "historical fabrication" (Jacobsen, 280). Begins with.... 1790-1840s: period of relative inclusion and white/non-white stark difference.. relative racial inclusion that was based on limiting citizenship to free white people who were "fit for self-government." Turns into.... - 1840s-1924:European immigration in the 1840s that a second phase began: one that emphasized internal divisions and hierarchies within the white race itself. then.......... - 1924-1965-- binary system that expanded the definition of "Caucasian". Historical "amnesia" regarding off-white divisions and reinforced a black/white dichotomy. Rather than internal. whiteness was constantly being made, unmade, and often simultaneously affirmed and denied to the same people Jacobson points to 1877 as a particularly poignant year in which issues of race rose to fore on a number of fronts: from the end of Reconstruction in the South, to growing anti-Chinese movement in the West, to clashes in the Southwest with Indians and Mexicans, to labor disputes highlighting "off-white" European working class, to end of the Great Sioux War on the Plains.

Arthur Miller's Novel Focus (1945)

Meditation of the questions of American justice and Jewish racial difference. Anti-semitic (newman) becomes the victim of anti-semitism (instrument of economic and political power and exploitation)- jobless, ostracized by christian organization, vandalism, and assault. Forced to wear glasses that made him "look Jewish". Reflection on the experience of a puerto rican maid in newman's street. Points to progressive politics of the recognition of the nonsense of racial categories and dichotomies.

microaggressions

Microaggressions are the everyday verbal, nonverbal, and environmental slights, snubs, or insults, whether intentional or unintentional, which communicate hostile, derogatory, or negative messages to target persons based solely upon their marginalized group membership. Ex. "Oh you speak really good English" Very harmful although not necessarily intended to be.

1924 Immigration Act

National origins quota system. Limited immigration to 2% of the total number of people of each nationality in the US as of the 1890 national census. (limited the people that they did not want). *Followed the logic of fitness for self government. Purpose was to limit entry of Jews, Southern/Eastern Europeans, as well as immigrants from Africa and outright ban of immigrants from Asia to Mid East. no limits of immigration from other countries of north/south america. Justification: eugenics, hierarchy of races The 1924 Immigration Act was also coined the ASIAN EXCLUSION ACT and was supported by white supremacist organizations like the Ku Klux Klan

1831 Cherokee Nation v. Georgia

The Cherokee Nation sought a federal injunction against laws passed by the U.S. state of Georgia depriving them of rights within its boundaries Court did not hear case because there was no jurisdiction because Cherokee Nation is a "dependent nation." *The Cherokee Nation was seeking a federal injunction against laws that were passed by the state of Georgia. These laws were very hateful; they deprived the Cherokee Nation of receiving basic human rights within their own tribal boundaries. *In Cherokee Nation v. Georgia, Attorney General Wirt argued that the Cherokee Nation was a separate foreign nation according to the United States Constitution leading to belief of lack of jurisdiction. *The United States Supreme Court refused to hear the suit. Supposedly based on article three of the constitution.

1922 Takao Ozawa v. U.S.

The case revolves around Takao Ozawa, he argued that he is an American and has the pride of a true American, like the Caucasian population. He used non-racial qualifications for citizenship. He was fluent in English, practiced Christianity, and worked for american company. Even raised his kids as "Americans". He argued that despite his Japanese heritage, his skin is just as white as Caucasians, so he should have the right for citizenship. However, the court ruled that there must be scientific proof to prove being Caucasian or white to be considered for citizenship, therefore Ozawa's petition for citizenship was denied. Super subjective, LAMEEE

1957 Little Rock Nine

The group of nine African-American students who were the first to attend the strictly segregated Little Rock Central High School in Arkansas. This occurred after the ruling of the Brown v. Board of Education ruling that segregated public schools were unconstitutional. The intervention of bringing the Little Rock Nine to Central High was implemented by President Eisenhower. Due to protest and possible violence towards the Little Rock Nine, Eisenhower had to send in federal troops from the United States army to enforce integration and protect the Little Rock Nine.

1896 Plessy v. Ferguson

The state of Louisiana enacted a law that required separate railway cars for blacks and whites. In 1892, Homer Adolph Plessy -- who was seven-eighths Caucasian -- took a seat in a "whites only" car of a Louisiana train. He refused to move to the car reserved for blacks and was arrested. Raises question of does this infringe against the natural born citizen law enacted by the 14th amendment. Upheld state racial segregation laws for public facilities, doctrine of "separate but equal" It stemmed from an 1892 incident in which African-American train passenger Homer Plessy refused to sit in a Jim Crow car, breaking a Louisiana law. Kept segregation of schools legal. Rejecting Plessy's argument that his constitutional rights were violated, the Court ruled that a state law that "implies merely a legal distinction" between whites and blacks did not conflict with the 13th and14th Amendments. Restrictive legislation based on race continued following the Plessy decision.

1923 U.S. v. Baghat Singh Thind

This case revolved around the South Asian-American veteran Baghat Singh Thind who found scientific proof that South Asians had very similar genetics and are closely related to Caucasians than other races, so they can be considered white. However, the court ruled that despite having provided scientific proof, the definition of a what it is to be white, it based on the "common man's" understanding of what it is to be white. This was the complete opposite of Ozawa's case. FOOLS. NOTHING WORKS. SO SUBJECTIVE. Governemtn had power todetermine what was white and what was not white

racial capitalism, Diallo Shabazz

This is when people use diversity to their advantage, like colleges promoting their diverse campuses -Diallo Shabazz was photoshopped into a picture of white students in order to make his university seem more diverse.

Grace Lee Boggs

Wrote final book at 96, PhD in philosophy. Organized protests against housing slums. Super cool Asian lady she talked about in class!! "What we urgently need are impassioned discussions everywhere, in groups small and large, where people from all walks of life are not only talking but also listening to one another" -> we should be struggling to change our country because we love it. Participatory democracy, daily life engagement vs reliance on voting and mass protests only. Supported critical connections over critical mass, recognized the humanity in others, including enemies. "Create more human human beings and more democratic institutions"

Politics of abandonment:

divestment in non-white neighborhoods; reduction in social services

Redlining

is the practice of denying services, either directly or through selectively raising prices, to residents of certain areas based on the racial or ethnic composition of those areas. National Housing Act of 1934--In 1934 the practice of redlining neighborhoods came into existence through the National Housing Act of 1934.[17] This practice, also known as mortgage discrimination, began when the federal government and the newly formed Federal Housing Administration allowed the Home Owners' Loan Corporation to create "residential security maps", outlining the level of security for real-estate investments in 239 cities around the United States. On these maps, high-risk areas were outlined in red. Many minority neighborhoods were redlined in these maps, meaning that banks would deny all mortgage capital to people living within them. This contributed to the decay of many of these neighborhoods because the lack of loans for buying or making repairs on the homes made it difficult for these neighborhoods to attract and keep families. Many urban historians point to redlining as one of the main factors for urban disinvestment and the decline of central cities in the middle decades of the 20th century. and the GI Bill-- At the end of World War II, the GI Bill furthered segregation practices by keeping African Americans out of European American neighborhoods, showing another side to African American housing discrimination. When millions of GIs returned home from overseas, they took advantage of the "Servicemen's Readjustment Act," or the GI Bill.[19] This important document was signed in 1944 by Franklin D. Roosevelt, and gave veterans education and training opportunities, guaranteed loans for home, farm, or business Still impacts us today Ex: servants quarters in La Jolla. Ex: National City is mostly occupied by Latinos, Blacks, and Filipinos, however, it is a low-funded area.

Containment (???)

police departments' focus on low level quality of life crimes, urban policing targets: the poor, the jobless, the homeless/near homeless, immigrants, youths of color. State and federal leaders authorized an explosion of prison building Arch City (St. Louis County): in 2013- 24,352 warrants (more than there were residents). 67% black people, 86% of traffic stops and 93% of arrests were of black people. Court fines and fees were the second largest source of city revenue From 2011-2013, black people accounted for 95% jaywalking citations, 94% of all failure to comply changes. City officials pushed police dept to increase ticketing to meet budget projections, dept. Tied officer promotions to productivity (aka number of citations), free speech rights exercise as unlawful obedience, innocent movements as physical threats, indications

Racial steering

refers to the practice in which real estate brokers guide prospective home buyers towards or away from certain neighborhoods based on their race.

Segregation

the enforced separation of different racial groups in the country, community, or establishment. Ex. colored drinking fountain, white drinking fountain; blacks at the back of the bus Even schools were separated until Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka stated that it was unconstitutional. Even then, African-American students attending the high school in Little Rock, Arkansas faced discrimination.

Blockbusting

the practice of persuading owners to sell property cheaply because of the fear of people of another race or class moving into the neighborhood, and thus profiting by reselling at a higher price. The purpose of this scheme is to get the homeowners to sell out at a deflated price. Starting happening as early as the 1900's.

Gentrification

the process of renovating and "improving" a house, district, or area to a middle class taste. → also kicking out its former inhabitants. Ex. The Mission district in San Francisco with rent going up to $8000 Ex. Barrio Logan in San Diego with a new modern apartment complex right next to the older "run-down" houses. Fails to take into account preferences of older generations who may not like new changes. What does gentrification feel like? 12,000 no fault evictions, increasing rent by $8000 Gentrification is a general term for the arrival of wealthier people in an existing urban district, a related increase in rents and property values, and changes in the district's character and culture. The term is often used negatively, suggesting the displacement of poor communities by rich outsiders. But the effects of gentrification are complex and contradictory, and its real impact varies. Many aspects of the gentrification process are desirable. Who wouldn't want to see reduced crime, new investment in buildings and infrastructure, and increased economic activity in their neighborhoods? Unfortunately, the benefits of these changes are often enjoyed disproportionately by the new arrivals, while the established residents find themselves economically and socially marginalized.

White flight:

when white people left the cities, they took capital with them. As blacks arrived in northern neighborhoods, more whites left. By the 1920s, there were more than three white departures for every black arrival. choices of white homeowners to move to neighborhoods that are almost exclusively white