Social Policy theorists

Marshall (1950;28-9)

"Citizenship is a status bestowed on those who are full members of a community. All who possess the status are equal with respect to the rights and duties with which the status is endowed" -One of these duties would be to pay taxes for the availability of welfare services

Titmouse (1976)

"The function, in conditions of scarcity, of human organisation, traditionally called social services or social welfare systems, to meet those needs"

Mouffe (1992:25)

'The way we define citizenship is intimately linked to the kind of society and political community we want'

Marx

-Rise of the welfare state is conflict-ridden and has relevance of class relations -Reasons for social reform: —>Promote the needs and requirement of capitalism (increased work force, productivity, productivity) —>Response to class conflict —>Pre-emptive action against radicalism -Legitimation crisis - "O'connor: two fundamental premises" —> accumulation and legitimation -Fiscal crisis of the state —>Accumulation and services pulling apart from one another •Argues needs satisfy both the mind and the body •Work: human beings purposive interaction with the world around them •Consciousness: what distinguishes humans from animals and makes action possible and have meaning •Sociality: the meaningfulness of every individual human act defined by social context and social relationships to others and •Historical development: constitutive of human existence in sense that we are creatures of history

Rawls

-each person is to have equal right to extensive, total system of equal basic liberties -social and economic inequalities to be arranged so that they both a) give greatest benefit to least advantaged consistent with the just savings principles b) attached to offices/positions open to all under equality of opportunity -Acceptable inequalities —>Least disadvantaged —>Personal Privileges -The Difference principle -Veil of Ignorance - rational decisions?

Plant

-it doesn't matter what causes inequality but how we respond to inequality -support for positive definitions of freedom —>creating freedoms for the next generation, effecting future inequality -egalitarians don't seek to impose uniformity as is often claimed —>Also recognise that peoples starting points are different which need to be addressed

Laski

-the absence of special privilege -adequacy of opportunities open to all -provide up to the margin of sufficiency and identify and respond to primary needs

Fitzpatrick

Approaches of globalisation: •Sponsors —>Lived reality —>Necessary and desirable —>Decline of nation states —>Rise of global governance —>Accept "TINA" •Doubters —>Historically this is not a new development —>Global trade has always existed —>Do not need to accept neo-liberalism, a global Keynesianism is possible •Sceptics —>Global processes are real —>Some aspects beneficial —>Some developments damaging and need correcting —>Criticism of Multi-national corporations •Hecklers —>Globalisation is a myth —>Nothing more than a strong discourse dominating the political arena —>Key advocates are rewarded —>Poverty and inequality consequentially increase

Gwatking and Ergo (2010)

At its centre lies a determination to ensure that people who are poor gain at least as much as those who are better off at every step of the way toward universal coverage, rather than having to wait and catch up as that goal is eventually approached. Of course, to show that progressive universalism is feasible is not to argue that implementation will be easy. But consider the alternative: in the absence of a determination to include people who are poor from the beginning, drives for universal coverage are very likely, perhaps almost certain, to leave them behind.

Farnsworth

Austerity •"The crisis has provided an opportunity to impose swinging cuts in excess of those proposed during the election campaign" •Redistribution from poorest to wealthiest? -Ratios between taxation and cuts •Universal credit illustration -Ideological bias •Reframing of the economic context - potentially along ideological lines •Consequently a call for re-thinking welfare provision to reduce the role of the state •Challenging the provision of welfare through the Mixed Economy of welfare •Changes in welfare provision having a real impact on people's lives

Miller

Definition of social justice - 4 aspects Equal Citizenship The Social Minimum Equality of opportunity Fair distribution

Rees

Equity —>Recognises that certain people are still disadvantaged when it comes to equality -Legal equality -Affirmative Action -Positive action —>family friendly policies such as free nursery places, recesses etc -Positive discrimination —>Pursuing an approach that is unequal to provide equality -Mainstreaming

Maslow

Hierarchy of needs 1. Physiological (health, food, sleep) 2. Safety (shelter, removal from danger) 3. Belonging (love, affection, group interaction) 4. Esteem (of the self and from others) 5. Self actualisation (achieving individual potential

Ben Banbooks

Identified 3 different types of stigma Personal: felt stigma from receiving benefits generated by perceptions of receiving a gift but not being able to give back Social: attitudes, thoughts and actions of the majority and the perception and response to these attitudes by the stigmatised —>Can look at British public attitudes survey to see the tastes for the welfare system •Institutional: the framing structures of policy and its delivery

Ian Gough

Mixed Economy of welfare

Harvey (1973)

Physiological needs •Goods and services •Food •Housing •Medical care •Transport •Consumer goods •Social services •Education

Beck

Risk society thesis •Late-modernity —>not in a post-modern world, there has been changes but they're not an abandonment for the ways in which we understand society •Dark side of modernisation —>Science and technology also have negative consequences —>E.g. global warming •Not pessimistic, so we can challenge some of these risks •E.g. GM crops •Individualisation •Critique of risk society -Global scale -Low probability, high consequences -Indiscriminate impact -Origins in human agency

Pawson (2006)

Social Housing - 'encompasses all housing owned by not for profit landlords and let at below market rates

Barr - aims of policy

The aims of policy: •Efficiency —> allocation of resources, application of market mechanisms •Equality or injustice —> Certain opportunities should not be denied to those less able •Individual freedom —> Are we free to pursue our own preferences through the market? •Barr believed these aims were more appropriate than pure economic theory

Foucault (1977: 10)

argues: When I think of the mechanics of power, I think of its capillary forms of existence, of the extent to which power seeps into the very grain of individuals, reaches right into their bodies, permeates their gestures, their position what they say, how they learn to live and work with other people. —>Argues that poe is productive in creating certain citizens whom are active —>There are many forms of surveillance; e.g. health signs/adverts, educational campaigns

Steuer (1998)

•Critique of risk society -Under-regulated? -Traditional bonds? -Increased risks?

Garland (1985: 231)

explains of social policy development, it focused upon 'the establishment of mechanisms of security and integration, which could overlay and reorganise the effects of the labour market, while maintaining its basic capitalist forms •Charity organisation society •The workhouse; families dependent upon it •Progressive development - maintaining control

HM Treasury, 2002

new welfare system puts into practice the principles of progressive universalism, with support for all, and most support for those who need it most' (HM Treasury, 2002:86)

Lewis (1998)

outlines 3 key considerations 1)The citizen is one way of linking the state and the individual 2)Citizenship implies membership of a community with the notion of community opening up a discussion around inclusion and exclusion 3)Citizenship is a status that lets people make a claim against state organised welfare

Squires (1990: 6)

policies that create avarice and discontent, institutions to foster inequality and discrimination, structures to centralise power and cultivate authoritarianism and, perhaps above all, welfare that ignores needs and responds only to consumer demand backed by hard cash. •Industrial change = social change —>Since 1900s there has been radical change, requiring new forms of social order to fit the new society in which we live in, a need to reeducate people —>With a rise of "social questions" about poverty, welfare etc

Williams (1992)

suggests 'that the notion of citizenship can become the vehicle which combines in creative and imaginative ways universal entitlements to basic provisions in income, health and social welfare to the collective articulation and active pursuit of specific welfare needs.'

Pinker (1985)

suggests: 'it is hard to believe that there is all that much scope for self-help unless we are convinced that the major cause of unemployment is a widespread preference for idleness. —>Individualised focused in wrong, universal should be provided because stigmatising narratives of welfare claims and inequalities are what cause social problems

Dean and Melrose (1999)

summarised the focus of the following discussion. Citizenship has been presented as a "totalising" concept often gender neutral, essentially universal and, ahistorical. However, as will be shown, its development has been associated with a particular masculine, able-bodied and heterosexual assumption about citizens which obscures diversity of citizen lives.

Hayek

•"Contemporary of Keynes" and "Road to serfdom" -There is no such thing as social justice —>Since no one can agree on full justice, their intervention would be seen as dictatorship -Equality incompatible with personal freedom —>Hinders practices of free market -Spend/Save as you choose -Equal appointment and transactions —>Appointment to specific roles and transactions in the marketplace should be equally available to all -Desert and merit —>results of appointments such as income, bonuses etc —>The only inequality will be through natural outcomes as people work harder -Pure Market ideal

Asa Briggs (1961)

•'In which organised power is deliberately used (through politics and administration) in an effort to modify the play of market forces in at least three directions - first, by guaranteeing individuals and families a minimum income... second, by narrowing the extent of insecurity... third, by ensuring that all citizens without distinction of status and class are offered the best standards available in relation to an agreed range of social services'

Taylor Gooby (2001)

•'The risk society is class ideology masquerading as social theory' •'... despite acknowledgement that responsibility for meeting all needs increasingly devolves on the individual in the modern world, there is strong support for state welfare provision for those who are unsuccessful in the housing market, who need help with social care costs or are unable to find adequate jobs'. (Taylor-Gooby et al. 1999)

Riches (1986)

•'a food bank is:... a centralized warehouse or clearing house registered as a non-profit organization for the purpose of collecting, storing and distributing surplus food (donated/shared), free of charge, to front line agencies which provide supplementary food and meals to the hungry'

Gaskell (2008)

•'citizenship can be thought of in terms of a tool of state repression and control. Despite ideas about the decreasing importance of the nation-state in an era of globalisation, the political institutions of the nation-state continue to impact greatly upon citizens' everyday live.' •anti-social behaviour and young people —>Highlights how certain behaviours were the cause of criminality

Keynes

•1975 sex discrimination act •Led to the rise of state planning -The state should have greater control of the free market —> Giving them a duty to create full employment

Murray

•Anti racist underclass -race central to idea of underclass in American thinking •The welfare state had beed designed to discriminate against ethnic minorities -Racism became: —>Institutional —>Overt/covert —>Direct/indirect

Doyal and Gough (1984)

•Argue that needs are based: "upon some, usually ill defined, conception of human nature; of those psychological and emotional gaps which are "unnatural" or abnormal not to fill •A summary: -Basic needs: —>physical health —>personal autonomy -Intermediate needs: —>adequate nutritional food and water -Adequate protective housing -A non hazardous work environment -A non hazardous physical environment

Spicker

•Argues Selectivism is intrusive •Not only must means-tests differ in content, scope, characteristics and frequency according to their particular functions but, more complex still, they must differ in all these factors according to (a) the kind of service or benefit provided and, to some extent, the causes of need; (b) the actualities of need; immediate and temporary, weekly, monthly, yearly, etc.; (c) the characteristics of the consumer (age, sex, marital and household status, dependants, etc.) and (d) the extent to which a variety of economic, social and psychological incentives and disincentives have to be taken into account in the structure and operation of the test

Titmuss (1971)

•Argues for universal welfare •How to include poor people, and especially poor coloured people [sic], in our societies, and at the same time to channel proportionately more resources in their favour without inducing shame or stigma remains one of the greatest challenges for social policy in Britain and the USA. The answer will not be found by creating separate, apartheid-like structures and "public burden" services for poor people. •Social problems resulting from social change —>More collective response needed, society as a whole has needs —>Idea of solecistic citizenship

Clarke and Newman

•Austerity - 2007-08 financial crisis and global recession —>Irresponsible mortgage lending —>Knock on effect —>Lack of regulation —>Bankers bail out —>From financial to fiscal crisis (fiscal relates to state spending) •"We are not doing this because we want to, driven by theory or ideology. We are doing this because we have to, driven by the urgent truth, that unless we do people will suffer and our national interest will suffer" -(Cameron 2010, 5, cited in Clarke and Newman 2012, 304 •Clarke and Newman (2012: 300) explain that the response to this austerity crisis has moved —>"From an economic problem (how to 'rescue the banks and restore market stability) to a political problem (how to allocate blame and responsibility for the crisis): a reworking that has focused on the unwieldy and expensive welfare state and public sector.'

John Moore MP (1989)

•Causes of poverty: cultural 'What the new definition of relative poverty amounts to in the end is imply inequality. It means that however rich a society gets it will drag the incubus of relative poverty with it up the income scale. The poverty lobby would on their definition find poverty in paradise' —>John Moore MP

Tawney

•Causes of poverty: situational —>The problem of poverty has nothing to do with character rather it results from economic and industrial organisation

Dictionary of social policy

•Equality of opportunity - 'the principle that everyone should have the same opportunity to succeed, regardless of factors such as social class, gender or 'race'. Ability and effort, not social background, should determine how far any individual succeeds in life' •Equality of Outcome - 'Shifts the concern from starting points to end results, from opportunities to rewards. In its most extreme form, it would mean everyone ending up with the same level of resources... [a less extreme, egalitarian view would] argue for greater equality in the distribution of resources than that which currently exists in a highly unequal society'

Mill

•Equality relates to social justice -Utilitarianism -Scapegoat's should be avoided —>especially in circumstances that are not of their own making -deprivation of legal moral entitlements that are available to all -deprivation of just deserts -breaking faith with people -treating individuals unequally when they deserve equal treatment

Nozick

•Equality relates to social justice -justice in acquisition —>Ability to acquire through market interaction, everyone having the same access -justice in transfer —>transfer of goods and services not blocked in any way -justice in rectification —>Civil rights are framed in this way

Goffman

•Explains that 'the social interaction conveyed by any particular symbol may neatly confirm what other signals tell us about the individual, filling out out image of him in residual and unproblematic way —>Do not all have to be negative stigmas, prestige symbols do also exist •Symbolic violence —>Those with the most power get to decide what is a prestige symbol —>When those symbols become so prominent that they signal to others that they are inferior if they do not have said status —>Habits may not be different between groups but due to status some may be shamed and others not

Stewart Hal

•Focusing on Law and Order •Criminalisation of social problems rather than focusing on welfare solutions •Thatcher and Major 500 new offences —>New Labour: 3,000 •Reconstructing "wicked issues"; complex interlocked causes —>Reduced down to personal responsibility, creating more control

Abercrombie and Ward

•Globalisation definitions and process -process 1: diminishing space between people and places in different societies —>whilst technology is drawn upon as driver as globalisation, it's rather politicians and governments who chose to open up boarders to the process -process 2: an end state where process cross the world

Malpass and Murie (1994)

•Housing Policy - 'measures designed to modify the quantity, quality, price and ownership and control of social housing'

Aristotle

•Perfectionist —> "the well-lived" life •Non - perfectionists —> less concerned with the "ends" —> more concerned with ensuring provision

Chadwick

•Poor Law •Poverty and misery cause sickness •Sanitary Report -56,461 deaths in 1838 •'I always doubt the success of mere medicine' •There was a shift from wider social, economic and environmental factors to individual, behavioural, single issue, health education

Titmuss

•Rising questions about the intent of welfare •Assumptions about welfare provision -Legislation and action = fulfilment —>All social problems deemed to have been resolved but he stated that this was not true -Action = transfer of resources from rich to poor —>Biggest group to benefit from the welfare state is the middle class as opposed to the poor -It is possible to define "social services" and who has benefitted and paid for those services —>Rather limited •Separation of social services from wider society —>We segment it away from everything else in the socioeconomic world •Social policy seeks to meet needs, individual and social -Social welfare -Fiscal welfare -Occupational welfare —>Division is possible to establish because they're based around different functions in how they meet particular needs —>What is different is how we deliver welfare as well as the organisation •Attention given to purpose of each and how they are presented •Some forms "social expenditure", others fall out of this category •But similar objectives across the three types? •Different groups supported •Dependency in developed societies -All collectively provided services designed to meet needs -Everyone is welfare dependent due to SDW (interdependence) - divisions serve different parts of society -State/public dependency treated differently from fiscal/occupational dependency •Narrow conception of welfare - unbalanced views and criticisms •All three demonstrate that "man" is not wholly responsible for dependency - all accept obligation to meet certain needs

Gibbens

•Risk society •Overlap - Runaway World (lectures on globalisation) •Choice - increasingly focused around individuals •Traditional norms eroded - break away from class based society •Positive risk taking

Barr - methods of delivery

•Robin Hood function -equal distribution of taxes, taking most from richest to help poorest •Piggy bank function -distributing resources accordingly for sustainability —>schooling & healthcare for the young —> work to pay taxes —> pensions & healthcare for retired The methods of delivery •Ideology or technical decision? —>New right would promote market interventions —>Old labour would promote more state control •Market allocation or state allocation? •Which methods most useful? —>Weighting of aims helps to make such decisions •Social divisions of welfare

Fitzpatrick

•Said that Welfare is - Happiness - Security of income - Preferences —> business' have ingrained things into our lives and sold them to us as preferences - Need - Dessire - Comparisons •Welfare is different to happiness because surviving isn't flourishing

Walker (2014)

•Shame -Negative assessment of the core self —>How you internalise the inferior assessments of ones self -Associated psychological symptoms —Increased levels of depression, mental health issues, body issues -Shame and stigma are entwined -Unlike stigma, shame is about creating behaviour change •"Shame leads to social withdrawal, concealment, and fantasy; it saps morale and can precipitate loss of control resulting in mixes of anger, depression and despair. Only occasionally is personal good magicked out of the shaming process as when people strive to keep up appearances despite the risks entailed, and feel a sense of achievement in doing so" - Walker (2014:83) —>Shaming processes often backfire as people try to challenge them out of anger

Pemberton

•Social and economic structure of society can cause harm •Social costs and insecurities - collective not individual

Barnett

•Spending formula •if spending is cut, slice of cake shrinks •if Westminster spending is increased on just education then overall to wales is increased (they can choose how to spend it) •if just health is decreased then overall is also decreased

Goghman

•Stigma is embedded in social interactions —>It disrupts the flow of social interaction —>How people interact to create social meanings •Visible or invisible stain on the individual -Emotive feelings from those responding to and those with the stigma -Inferior forms of appearance, conduct, ethnicity etc •What is 'social normality' •Sources of stigma -physical —>e.g. wheelchair user, someone with glasses -conduct; attitudes and behaviours —>e.g. criminal, homosexual -Tribal: negative aspects attached to religion or ethnicity —>e.g. black, jewish •Stigma's are discredited •Discreditable: the invisible ones •3 ways individuals will respond to stigma -Passing: the ability to hide your stigma -Covering: cannot hide your stigma but try to hide it -Advocacy: adopting stigma and challenging inferiority against it

Freud (2007)

•The government has made a commitment to rights and responsibilities a central feature of policy.... The report recommends maintaining the current regime for the unemployed, introducing stronger conditionality with the Jobseeker's Allowance for lone parents with progressively younger children and moving to deliver conditionality for other groups (including people already on incapacity benefits'

Brown, 2014

•Vulnerability and Social Justice —>Identifying risk factors that will cause social problems to develop selectavist interventions —>E.g. Troubled families programme

Bevridge

•Wrote the Bevridge report: —> Fighting against Want - poverty Ignorance - Lack of education Disease - healthcare Squalor - housing Idleness - unemployment •1970s equal pay act •Adopted a rather radical report on the welfare state —>Asks for things such as the introduction of health care and housing support —>Many did not want to sign it but it was very popular with the public —>As the social and individual aspects would be increased within welfare

Farnsworth

•business power —>How all parts create structural power •international trade •neo-classicalism/neo-liberal framework •protectionism •comparative advantage —>production of goods for others •competitive advantage —>ensures company has a greater position

Bradshaw

•has identified a number of perspectives upon need •Normative need - expert defined need •Felt need - need defined by a specific group •Expressed need - need which becomes a demand •Comparative need - defined by the differenced between social groups •Technical needs - advances in healthcare etc •Taxonomy of need

Bob Holman

•said that the inner city wasn't a place; it was a state of mind - there is a mentality of entrapment, where aspiration and hope are for other people, who live in another place —>As the fabric of society crumbles at the margins what has been left behind is an underclass, where life is characterised by dependency, addiction, debt and family breakdown. This is an underclass in which a child born into poverty today is more likely to remain in poverty than at any time since the late 1960s.

Harrison and Sanders (2013)

•social division of discipline -Fiscal and occupational "discipline" - focused on the middle classes —>Respectability, personal responsibility and self-help are primarily important, using tax incentives -State welfare - focused on the working class —> intrusive and overt; exposing faults to encourage change

Douglas Rae (1981)

•suggests four ways in which equality of outcome can be achieved maximin - sufficiency, maximum level of resources least difference - in income and wealth minimax - disproportionate advantages such as inheritance reducing the ratio of inequality - redistribution from top to bottom to obtain equality