SOCI-320 FINAL

Pleasure & participation sports

- Will grow as "connections" are valued over confrontation and domination -Corporate sponsors may support these sports more in the future as people question dominant ideologies Other factors support the growth of these sports: -Concerns about health and fitness -Participation preferences of older people -Values and experiences that women bring to sports -Groups seeking alternative sports and new ways to do sports

Pleasure and Participation Model

-Active participation revolves around connections between people, integration of mind and body, and harmony with the environment -A spirit of personal expression, enjoyment, growth, good health, and mutual concern among participants -Personal empowerment created by gaining knowledge about and pleasure from the body Inclusive processes through which participation is encouraged by accommodating ability differences -Democratic decision-making structures in which relationships are characterized by cooperation and sharing power -An emphasis on participating and competing with others who are defined as partners in creating and meeting physical challenges

How and why do meanings matter?

-Be careful when generalizing about the educational value of sports -Longitudinal and qualitative studies are needed to identify changes related exclusively to sport participation -Varsity athletes may be treated differently by significant others -Varsity sports exert an influence on the larger student culture in high schools, but we don't know much about this -The impact of sport participation depends on the meanings given to it—and meanings emerge through social interaction with many people in and out of school.

Describe the employment possibilities for athletes. How are they different for women? For ethnic minority athletes?

-Career opportunities are limited and, for athletes, they are short term. -The odds of making big money as an athlete are so low that nobody should bet much on them, and bets should be hedged with other career goals! -Opportunities for women are growing but remain limited. -Opportunities for African Americans and other ethnic minorities are growing but remain limited. Women -Careers as pro athletes for women have existed primarily in tennis and golf. -Other pro sports have been formed recently, but they generate little revenue, and careers are insecure. -Other job opportunities in sports remain limited by traditional gender ideology. -The characteristics associated with being a woman are not seen as fitting many job qualifications in sports.

Factors supporting the growth of Pleasure & participation sports:

-Concerns about health and fitness -Preferences among older people -Current values and experiences of girls & women -Groups seeking alternatives to power & performance sports

What are some ways in which to promote gender equality in sports?

-Confront discrimination and be an advocate for women coaches and administrators -Be an advocate of fair and open employment practices -Keep data on gender equity -Learn and educate others about the history of discrimination in sports and how to identify discrimination -Inform media of unfair and discriminatory policies -Package women's sports as revenue producers -Recruit women athletes into coaching -Use women's hiring networks -Create a supportive climate for women in your organization

Arguments against interscholastic sports

-Distract attention from academics -Create dependence and conformity -Too many injuries, too many spectators -Create superficial, transitory spirit -Waste resources -Create pressure, distort status system

What is the relationship between athletes and occupational success?

-Enables people to complete degrees and gain knowledge about the world apart from sports -Increases support from others who foster overall development, not just sport development Provides opportunities to develop social networks reaching beyond sports -Provides material resources and guidance on how to use them -Expands experiences, identities, and abilities unrelated to sports -Does not lead to serious injuries

How is the treatment of professional wrestling illustrative of commercialization?

-Events are dramatic spectacles. -Players display carefully constructed personas. -Emphasis is on heroic action. -Storylines are simple; they emphasize domination, gender differences, and capricious bosses.

How have new forms of media changed the ways in which media has been traditionally created and consumed?

-Extend and radically change (potentially) our connections with the world -Are not limited to sequential programming -Enable each of us to be the "editors" of our own media experiences, if we wish -Give us the potential to create our own sport realities and experiences as spectators and virtual athletes -Young people now re-present their own sports in media forms. -Fantasy leagues change media experiences related to sports.

What are some of the consequences for female athletes living in a male-identified social World?

-Females in certain sports may threaten traditional ideas about gender. --Through history, myths have been used to discourage participation by girls and women. Encouragement varies by sport, and whether the sport emphasizes grace or power. -Being a "tomboy" is okay as long as traditional "femininity cues" are presented.

How did Title IX expand the opportunities for girls and women in sports? What are some of the current issues with Title IX?

-Fostered major changes in sport participation opportunities available to girls and women -Evoked continuous resistance since it became law in 1972 -Demonstrated that laws and law enforcement do not exist in a social and cultural vacuum -Demonstrated that when laws challenge the ideas and lifestyles of people with power, the legitimacy and enforcement of those laws will be questioned

Sports for people with disabilities:

-Increase in people disabled by war, lack of medical care, and poverty -Increasing recognition that people with disabilities desire to play sports and have a right to expect opportunities -Continuing use of sport participation as therapy -More sports for elite athletes with disabilities -New technologies that facilitate sport participation -More visible examples of sports for elite athletes with disabilities -Emerging ideas, vocabularies, and orientations that support people with a disability and their participation in sports

Arguments for interscholastic sports

-Involve students in activities and increase interest in school -Build self-esteem and other positive traits -Enhance fitness and lifetime participation -Generate spirit and unity -Promote support -Develop and reward valued skills

Conversely, in what ways do the media depend on sports? Give examples.

-Most media do not depend on sports. -Daily newspapers depend on "sports sections" for circulation and ad revenues. -Many television companies depend on sports to fill programming schedules and attract male viewers and sponsors that want to reach them. -Many sport events have audiences with clearly identifiable "demographics," which is of great value for sponsors (pro golf is an example). -Media organizations focused on sports programming ARE dependent on sports—such as ESPN.

Why have the participation of girls and women in sports increased? Give examples.

-New opportunities -Government legislation mandating equal rights -The global women's rights movement -The health and fitness movement -Increased media coverage of women in sports

In what ways do sports depend on the media? Give examples.

-No, not when they are organized by and for the players themselves -Yes, when they are organized as forms of commercial entertainment -Media coverage attracts attention to sports and provides news of results. -Television coverage remains a key factor in the growth and expansion of commercial sports.

How are sports inequalities reflected on a global level?

-People in the U.S. have (on average) $60/day to live; in 39 less-developed nations, people have 58¢ per day to live. -Nearly 50% of the world's population live on less than $2/day. -Example: In 2008 Tiger Woods made as much money as 200,000 people in less-developed nations used to live for the entire year. -Sports and sport participation is a luxury for over half the world's population.

What are some of the challenges unique to gay and lesbian athletes?

-Popular discourse erases gay men and lesbians from sports. -Gay men and lesbians have less freedom than heterosexuals when expressing sexuality. -Being "out" in sports creates challenges: -Women risk social acceptance -Men risk social acceptance and physical safety -Most people in sports support a "Don't ask, don't tell" policy about homosexuality.

How are today's racial and ethnic challenges different from and similar to the challenges faced during the 20th century?

-Race and ethnicity remain significant in sports today -Today's challenges are not the ones faced in the past -Racial and ethnic issues don't disappear when de-segregation occurs -The challenge of dealing with intergroup relations never disappears—it only changes in terms of the issues that must be confronted and resolved -Racial and ethnic diversity brings potential vitality and creativity to sports Today we are witnessing changes in the form of white and black racial categories as the idea of race is modified in connection with (a) new patterns of immigration from Asia, Latin America, and the Caribbean; (b) new expressions of anti-immigrant attitudes; and (c) the racialization of Latino and new Asian immigrant populations (Kretsedemas, 2008).

Why can professional athletes face difficulties in retirement?

-Reconstructing identities in terms of activities, abilities, and relationships unrelated to sport participation -Renegotiating relationships with others so as to gain feedback and support for new identities

How do sports affect individuals who watch them?

-Research is rare on audience experiences, but it appears that watching television sports is positively integrated into social relationships and social networks. -Identities are connected with the experience of watching sports, and those identities can be linked with varying relationships and groups. -Couple who cohabitate often watch sports together, and over time most partners accommodate each other's viewing habits. -Active participation in sports A positive link exists only for those who are already strongly committed to participation in a sport. -Attendance at sport events Media consumption of sports is positively linked with attendance at elite events, but it may decrease attendance at less elite events—research is needed. -Betting on sports The Internet provides easy access to opportunities. Betting creates interest in sports but threatens them if it inspires gamblers to "fix" events.

Why do sociologists say that race is a social construction? What does it mean to say that racial categories have social meaning?

-Research shows that race is not a valid biological concept because external traits are not linked with patterns of internal differences. -Race is a social construction that is based on social definitions and the meanings that people give to physical traits. -Racial classification systems vary by culture and over time, and they are based on arbitrary distinctions related to continuous physical traits (see diagram)

Describe the trends in sports television. How have things changed?

-Rights fees have skyrocketed since the 1960s. Sports programming has increased dramatically. -As more events are covered, ratings for particular events have decreased. -Audience fragmentation has occurred. -Television companies use sports events to promote other programming. -Television companies are parts of conglomerates that now own teams, sport events, and other businesses that benefit from sports coverage and its commercials.

What is the status of amateur sports in the U.S.?

-Self-funded and dependent on corporate sponsors, or funded through a central government sports authority -Controlled by organizations with an interest in two things: -Power—over the athletes in their sport -Money generated by events & sponsorships

Describe some of the issues related to sports journalism.

-Sport journalists are not all the same—some focus on entertainment, some focus on information. -The work of sports journalists does matter when it comes to cultural ideology and public consciousness. -Tensions between players and sportswriters have intensified as differences in their salaries and backgrounds have become more pronounced. -Ethical issues have become increasingly important in sports journalism because the stakes are so high for teams, athletes, coaches, owners, etc.

How can girls and women be agents of change? Why are elite female athletes resistant to change

-Sport participation can empower women, but This does not occur automatically -Personal empowerment does not always lead to an awareness of the need for gender transformation in society as a whole -Elite athletes seldom are active agents of change when it comes to gender ideology

What are some ways in which social class has structured and organized sport in society?

-The meaning, organization, and purpose of sports are heavily influenced by money and economic power. Class relations in the U.S. are based on an ideology in which economic success is equated with individual ability, worth, and character. -Competitive power and performance sports reaffirm this ideology.

How is class ideology reflected in the people who control sports (the "Power50")? How does this connect to corporate sponsorship?

-The most powerful people in sports are white men who control the resources that sponsor sports and represent sports in the media. The most visible sports around the world revolve around the meanings and orientations given priority by people with wealth and power. -Power is based in organizations and rests in the hands of the white men who control them. -Athletes and coaches have little or no power to control the organization of sports.

How is spectator interest created? Give examples.

-The quest for excitement -Fit with social class ideology -Widespread organized, competitive youth sports -Widespread media coverage

Power and Performance model

-Using strength, speed, and power to push human limits and achieve competitive success -Proving excellence through competitive success and attributing success to dedication, hard work, and sacrifice -Being willing to risk physical well-being and play with pain -Exclusive processes through which participants are cut from teams if they do not meet elite performance standards -A chain of command in which owners and administrators control coaches, and coaches control athletes -Competing against opponents and defining them as enemies to be conquered

Power & performance sports

-Will be dominant in immediate future because they reaffirm dominant ideologies -Corporate sponsors give priority to these sports because they reaffirm their interests -They are exclusive and create more spectators than participants -Their popularity depends on power staying in the control of men who value conquest over others

Why are women underrepresented among coaches and sports administrators?

-Women are not considered for half of all coaching jobs—that is, for men's teams -Women lack fully developed and effective occupational networks to compete with men. -Search committees often have members who use orthodox gender ideology to assess job applicants -Many women lack the support systems and professional development opportunities that men have had. -Many women avoid careers in sport organizations that are male-dominated, male-identified, and male-centered -Women experience more sexual harassment, which sets them up to fail or discourages them from seeking upward mobility in sport organizations

Meritocracy

A form of social organization in which rewards go to people who earn them due to their abilities and qualifications

According to Acosta and Carpenter, what have been some of the gains due to Title IX? Indeed, what do they say still remains to be done?

A forty-year longitudinal study by Vivian Acosta and Linda Carpenter (2012) documents these gender trends for college coaching and administration positions in NCAA institutions:

The american Dream

A hopeful vision of boundless opportunities for individuals to succeed economically and live a happy live based on consumption

What are some alternative ways to define masculinity and femininity in sports?

Alternative definitions of masculinity -Critically question violent and destructive behavior Alternative definitions of femininity -Becoming "like men" is not the goal Changing the ways we do sports -Focus on lifetime participation, supportive vocabularies, gender equity, and bringing males and females together to share sport experiences -Why aren't varsity sports in schools organized around gender mixed sports that people will play in the future?

What are some ways in which technology may influence future sports organization and participation? What are some of the other factors that will likely influence the future of sports?

As a case in point, consider genetic-enhancement technologies. They can be used to improve human performance, heal injured bodies, and eliminate some physical impairments. If we want to create a future in which sports are organized around the power and performance model, we would assess, regulate, and make decisions about using a particular technology differently than we would if we want sports organized around a pleasure and participation model. This is why it is important to have a clear sense of what we want the meaning, purpose, and organization of sports to be in the future.

What are the issues present in high school sports programs? How could they be corrected?

As schools & coaches strive for state rankings, team membership increasingly requires massive time commitments, year round specialization in one sport, off-season training and club participation. -This focus cannot be defended in educational terms; so much time, attention, and funding go into sports that it skews the culture of schools away from academic focus As budgets fail to meet expectations of parents and community boosters, they raise funds for programs, but then want to participate in managing them. -Their focus is on-the-field excellence with little or no attention paid academic issues.

Athletes as Change Agents

Athletes have celebrity and market status, but little real power to reform or transform sports or society. Therefore, they focus on conservative goals. If athletes endorse deep changes in society, they risk losing support and media coverage. Athletes often focus on non-contentious issues and use conservative strategies To become change agents, athletes require the support of established organizations that can provide them with "cover."

Clustering

Athletes in certain sports are overrepresented in specific courses and majors. This phenomenon is known as clustering. It occurs for various reasons: when athletes lack academic confidence and seek support from teammates in the same courses or major, when black athletes find a department where faculty members are aware of racial issues and treat them with respect, and when coaches assign athletes to classes involving little work or classes taught by faculty members willing to give good grades to athletes regardless of the quality of their coursework.

What is the legal status of professional athletes? How is the balance between the reserve system and free agency "sport socialism"? What has been the influence of free agency on players' salaries? Why?

Athletes in team sports are governed by a reserve system—a set of practices that team owners use to control the movement of athletes from team to team. Players have formed unions to challenge the reserve system and gain free agency—the right to sell their skills to the highest bidder. -Free agency exists to varying degrees in major team sports. -Labor rights for athletes in minor sports are limited.

How are high school sports connected with popularity and ideology? What are the gender differences?

Being a student-athlete often is a source of status and popularity More for young men than young women Sports are sites for major social occasions in the school Sports often reproduce dominant ideologies related to gender, social class, and race & ethnicity

How is class ideology reflecting in and represented by the American Dream and meritocracy? Give specific examples.

Belief in the american dream+ belief that the us is a Meritocracy= class ideology Exclusive sport clubs are widely perceived as a legitimate privilege of people in the upper class. This is an outcome of the belief in meritocracy. Class relations in the U.S. are based on an ideology in which economic success is equated with individual ability, worth, and character. Competitive power and performance sports reaffirm this ideology.

Between 1998-2012(Acosta and Carp)

Between 1998 and 2012, there were 2928 new NCAA teams for women; of the head coaches hired for those teams, 1962 (66 percent) were men and 966 (33 percent) were women.

What are the factors that influences sports participation for the following groups: Asian Pacific Americans

Cultural heritage and histories of APAs are diverse. -Heritage traced to at least 18 nations and dozens of cultures. The sport participation patterns of APAs vary with their immigration histories. -People from Asia are seen by many Americans as "foreign" even if they are natural-born U.S. citizens in families that have been in the U.S. for many generations. APAs have long histories of sport participation in U.S. -Some have used sports to challenge and discredit stereotypes, some to gain acceptance in schools. -Tensions may occur if APAs don't embrace traditional U.S. sports.

Genocide

Deliberate extermination of a racial or cultural group

How can boys and men be agents of change?

Gender equity in sports is a men's issue: -It creates options for men to play sports that are not based only on a power and performance model. -It emphasizes relationships based on cooperation rather than conquest and domination. -It provides opportunities for boys and men to learn how to maintain emotionally satisfying relationships.

Describe the gender ideology in sports. What meanings are present regarding masculinity and femininity? How do athletes express these?

Gender equity in sports is integrally tied to ideology, power, and structural issues. Although ideas and beliefs about masculinity and femininity are fluid and subject to change, the prevailing gender ideology in many societies remains organized around the assumption that there are essential differences between females and males, that exceptions to heterosexuality are abnormal, and that men are physically stronger and more rational than women. This orthodox ideology is questioned today, but it has shaped the current culture and organization of sport.

Describe the intersection of gender and class when it comes to sports. How is women's participation structured by class? What about men's? How are choices reflective of life Chances?

Girls and women in low-income households often face the greatest constraints to sport participation. -Boys and girls from higher-income families seldom face constraints that interfere with participation in afterschool and summer programs, camps, and leagues. -Gender-related factors have a greater impact on sport participation patterns in lower-income households. -Ideas about sports and masculinity vary by social class. -Boys from lower-income backgrounds often see sport participation as a means of obtaining "respect." -Early, exclusive commitments to a single sport are more likely among boys from lower-income backgrounds—this is a reflection of life chances.

Why have researchers found different things when trying to understand the effects of sports participation? How and why do meanings matter?

Growth and development among students is related to many factors beyond playing sports Meanings given to sport participation vary by context and from one person to another Because the meanings given to sport participation vary according to: -The status associated with being an athlete in various contexts -The identities young people develop as they play sports -The ways that young people integrate sports and an athlete identity into their lives

Conservative Goal

Growth is a conservative goal based on the belief that sports are inherently positive activities that should be strengthened and expanded in their current forms.

Reformist goal

Improvement is a reformist goal based on beliefs that sport participation produces positive consequences, that the ethical foundations of sports must be restored and maintained, and that participation opportunities must be increased.

In 1998(Acosta and carp)

In 1998, there were 188 woman serving as athletic directors in NCAA institutions (19 percent page 196 of all ADs); this number grew slightly to 215 (20 percent) in 2012 (men held this position in 807 institutions in 1998 and in 843 institutions in 2012).

According to Dembicki, how have the Olympics become commercialized? When did this happen? Why? What are the consequences?

In Los Angeles in 1984, in order to come up with the massive funds to pay for the Olympics cities started selling advertising all around. Mass complications between companies and advertising rights resulting in rules having to be set.

What are the experiences of girls and women in informal and alternative sports? If and how are they different from mainstream sports?

Informal games and alternative sports often have gender dynamics that create access challenges for most girls and women. These activities are nearly always male-dominated/identified/centered. Boys and men usually control the spaces in which they occur and the norms used to acknowledge the identity claims of participants. This discourages girls and women, who must have exceptional skills to be given a chance to participate and be accepted as an athlete by their male peers. In some cases, entry into these activities is "sponsored" by influential male participants who convince others that a particular girl or woman should have a chance to demonstrate her skills as an athlete.

Why do we see a difference in the graduation rates of college athletes?

Information on grades must be qualified because: -Athletes often are overrepresented in certain courses and majors ("clustering") -Athletes in entertainment-oriented sports often enter college with lower grades and standardized test scores than other entering students -Graduation rates among all varsity athletes are slightly higher than rates for all students. -Graduation rates in some big-time revenue sports are shamefully low. -Female athletes have higher graduation rates than male athletes. -Black athletes have graduation rates higher than black students as a whole, but lower than rates for white athletes.

life chances

Life chances are similar odds for achieving economic success and power in society. They can vary from one social class to another in the social stratification system.

What are the factors that influences sports participation for the following groups: Native Americans

Native Americans comprise dozens of diverse cultural groups. -Traditional Native American sports combine physical activities with ritual and ceremony. -Native Americans often fear losing their culture when playing Euro-American sports. -Widely accepted racial and ethnic stereotypes about Native Americans have restricted their access to sport participation.

What are the factors that influences sports participation for the following groups: Latina(o)s,

Native-born and naturalized citizens: -Participation patterns vary by national origin, heritage, and generation -Experiences include bridging cultural gaps and dealing with stereotypes related to Mexicans, Puerto Ricans, Cubans Latin Americans working as athletes in the U.S. -Long history of Latino players in U.S. sports -40% of players under contract in Major League Baseball Latinos -Cultural and social adjustment problems are numerous Undocumented workers and family members: -Little knowledge; access to information is scarce -Sports are used strategically to share information with other workers about how to survive in the U.S.

College sports funding

Nearly all college sport programs lose money -Are the losses worth it in academic and developmental terms? -Losses are covered primarily by student fees, general funds at the university, and donations to the athletic department. Research shows that spending money on big-time college sports -Increased four times faster than academic budgets in recent years -Has no effect on general academic quality or the academic qualifications of incoming students -Does not increase alumni donations -Does not improve win-loss records -Created a massive wealth gap between athletic departments -Will never change the fact that half of all games are lost when good teams play each other

Acosta and Carpenter

Only 9.8 percent of all NCAA institutions had a female full-time sports information director in 2012, and 30.7 percent of these schools had a female head athletic trainer (most of these schools are in Division III).

How do team owners benefit from public assistance? What are the arguments for and against it?

Owners benefit when: -Public money is used to construct and maintain facilities -Federal tax deduction loopholes boost profits (e.g., depreciating players) -Cities and states give them tax breaks, tax rebates, and special opportunities for commercial development around a stadium -Cities that build venues allow them to control revenues created by the venues (e.g., parking, concessions, seat licenses, luxury box leases, etc.)

How are athletes in big-time programs affected by the scale of the program?

Participants in revenue (football and basketball) sports often have scholarships Time and energy commitments to sport are high, and participants often must choose between -Working out and practicing sports -Doing coursework -Engaging in social activities Academic detachment is a commonly used coping strategy among male athletes

Factors supporting the growth of power & performance sports:

People with power and influence use them to reaffirm the ideologies that legitimize their position in society -They are easy to market and sell -Media can focus on individuals and their stories -Fans identify with individual athletes who endorse products sold to fans.

What is the difference between race, ethnicity and minority?

Race: a population of people who are believed to be naturally or biologically distinct from other populations. Ethnicity: a cultural heritage that people use to identify a particular population. Minority: a socially identified population that suffers disadvantages due to systematic discrimination and has a strong sense of social togetherness based on shared experiences of past and current discrimination.

How does the racial ideology of the United States affect sports?

Racial ideology encourages people to -"See" sport performances in "racialized" terms, i.e., in terms of skin color -Use whiteness as the taken-for-granted standard in sports -Explain the success or failure of people with dark skin in racial terms -Do research designed to "discover" racial difference

How have virtual sports shifted the way we view and play real sports?

Research indicates that: -Gamers generally committed considerable time to their activities -Gamers create their own narratives and stories when they play sport-themed video games -Social relationships are formed and nurtured through video gaming -Gaming involves a diverse range of experiences, feelings, and interpretations -Sport-themed video games provide different experiences than consuming televised sports. -The graphics and images in video games nearly match images in televised sports. -TV producers now use special filters to make the action in televised games look like video games. -Some athletes use video sport games to train. -Some children today are introduced to sports through video games.

How is boxing illustrative of the intersection of gender, race, and class ideologies?

Research shows that for some low-income, minority men, boxing is an alternative to the violence of the streets. -Boxing is a refuge from the violence, hopelessness, and indignity created by racism and poverty. -Many of these men know they would not be boxers if other opportunities existed for them.

How are athletes different from non-athletes? Why?

Research shows that there are differences between students who play varsity sports and those who don't. -Most of the differences are due to selection-in, filtering-out, and in-season control processes. -Those who play varsity sports often have pre-existing characteristics making them different from those who don't play.

Describe the legal rights and incomes of amateur athletes. How are they different from professional athletes?

Rights depend on the governing bodies that control various sports. Income depends on The rules of governing bodies Endorsements that vary with celebrity status and corporate interest Most intercollegiate athletes in the U.S. are controlled by the NCAA; they have few rights.

How has commercialization changed sports (i.e., goals, orientations, control)?

Rule changes occur to make action more exciting, understandable, and profitable by -Speeding up action -Increasing scores and scoring chances -Balancing competition -Maximizing dramatic moments -Heightening attachment to players and teams -Providing commercial breaks GOAL: Provide a Total Entertainment Experience

What are the issues present in intercollegiate sports programs? How could they be corrected?

Scandals and Rule Violations Academic cheating, athlete criminal actions and sexual assault, rule violations by coaches and boosters Likeness Lawsuit If the NCAA has violated antitrust laws, court rulings could force it to pay billions to former players and current players Pay for Players This issue if forcing the NCAA to make significant changes, even before any court rulings Distorted Racial and Ethnic Priorities African Americans are valued as revenue producing athletes but not as general students

Acosta and Carpenter

Since 1971, women constituted between 2 and 3.5 percent of head coaches for men's or gender-combined teams in swimming, cross-country, or tennis.

How are sports participation patterns (Who plays? What do they play? Where do they play?) reflective of social class? Give specific examples.

Social class and class relations influence who plays sports, who watches sports, who consumes information about sports, and the information that is available. -Generally, the higher the social class, the greater the involvement and influence. -Sport participation occurs in the context of class-related lifestyles.

What factors determine spectator appeal? Why?

Spectator appeal in sports depends on: -Spectator attachments to those involved in the event -The uncertainty of an event's outcome -The risk or financial rewards associated with an event -The anticipated displays of excellence, heroics, or dramatic actions by athletes

Why are corporations interested in global expansion? How do they use sports to do this?

Sport organizations look for global markets. FIFA, the NFL, the NBA, etc. seek global media exposure and expansion. Corporations use sports as vehicles for global expansion. -To increase profits -To sponsor enjoyment and pleasure and establish ideological outposts in the minds of people worldwide.

What is the relationship between public money and private profits?

Sport venues are sites for transferring public money to wealthy individuals and private corporations by: -Using sales taxes to build facilities controlled by team owners and private corporations -Funding construction with tax-exempt bonds purchased by wealthy investors -Discounting property tax rates for sport facilities and development around stadiums -Granting tax deductions for tickets purchased for business purposes (nearly all luxury box and club seats are purchased this way)

Why is gender equality less likely in the presence of a football program? What does this indicate about masculinity?

Strong women, including strong female athletes, threaten people who uncritically accept dominant gender ideology and take football and other heavy-contact sports as "proof" that men and women are different, with men being naturally superior to women. Interestingly, since 1994, women have clearly become stronger in society and sports; at the same time, football, perceived in the United States as the most "manly" sport, has become ever more popular.

How are the themes of success, consumption, gender, and race/ethnicity/nationality present in sports ideologies and narratives? Given examples to illustrate.

Success Emphasis on winners, losers, and final scores Emphasis on big plays, big hits, and sacrificing self for team success Consumption "This game is brought to you by . . ." "This is the [ . . . ] half time report" "This is the [ . . . ] pre-game show" Gender -Masculinity rules in media sports: Coverage privileges men over women by nearly 6 to 1. -Heterosexuality is assumed; homosexuality is erased or ignored. -Coverage reproduces dominant ideas about manhood, but may challenge ideas about femininity. -Media organizations are gendered; they're male-dominated/identified/centered. Race/Ethnicity/Nationality -Media images and narratives based on explicit racial ideology and stereotypes are rare today, but they were common through the 1980s. -Coverage today pretends that race and ethnicity don't exist; nationality is often a focus in international events. -This allows media people who are ignorant of racial & ethnic perspectives and experiences to claim expertise when they know little about what and who they cover. -Subtle stereotypes about nationality sometimes influence narratives in media coverage: Germans may be described as organized, Chinese people as self-disciplined and secretive, Brazilians as flamboyant and passionate, Nigerians as undisciplined and unpredictable, etc. -Media organizations have few directors, editors, assistant editors, reporters, camera people, etc. who represent ethnic backgrounds and experiences.

Acosta and Carpenter

The athletic departments that had female athletic directors in 2012 also had higher proportions of women coaches, and the proportion of female coaches and administrators is lowest in Division I and highest in Division III.

What are the factors that influences sports participation for the following groups: African Americans

The facts show that: -Prior to the 1950s, sports in the U.S. were racially segregated. -African Americans participate in a very limited range of sports. -African Americans are clearly underrepresented in most sports. -They're not "taking over" sports, as some whites continue to believe.

free agency

The meaning of free agency varies, but in all leagues it allows some players whose contracts have expired to seek contracts with other teams that bid for their services. This change has had a dramatic effect on the salaries of top professional athletes from the late 1970s to the present.

How do commercial sports reflect class interests and ideology?

The preferences and priorities of people with power and wealth often influence which sports are commercialized—for example: -Golf is enjoyed by wealthy people; therefore, it receives TV coverage despite low ratings. -Football reproduces an ideology that privileges men, celebrates masculinity, and reaffirms the cultural priority of competition; therefore it has been heavily marketed and televised since the 1960s.

Why do we need to exercise caution when predicting future participation of girls and women in sports? What are some issues that arise?

The reasons to be cautious when anticipating more changes in the future include budget cuts and the privatization of sports participation opportunities, resistance to government policies and legislation, backlash in response to changes favoring women, a relative lack of female coaches and administrators, a cultural emphasis on cosmetic fitness among women, the trivialization of women's sports, and the existence of homophobia.

High school sports funding

There are great variations in the budgets of high school sport programs. Total costs are difficult to determine, and they vary widely depending on the wealth of students' families. In the face of budget problems, schools use these strategies: -Assess sport participation fees -Depend on support from booster clubs -Seek corporate sponsorships As injuries become an issue, the cost for protective equipment and liability insurance increase; this may force some schools to drop certain sports

What are the results of studies connecting genes, skin tone, and sports performance? What is problematic about this type of research?

There is no evidence showing that skin color is related to physical traits that are essential for athletic excellence across sports or in any particular sport. -Are there genetic differences between individuals? YES -Are genetic characteristics related to athletic excellence? YES -Could one gene account for success across a range of different sports? PROBABLY NOT -Are skin color genes and physical performance genes systematically connected? NO -Are physical development and the expression of skills in sports related to cultural definitions of skin color and race? YES -Do cultural ideas about skin color and race influence the interpretation of and meaning given to the movement and achievements of athletes? YES

Sports are valuable cultural vehicles for developing ideological "outposts" in the minds of people around the world.

This is why transnational corporations spend billions of dollars to be primary providers of popular pleasure and entertainment. -Then corporate spokespersons use sports to deliver other messages about what should be important in people's lives (commercials are just one part of this).

. How do media images and messages reinforce dominant ideologies? What is the connection between those in power and media images?

Those who control media decide which sports and events to cover AND the images and commentary presented in the coverage. When they do this, they play an important role in constructing the frameworks that media consumers use to define and incorporate sports in their lives. As they make programming decisions, they see audiences as collections of consumers that can be sold to advertisers.

What is Title IX? How has it affected sports participation?

Title IX: No person in the United States shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any educational program or activity receiving federal financial assistance. New opportunities -Government legislation mandating equal rights -The global women's rights movement -The health and fitness movement -Increased media coverage of women in sports

Radical goal

Transformation is a radical goal based on the belief that dominant forms of sports are systematically flawed and must be reorganized or replaced to create new meaning and purpose.

What are the arguments by Coakley and Plaschke regarding the use of Native American images for teams and mascots in the United States?

Using stereotypes of Native Americans as a basis for team names, logos, & mascots is a form of bigotry and identity theft, regardless of the intentions of those who do it -Are there any conditions under which a group or organization could use the cultural and religious images of others for their own purposes in sports? -What if a school named its teams the Olympians and used the Olympic 5-ring logo as their logo? -What if a Native American high school team called itself the Slave Masters and used Thomas Jefferson as a mascot?

How does the legal status of athletes in individual sports compare with their status in team sports? What about income? Why do we see the differences?

Varies greatly from sport to sport and athlete to athlete -Status often depends on what athletes must do to support their training and competition -Status may be partially protected by professional associations formed by the athletes Income: Individual Sports -Many athletes do not make enough to pay training and travel expenses. -There are increasing disparities between top money winners and other athletes. -Top male heavyweight boxers have traditionally made the most money.

interactionist theories of sports

When people use interactionist theories, they focus on processes of social learning and development and the relationships through which people come to know and give meaning to the world. Interactionist theories explain that changing sports involves changing socialization processes, self-concepts and identities, and the priorities given to particular role models and significant others. For example, people often resist reformist and radical changes because their identities are grounded in and supported by the current culture and organization of sports.

Structural theories of sports

When people use structural theories, they focus on social organization and who has access to power, authority, material resources, and economic opportunities. Structural theories explain that changing sports involves changing the context in which social relationships exist. Functionalism is a form of structural theory based on the assumption that all social worlds are organized around shared values and ultimately become more efficient and socially integrated.

Describe some of the various vantage points for promoting change in sports (including athletes).

Work within the system of sports -Be an "insider" and try to avoid being co-opted Join "opposition" groups -Create or join groups that use political pressure to create futures based on idealistic visions Create new or alternative sports -Focus on new ways to view and play sports and inspire others to do the same Work outside sports -Work to transform cultural practices and forms of social relations that affect the meaning and organization of sports Regardless of vantage point, being an effective agent of change requires: -Visions of what sports and social life could and should be like -Willingness to work hard on the strategies needed to turn visions into realities -Political abilities to rally the resources that make strategies effective

reserve system

a set of practices that enabled team owners to reserve the labor of athletes for themselves and control the movement of athletes from team to team in their sport.

social class

categories of people who share an economic position in society based on a combination of their income, wealth, education, occupation and social connections.

Indirect racism

chants or banners promoting bigoted political agendas

Direct Racism

fans insulting players with bigoted slurs

Cultural theories of sports

focus attention on issues of ideology, representation, and power dynamics in society. They explain how people use power to maintain cultural practices and social structures that represent their interests, and they identify how people resist or oppose those practices and structures.

Racial Ideologies

interrelated ideas and beliefs that are widely used to classify human beings in categories assumed to be biological and related to attributes such as intelligence, temperament, and physical abilities

class ideology

interrelated ideas and beliefs that people use to understand economic inequalities, identify their class position, and evaluate the impact of economic inequalities on the organization of social worlds

social mobility

is a term used by sociologists to refer to changes in wealth, education, and occupation over a person's lifetime or from one generation to the next in families. Social mobility can occur in downward or upward directions.

Racism on the field

negative racial, ethnic, or religious comments are made by and to players, coaches, and referees

social stratification

structured forms of economic inequalities that are part of the organization of everyday life.

"Sportainment"

the equivalent of a TV movie that purports to be based on a true story but actually provides fictionalized history. In other words, television constructs sports and viewer experiences. But the process occurs so smoothly that most television viewers believe they experience sports in a "true and natural" form.

Monopoly

the one and only provider of a particular service or product

Class Relations

the ways that social class is incorporated into the organization of our everyday lives.

In 1972 when title 9 became a law(Acosta and Carp)

women coached 90% of women's teams in NCAA by 1978 the proportion dropped to 58% and in 2016 it was about 43%