Social Psych Exam 1

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

A group made up of at least one scientist, one nonscientist, and one member not affiliated with the institution that reviews all psychological research at that institution and decides whether it meets ethical guidelines; all research must be approved by the IRB before it is conducted

elaboration likelihood model

A model explaining two ways in which persuasive communications can cause attitude change: centrally, when people are motivated and have the ability to pay attention to the arguments in the communication, and peripherally, when people do not pay attention to the arguments but are instead swayed by surface characteristics

analytic thinking style

A type of thinking in which people focus on the properties of objects without considering their surrounding context; this type of thinking is common in Western cultures

heuristic-systematic model of persuasion

An explanation of the two ways in which persuasive communications can cause attitude change: either systematically processing the merits of the arguments or using mental shortcuts or heuristics

hypocrisy induction

The arousal of dissonance by having individuals make statements that run counter to their behaviors and then reminding them of the inconsistency between what they advocated and their behavior. The purpose is to lead individuals to more responsible behavior.

goal of social psychology

The goal of social psychology is to identify psychological properties that make almost everyone susceptible to social influence, regardless of social class or culture.

self-evaluation maintenance theory

The idea that people experience dissonance when someone close to us outperforms us in an area that is central to our self-esteem. This dissonance can be reduced by becoming less close to the person, changing our behavior so that we now outperform them, or deciding that the area is not that important to us after all.

external attribution

The inference that a person is behaving a certain way because of something about the situation he or she is in; the assumption is that most people would respond the same way in that situation

experimental method

The method in which the researcher randomly assigns participants to different conditions and ensures that these conditions are identical except for the independent variable (the one thought to have a causal effect on people's responses)

attitude accessibility

The strength of the association between an attitude object and a person's evaluation of that object, measured by the speed with which people can report how they feel about the object

Yale attitude change approach

The study of the conditions under which people are most likely to change their attitudes in response to persuasive messages, focusing on the source of the communication, the nature of the communication, and the nature of the audience

planning fallacy

The tendency for people to be overly optimistic about how soon they will complete a project, even when they have failed to get similar projects done on time in the past

self-perception theory

The theory that when our attitudes and feelings are uncertain or ambiguous, we infer these states by observing our behavior and the situation in which it occurs

automatic thinking

Thinking that is nonconscious, unintentional, involuntary, and effortless

belief in a just world

a defensive attribution wherein people assume that bad things happen to bad people and that good things happen to good people

cover story

a description of the purpose of a study, given to participants, that is different from its true purpose and is used to maintain psychological realism

attention theory

a description of the way in which people explain the causes of their own and other people's behavior

archival analysis

a form of the observational method in which the researcher examines the accumulated documents, or archives, of a culture (e.g., diaries, novels, magazines, and newspapers)

availability heuristic

a mental rule of thumb whereby people base a judgment on the ease with which they can bring something to mind

representativeness heuristic

a mental shortcut whereby people classify something according to how similar it is to a typical case

persuasive communication

a message advocating a particular side of an issue

probability level (p-value)

a number calculated with statistical techniques that tells researchers how likely it is that the results of their experiment occurred by chance and not because of the independent variable or variables; the convention in science, including social psychology, is to consider results significant (trustworthy) if the probability level is less than 5 in 100 that the results might be due to chance factors and not the independent variables studied

random assignment to condition

a process ensuring that all participants have an equal chance of taking part in any condition of an experiment; through random assignment, researchers can be relatively certain that differences in the participants' personalities or backgrounds are distributed evenly across conditions

external justification

a reason or an explanation for dissonant personal behavior that resides outside the individual (e.g., to receive a large reward or avoid a severe punishment)

behaviorism

a school of psychology maintaining that to understand human behavior, one need only consider the reinforcing properties of the environment

gestalt psychology

a school of psychology stressing the importance of studying the subjective way in which an object appears in people's minds rather than the objective, physical attributes of the object

correlation coefficient

a statistical technique that assesses how well you can predict one variable from another—for example, how well you can predict people's weight from their height

meta-analysis

a statistical technique that averages the results of two or more studies to see if the effect of an independent variable is reliable

covariation model

a theory that states that to form on attribution about what caused a person's behavior, we note the pattern between when the behavior occurs and the presence or absence of possible causal factors

holistic thinking style

a type of thinking in which people focus on the overall context, particularly the ways in which objects relate to each other; this type of thinking is common in East Asian cultures (e.g., China, Japan, and Korea)

independent view of the self

a way of defining oneself in terms of one's own internal thoughts, feelings and actions and not in terms of the thoughts, feelings, and actions of other people

interdependent view of the self

a way of defining oneself in terms of one's relationships to other people, recognizing that one's behavior is often determined by the thoughts, feelings, and actions of others

random selection

a way of ensuring that a sample of people is representative of a population by giving everyone in the population an equal chance of being selected for the sample

Cameron and Mitchell want to convince their daughter to stop leaving her toys scattered all around the floor, so they leave her a sign by her toy box. According to reactance theory, which of the following signs would be most effective? a. "Please try to remember to clean up your toys when you are done with them." b. "All toys MUST be put away after they are used." c. "Do not leave toys lying around!." d. "Your job is to clean up after yourself."

a. "Please try to remember to clean up your toys when you are done with them."

Catherine did very well on her math test. Which of the following statements should her mother tell her to increase the chances that Catherine will not give up on math if it later becomes more difficult for her? a. "You really worked hard for this test, and your hard work paid off!" b. "You are such a smart kid, you excel in everything you do!" c. "You are so good in math, you obviously have a gift for this!" d. "I'm so glad to see you are doing better than all your classmates!"

a. "You really worked hard for this test, and your hard work paid off!"

Social psychologists often do experiments in the laboratory, instead of the field, to: a. increase internal validity. b. increase external validity. c. conduct a meta-analysis. d. decrease psychological realism.

a. . increase internal validity.

After the first 2 weeks of the Major League baseball season, newspapers begin to print the top 10 batting averages. Typically, after 2 weeks, the leading batter has an average of about .450. Yet no batter in major league history has ever averaged .450 at the end of a season. Why do you think this is? a. A player's high average at the beginning of the season may be just a lucky fluke. b. A batter who has such a hot streak at the beginning of the season is under a lot of stress to maintain his performance record. Such stress adversely affects his playing. c. Pitchers tend to get better over the course of the season as they get more in shape. As pitchers improve, they are more likely to strike out batters, so batters' averages go down. d. When a batter is known to be hitting for a high average, pitchers bear down more when they pitch to him. e. When a batter is known to be hitting for a high average, he stops getting good pitches to hit. Instead, pitchers "play the corners" of the plate because they don't mind walking him.

a. A player's high average at the beginning of the season may be just a lucky fluke.

Amanda's parents tell her that if she texts while driving, they will take away her car for a year. Erin's parents tell her that if she texts while driving, they will take her car away for one weekend. Both Amanda and Erin decide not to text while driving. What would dissonance theory predict? a. After they go to college and are away from their parents, Erin is more likely to text while driving than Amanda is. b. After they go to college and are away from their parents, Amanda is more likely to text while driving than Erin is. c. Amanda and Erin will both think that texting while driving is OK; they avoided it so that they wouldn't be punished. d. Amanda and Erin will both come to believe that texting while driving is bad.

a. After they go to college and are away from their parents, Erin is more likely to text while driving than Amanda is.

Which of the following is true? a. All human beings have the same cognitive "tools" that they can use. b. When people move from one culture to another they generally do not learn to think like people in the new culture. c. East Asians tend to think more holistically and Westerners tend to think more analytically because of genetic differences between East Asians and Westerners d. American college students were more likely to notice changes in the background of a picture whereas Japanese college students were more likely to notice changes in the main objects in the foreground of the picture.

a. All human beings have the same cognitive "tools" that they can use.

Which of the following is true about cultural differences in social thinking? a. Although everyone uses schemas to understand the world, the content of those schemas is influenced by the culture in which they live. b. Schemas influence what people notice in the world but have no influence on what they remember. c. Schemas influence what people remember but have no influence on what they notice in the world. d. Culture has no influence on automatic thinking.

a. Although everyone uses schemas to understand the world, the content of those schemas is influenced by the culture in which they live.

Amanda is at a team picnic with her coach and fellow soccer players. Which of the following is the best example of ingratiation? a. Amanda tells her coach that the quinoa salad he made was delicious, even though she thinks it tasted like dirt. b. Amanda tells her coach that he might want to consider taking cooking lessons. c. Amanda tells the 10-year-old brother of one her teammates that she likes his sneakers, which she thinks look great. d. The coach tells Amanda that she is a good player but should keep practicing to improve her skills

a. Amanda tells her coach that the quinoa salad he made was delicious, even though she thinks it tasted like dirt.

Jake's professor tells Jake that if he is caught cheating on an exam, he will be expelled. Amanda's professor tells her that if she is caught cheating, she will have only to write a short paper about why cheating is wrong. If both students don't cheat, dissonance theory would predict that: a. Amanda will feel more honest than Jake will. b. Jake will feel more honest than Amanda will. c. Amanda and Jake will feel equally honest. d. Amanda and Jake will feel equally dishonest because were both threatened in advance.

a. Amanda will feel more honest than Jake will.

5. Research on eye gaze and perception of facial expression indicates that which of the following tends to be most quickly decoded? a. An angry face looking right at us b. An angry face looking away from us c. A fearful face looking right at us d. A fearful face with eyes closed

a. An angry face looking right at us

Which of the following is the best summary of research on automatic thinking? a. Automatic thinking is vital to human survival, but it is not perfect and can produce mistaken judgments that have important consequences. b. Automatic thinking is amazingly accurate and rarely produces errors of any consequence. c. Automatic thinking is a problem because it usually produces mistaken judgments. d. Automatic thinking works best when it occurs consciously.

a. Automatic thinking is vital to human survival, but it is not perfect and can produce mistaken judgments that have important consequences.

You know you're eating too much junk food and that it's bad for your energy and health. Which of the following will not reduce your dissonance? a. Cutting out your favorite afternoon sweets b. Deciding that all those health warnings are stupid exaggerations c. Admitting you are eating too many sweets but claim that they boost your energy for studying d. Accepting the fact that your attitudes and behavior simply conflict

a. Cutting out your favorite afternoon sweets

Which is the best definition of an interdependent view of the self? a. Defining oneself in terms of one's relationships to other people b. Defining oneself in terms of one's own internal thoughts, feelings, and actions c. Someone who enjoys activities such as dancing and team sports d. Someone who enjoys activities such as reading and writing poetry

a. Defining oneself in terms of one's relationships to other people

Kristin is one of the few women in her computer science class and gets a poor grade on the first test. According to self-affirmation theory, which of the following would help her do better in the class? a. Doing a values-affirmation writing exercise b. Getting tutoring in the class c. Getting study tips from the professor d. Joining a study group of other students in the class

a. Doing a values-affirmation writing exercise

Social psychology had its origins in a. Gestalt psychology. b. Freudian psychology. c. behavioral psychology. d. biological psychology.

a. Gestalt psychology.

Suppose Harold is in a long-term, romantic relationship but chooses to flirt with someone else. He experiences dissonance because he sees himself as loving and trustworthy, and his flirtatious behavior is incongruent with that self-perception. According to research on self-affirmation theory, how could Harold reduce his dissonance? a. He could say, "Hey, at least I'm doing good work volunteering at the homeless shelter" (assuming that being a good volunteer is important to him). b. He could confess to his romantic partner about what he did. c. He could say to himself, "I'm really an idiot, I shouldn't do that again". d. He could say to himself, "I guess I'm not all that trustworthy a person".

a. He could say, "Hey, at least I'm doing good work volunteering at the homeless shelter" (assuming that being a good volunteer is important to him).

Tarek needs do his laundry but has been very busy. Under which of the following conditions is he most likely to do his laundry in the next few days? a. He says to himself, "I'll do my laundry at 7:00 p.m. tomorrow, and if my roommate says we should play video games then, I'll ask him if we can do that later." b. He vows to do it at some point the next day. c. He vows to do it sometime in the next 2 days. d. He vows not to think about video games the next day so that he doesn't spend time doing that instead of doing his laundry.

a. He says to himself, "I'll do my laundry at 7:00 p.m. tomorrow, and if my roommate says we should play video games then, I'll ask him if we can do that later."

The observational method is best at answering which of these questions? a. How polite are people in public places? b. Are people from the southern United States more polite in public places than people from the northern United States? c. What makes people act politely or rudely in public places? d. Does music played in department stores influence how polite people are in those stores?

a. How polite are people in public places?

Mary wants to find out whether eating sugary snacks before an exam leads to better performance on the exam. Which of the following strategies would answer her question most conclusively? a. Identify a large number of students who perform exceptionally low and exceptionally high in exams, ask them whether they eat sugary snacks before exams, and see whether high performers eat more sugary snacks before exams than do low performers. b. Wait for exam time in a big class, ask everyone whether they ate sugary snacks before the exam, and see whether those who ate sugary snacks before the exam do better compared to those who didn't. c. Wait for exam time in a big class, give a random half of the students M&Ms before the exam, and see whether the students who ate M&Ms perform better. d. Pick a big class, give all students sugary snacks before one exam and salty snacks before the next exam; then see whether students score lower on average in the second exam

a. Identify a large number of students who perform exceptionally low and exceptionally high in exams, ask them whether they eat sugary snacks before exams, and see whether high performers eat more sugary snacks before exams than do low performers.

Which of the following statements about impression management is true? a. It can be a conscious or unconscious process. b. It occurs in person but not during online interactions. c. It involves an effort to depict the self as accurately as possible. d. It tends to be counterproductive and "rub people the wrong way."

a. It can be a conscious or unconscious process.

Which of the following is true about the ethical conduct of psychological research? a. It is good scientific procedure to tell participants about the research hypotheses before they participate. b. If research participants are misled about a study they must be fully debriefed at the end of the study. c. Darley and Latané could have easily tested their hypotheses about helping behavior by telling participants in advance that they would hear someone pretending to have a seizure. d. It is never permissible to use deception.

a. It is good scientific procedure to tell participants about the research hypotheses before they participate.

Ming is from China; Jason is from the United States. Both participate in an experiment in which they take a test, are given feedback, and are told that they did very well. They are then asked to make attributions for their performance. Based on crosscultural research on the self-serving bias, you would expect that a. Jason but not Ming will say that he succeeded due to his high ability. b. neither Ming nor Jason will say that they succeeded due to their high ability. c. both Ming and Jason will say that they succeeded due to their high ability. d. Ming but not Jason will say that he succeeded due to his high ability.

a. Jason but not Ming will say that he succeeded due to his high ability.

Which of the following is the best way to increase the external validity of a study? a. Make sure it is low in psychological realism. b. Conduct the study in the laboratory instead of the field. c. Replicate the study with a different population of people in a different setting. d. Make sure you have at least two dependent variables.

a. Make sure it is low in psychological realism.

You are trying to sell a new electronic toothbrush at the airport to busy, distracted travelers. Which of the following strategies is least likely to be successful at getting people to buy a toothbrush? a. Make up a flier that gives convincing reasons why the toothbrush is so good. b. Make a large sign that says, "9 out of 10 dentists recommend this toothbrush!" c. Put up a large banner featuring a picture of your friend who looks like Brad Pitt posing with the toothbrush. d. Stop people and say, "Do you know that this is the toothbrush that is used the most by Hollywood stars?"

a. Make up a flier that gives convincing reasons why the toothbrush is so good.

In which state are people most likely to have an interdependent sense of self? a. Massachusetts b. Connecticut c. Oklahoma d. Alabama

a. Massachusetts

Which of the following is true about cross-cultural research? a. Most social psychological findings have been found to be universal; that is, true in virtually all cultures that have been studied. b. The purpose of cross-cultural research is to see which social psychological findings are universal and which are culture-bound. c. To conduct a cross-cultural study a researcher travels to another country, translates the materials into the local language, and replicates the study there. d. It is relatively easy to conduct a study that is interpreted and perceived similarly in different cultures.

a. Most social psychological findings have been found to be universal; that is, true in virtually all cultures that have been studied.

In social psychology, why is construal so important? a. People's behavior is affected by their interpretation of events, not only the events themselves. b. People's behavior is primarily determined by the objective circumstances they are in. c. People are aware of their biases in perceiving events. d. People realize that other reasonable people see things they way they do.

a. People's behavior is affected by their interpretation of events, not only the events themselves.

4. Enrolling in which of the following graduate programs would be most likely to improve your statistical reasoning ability about problems in everyday life? a. Psychology b. Medicine c. Law d. Chemistry

a. Psychology

Rachel and Eleanor are best friends and also in the high school choir. Both of them consider themselves to be talented singers and singing is very important to them. They both try out for an important solo in the choir, which Eleanor wins. Which of the following is Rachel least likely to do, according to self-evaluation maintenance theory? a. Rachel will be very happy for Eleanor and tell all their friends about her success in winning the solo. b. Rachel will decide that singing isn't as important to her as she thought. c. Rachel will practice even harder for the next solo in order to do better than Eleanor. d. Rachel will feel less close to Eleanor as a friend.

a. Rachel will be very happy for Eleanor and tell all their friends about her success in winning the solo.

Who of the following individuals is most likely to make a selfserving attribution? a. Rory, a golfer in the early stages of his career b. Mariano, a baseball player who has won multiple championships in the past c. LeBron, a basketball player who has been playing since he was young d. Roger, a professional tennis player with over a decade of experience

a. Rory, a golfer in the early stages of his career

Suppose you have invited a new acquaintance over to your apartment and want to make a good impression; in other words, you want this person to like you. Which of the following should you do? a. Serve the person a warm drink and hope that he or she holds it in their hands while you are talking to him or her. b. Serve the person a cold drink and hope that he or she holds it in their hands while you are talking to him or her. c. Bake some bread before the person comes over so that the apartment smells nice. d. Serve the person a snack on a very heavy plate.

a. Serve the person a warm drink and hope that he or she holds it in their hands while you are talking to him or her.

The following two questions assess methodological and statistical reasoning. For each question, choose the answer that is correct based on principles of methodology or statistics. 1. The city of Middleopolis has had an unpopular police chief for a year and a half. He is a political appointee who is a crony of the mayor, and he had little previous experience in police administration when he was appointed. The mayor has recently defended the chief in public, announcing that in the time since he took office, crime rates have decreased by 12%. Which of the following pieces of evidence would most deflate the mayor's claim that his chief is competent? a. The crime rates of the two cities closest to Middleopolis in location and size have decreased by 18% in the same period. b. An independent survey of the citizens of Middleopolis shows that 40% more crime is reported by respondents in the survey than is reported in police records. c. Common sense indicates that there is little a police chief can do to lower crime rates. These are for the most part a result of social and economic conditions beyond the control of officials. d. The police chief has been discovered to have business contacts with people who are known to be involved in organized crime.

a. The crime rates of the two cities closest to Middleopolis in location and size have decreased by 18% in the same period.

Your best friend has joined a cult called "The Fellowship of Feeling." He had to spend a month in a set of increasingly severe hazing rituals; pay an $8,000 membership fee; and go along to watch older members find homeless people to harass and beat up, before having to treat these "useless animals" the same way. Your friend loves this group and keeps urging you to join. What principle of dissonance is likely operating on your friend? a. The justification of effort b. Low self-esteem c. Postdecision dissonance d. Hypocrisy induction e. Insufficient punishment

a. The justification of effort

Which of the following is not a way in which schemas can become accessible in people's minds? a. The more negative in content a schema is, the more likely it is to be accessible. b. Schemas can be accessible because of people's past experiences. c. Schemas can become temporarily accessible because of priming. d. Schemas can be accessible if they are related to our current goals.

a. The more negative in content a schema is, the more likely it is to be accessible.

When thinking about other people, which of the following will we see as most central to their self-concept? a. Their morals b. Their preferences and attitudes c. Their physical attributes d. Their memories

a. Their morals

8. Research on controlled thinking and free will shows that: a. There is a disconnect between our conscious sense of how much we are causing our actions and how much we are really causing our actions. b. It doesn't really matter whether or not people believe that they have free will. c. Some primates have just as much free will as human beings. d. People definitely do not have free will.

a. There is a disconnect between our conscious sense of how much we are causing our actions and how much we are really causing our actions.

What do social psychology and personality psychology have in common? a. They both focus on the individual. b. They both focus on personality traits. c. They both focus on formative childhood experiences. d. They both focus on genetic contributions to personality

a. They both focus on the individual.

Which of the following is true about social psychological findings? a. They sometimes seem obvious after we learn about them, because of a hindsight bias. b. Most people could easily predict them in advance of knowing how the studies turned out. c. Wise people such as our grandparents could easily predict them in advance of knowing how the studies turned out. d. Most people who live in the culture in which the studies were conducted could predict the findings in advance of knowing how the studies turned out.

a. They sometimes seem obvious after we learn about them, because of a hindsight bias.

On Halloween, you decide to do an experiment. When the trick-or-treaters arrive at your house, you have them stand in a line on your front porch. You stay outside with the group and let each child enter your house individually. You tell them they can take one piece of candy from the bowl that is sitting on a table. Half of the time you put the candy bowl in front of a big mirror. The other half of the time there is no mirror present. All of the children may be tempted to take more than one piece of candy. Which children will be least likely to give in to temptation? a. Those in the mirror condition b. Those who are between 7 and 9 years old c. Those in the no-mirror condition d. Those who experience downward social comparison

a. Those in the mirror condition

When does "saying become believing"? a. When you claim to have an opinion that differs from your true beliefs for no strong reason. b. When what you say is what you believe. c. When someone forces you to say something you don't believe. d. When you're paid a lot of money to lie.

a. When you claim to have an opinion that differs from your true beliefs for no strong reason.

Belief perseverance can help explain which of the following? a. Why people who watch news programs that refer to climate change as a hoax remain convinced of that conclusion even in the face of scientific evidence to the contrary. b. Why during jury deliberations it is easier to convince fellow jurors to change their votes from guilty to not guilty than it is to change their minds in the opposite direction. c. Why weather forecasters are better at predicting rainfall totals than snowfall totals. d. All of the above.

a. Why people who watch news programs that refer to climate change as a hoax remain convinced of that conclusion even in the face of scientific evidence to the contrary.

Mariana is a sophomore in high school who is trying out for the varsity softball team. To get an accurate assessment of her softball abilities, she should compare her abilities to: a. a senior who was the best player on the team last year. b. a sophomore who has less experience playing softball than Mariana has. c. the coach of the team. d. a sophomore who has about the same amount of experience playing softball as Marianna has.

a. a senior who was the best player on the team last year.

People's emotional reaction to a target is referred to as the ______component of attitudes. a. affective b. behavioral c. cognitive d. operant

a. affective

Tracy and Matsumoso's (2008) research on Olympic athletes indicated that the nonverbal expression of shame was a. associated with losing for many athletes but not those from highly individualistic cultures such as the United States. b. different for blind athletes than it was for sighted athletes. c. difficult to distinguish from the nonverbals associated with pride among athletes from more collectivistic cultures such as Japan. d. more often displayed rather than hidden by athletes from highly individualistic cultures such as the United States

a. associated with losing for many athletes but not those from highly individualistic cultures such as the United States.

Adults' tendency to experience happy, nostalgia-filled feelings when they hear the music of an ice cream truck can be best explained by the relationship of attitudes to a. classical conditioning. b. operant conditioning. c. self-perception. d. values.

a. classical conditioning.

Suppose Juan, a premed student, is in a long-term, romantic relationship but chooses to flirt with someone else. He experiences dissonance because he sees himself as loving and trustworthy, and his flirtatious behavior is incongruent with that self-perception. According to dissonance theory he could reduce his dissonance by ____, whereas according to self-affirmation theory he could reduce his dissonance by ____. a. convincing himself that the flirting was harmless/ thinking about how proud he is to be a premed student b. thinking about how proud he is to be a premed student/ convincing himself that the flirting was harmless c. convincing himself that the flirting was harmless/ breaking up with his girlfriend d. breaking up with his girlfriend/convincing himself that the flirting was harmless

a. convincing himself that the flirting was harmless/ thinking about how proud he is to be a premed student

When people focus attention on themselves, they a. evaluate and compare their behavior to their internal standards and values. b. are less likely to drink alcohol or engage in binge eating. c. are less likely to follow their moral standards. d. almost always like what they see about themselves.

a. evaluate and compare their behavior to their internal standards and values.

The fundamental attribution error is best defined as the tendency to a. explain our own and other people's behavior entirely in terms of personality traits, thereby underestimating the power of social influence. b. explain our own and other people's behavior in terms of the social situation, thereby underestimating the power of personality factors. c. believe that people's group memberships influence their behavior more than their personalities. d. believe that people's personalities influence their behavior more than their group memberships.

a. explain our own and other people's behavior entirely in terms of personality traits, thereby underestimating the power of social influence.

In Masuda and colleagues' (2008) study of cross-cultural perceptions of emotion, a. eye-tracking technology is used to demonstrate that American participants spend less time looking at the peripheral individuals surrounding the central figure than do Japanese participants. b. American participants' perceptions of the central figure's emotional state are significantly influenced by the emotions of the peripheral individuals. c. context has little influence on the social perception processes of the participants. d. American participants begin by looking at the peripheral individuals before shifting their attention to the central individuals

a. eye-tracking technology is used to demonstrate that American participants spend less time looking at the peripheral individuals surrounding the central figure than do Japanese participants.

Your friend Amy asks you what you think of the shoes she just bought. Privately, you think they are the ugliest shoes you have ever seen, but you tell her you love them. In the past, Amy has always valued your honest opinion and doesn't care that much about the shoes, which were inexpensive. Because the external justification for your fib was ____, you will probably ____. a. high, decide you like the shoes b. high, maintain your view that the shoes are ugly c. low, decide you like the shoes d. low, maintain your view that the shoes are ugly

a. high, decide you like the shoes

Research on subliminal influence in advertising demonstrates that subliminal efforts at persuasion are a. less effective than people assume them to be. b. more effective than people assume them to be. c. more effective in individualistic versus collectivistic cultures. d. more effective in collectivistic versus individualistic cultures.

a. less effective than people assume them to be.

Serafina, an advertising executive, is trying to figure out the best way to market a product that does not evoke a strong emotional, personal response from people. Her most effective strategy would be to adopt a campaign that focuses on a. logical, fact-based arguments. b. creating such an emotional connection. c. avoiding behavioral references. d. subliminal strategies.

a. logical, fact-based arguments.

The two-step process of attribution suggests that a. people first make an internal attribution and then correct for situational influences. b. people first make an external attribution and then correct for dispositional influences. c. Americans are less likely than Chinese to commit the fundamental attribution error. d. if the attribution process is disrupted at either step, no attribution will be made.

a. people first make an internal attribution and then correct for situational influences.

One way to change someone's attitude is to get that person to give a speech arguing against his or her actual viewpoint. This strategy can lead to attitude change through cognitive dissonance as long as ______ is (are) present. a. peripheral cues to persuasion b. a motivated audience that feels a sense of personal relevance c. two-sided arguments d. insufficient justification for making the speech

a. peripheral cues to persuasion

Suppose you're driving home from watching a scary movie about a hitchhiker who was a murderer when you see someone talking loudly with a friend. Because you saw the movie, you assume that you are witnessing an argument that will probably end in a fight. This is an example of a. priming. b. base rate information. c. belief perseverance. d. controlled thinking

a. priming.

Attitude accessibility is a particularly good predictor of behavior when a. the behavior in question is spontaneous. b. the behavior in question is deliberative. c. the attitude in question is general. d. the attitude in question is an unpopular one.

a. the behavior in question is spontaneous.

What is the "level of analysis" for a social psychologist? a. the individual in the context of a social situation. b. the social situation itself. c. a person's level of achievement. d. a person's level of reasoning.

a. the individual in the context of a social situation.

Social psychology is the study of a. the real or imagined influence of other people. b. social institutions, such as the church or school. c. social events, such as football games and dances. d. psychological processes, such as dreaming.

a. the real or imagined influence of other people.

Researchers who study social cognition assume that people a. try to view the world as accurately as possible. b. can't think clearly with other people around them. c. distort reality to view themselves favorably. d. are driven by the need to control others.

a. try to view the world as accurately as possible.

Based on the "Ben Franklin effect," you are most likely to increase your liking for Tony when a. you lend Tony $10. b. Tony lends you $10. c. Tony returns the $10 you loaned him. d. Tony finds $10.

a. you lend Tony $10.

counterattitudinal behavior

acting in a way that runs counter to one's private belief or attitude

informed consent

agreement to participate in an experiment, granted in full awareness of the nature of the experiment, which has been explained in advance

affectively based attitude

an attitude based more on people's feelings and values than on their beliefs about the nature of an attitude object

behaviorally based attitude

an attitude based on observations of how one behaves toward an object

cognitively based attitude

an attitude based primarily on people's beliefs about the properties of an attitude object

lowballing

an unscrupulous strategy whereby a salesperson induces a customer to agree to purchase a product at a low cost, subsequently claims it was an error, and then raises the price; frequently, the customer will agree to make the purchase at the inflated price

two-step attribution process

analyzing another person's behavior first by making an automatic internal attribution and only then thinking about possible situational reasons for the behavior

implicit attitudes

attitudes that exist outside of conscious awareness

explicit attitude

attitudes that we consciously endorse and can easily report

Which of the following statements best illustrates selfperception theory? a. "I might not know why, but I know what I like." b. "I often don't know what I like until I see what I do." c. "I like classical music because my wife is always playing it." d. "I get a warm feeling inside when I listen to my favorite songs."

b. "I often don't know what I like until I see what I do."

Tiffany has a hard time trusting her friends because she believes they are irresponsible. Accordingly, when she makes dinner plans with one friend, she also makes backup plans with someone else, and she goes to one or the other. Her friends soon in turn begin to "blow off" their arrangements with Tiffany, because they are never sure whether she will show up. Tiffany thinks to herself, "See, I was right, my friends are irresponsible." Which of the following best explains why Tiffany made this conclusion? a. Accurate social perception due to controlled processes b. A self-fulfilling prophecy c. Holistic thinking d. Accurate social perception due to automatic processes

b. A self-fulfilling prophecy

Which is the definition of analytic thinking? a. A type of thinking in which people focus on the overall context, particularly the ways in which objects relate to each other. b. A type of thinking in which people focus on the properties of objects without considering their surrounding context. c. Thinking that is conscious, intentional, voluntary, and effortful. d. Thinking that is nonconscious, unintentional, involuntary, and effortless.

b. A type of thinking in which people focus on the properties of objects without considering their surrounding context.

Peer pressure effects tend to be linked most often to what type of attitude? a. Cognitively based attitudes b. Affectively based attitudes c. Inoculated attitudes d. Negative attitudes

b. Affectively based attitudes

Which of the following techniques relating to postdecision dissonance could a clothing store use to increase customer satisfaction? a. Cut all prices in half b. Ask customers to make a radio ad saying how great the store is c. Charge a membership fee to shop at the store d. Make all sales final

b. Ask customers to make a radio ad saying how great the store is

In trying to predict deliberative behaviors, what three considerations must we evaluate? a. Cognitively based attitudes, behaviorally based attitudes, affectively based attitudes b. Attitude specificity, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control c. Classical conditioning, operant conditioning, self-perception theory d. Attitude accessibility, explicit attitudes, implicit attitudes

b. Attitude specificity, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control

All of the following are true about attitudes except one. Which one is false? a. Attitudes are related to our temperament and personality. b. Attitudes rarely change over time. c. Attitudes can be changed with persuasive communications. d. Under the right conditions attitudes predict people's behavior

b. Attitudes rarely change over time.

Suppose you wanted your friend Stephan to feel like a more assertive person. According to research on _______, you should ask him to think of ______times in the past when he acted in an unassertive manner. a. Representativeness heuristic; 12 b. Availability heuristic; 3 c. Representativeness heuristic; 3 d. Availability heuristic; 12

b. Availability heuristic; 3

Imagine that you are in Hong Kong reading the morning news and you notice a headline about a double murder that took place overnight. A suspect is in custody. Which of the following headlines is most likely to accompany the story? a. Dispute Over Gambling Debt Ends in Murder b. Crazed Murderer Slays Two c. Homicidal Maniac Stalks Innocents d. Bloodthirsty Mobster Takes Revenge

b. Crazed Murderer Slays Two

Which is the best definition of an independent view of the self? a. Defining oneself in terms of one's relationships to other people b. Defining oneself in terms of one's own internal thoughts, feelings, and actions c. Someone who enjoys activities such as dancing and team sports d. Someone who enjoys activities such as reading and writing poetry

b. Defining oneself in terms of one's own internal thoughts, feelings, and actions

Which of the following statements about culture and cognitive dissonance is true? a. Japanese people rarely experience dissonance. b. Dissonance occurs everywhere, but culture influences how people experience it. c. Cognitive dissonance is a uniquely American phenomenon. d. Cognitive dissonance is more likely to occur in collectivist rather than individualist cultures.

b. Dissonance occurs everywhere, but culture influences how people experience it.

Your friend Jane is interning at a law firm. When you ask her how it's going, she says, "I'm feeling good about it because I'm doing much better than the intern who started a month after me." What kind of social comparison is Jane making? a. Upward social comparison b. Downward social comparison c. Impression comparison d. Self-knowledge comparison

b. Downward social comparison

Suppose a researcher found a strong negative correlation between college students' grade point average (GPA) and the amount of alcohol they drink. Which of the following is the best conclusion from this study? a. Students with a high GPA study more and thus have less time to drink. b. Drinking a lot interferes with studying. c. If you know how much alcohol a student drinks, you can predict his or her GPA fairly well. d. People who are intelligent get higher grades and drink less.

b. Drinking a lot interferes with studying.

Suppose a researcher found a strong positive correlation between the number of tweets people send each day and their reported happiness. Which of the following is the best conclusion he or she can draw from this finding? a. Sending tweets makes people happy. b. Feeling happy makes people want to tweet more. c. Happy people are more likely to send a lot of tweets than sad people. d. There is a third variable that makes people happy and send a lot of tweets.

b. Feeling happy makes people want to tweet more.

It is 10:00 a.m. and Jamie, an American college student, is dragging himself to his next class to turn in a paper for which he pulled an all-nighter. Through a haze of exhaustion, on the way to class he sees a student slip and fall down. How would Jamie be most likely to interpret the cause of the student's behavior? a. Jamie's attribution will most heavily be influenced by his own personality. b. Given what we know about Jamie's current cognitive capacity and cultural background, he will likely assume that the student fell because he or she was clumsy. c. Jamie would probably attribute the cause to the situation, such as the fact that it was raining and the sidewalks were slippery. d. Jamie would be so tired that he would not make any causal attributions.

b. Given what we know about Jamie's current cognitive capacity and cultural background, he will likely assume that the student fell because he or she was clumsy.

You are reading a blog by someone whose point of view is really making you angry. Which of her arguments are you most likely to focus on and remember? a. Her silliest claims, because she is a silly person b. Her silliest claims, because they are consonant with your opinion that she is a silly person c. Her smartest claims, so that you can contradict them in a post d. Her smartest claims, because they are so unlikely to have come from a silly person

b. Her silliest claims, because they are consonant with your opinion that she is a silly person

On a survey, Marquel reports that he agrees with wearing a seat belt. According to the theory of planned behavior, which of the following would be the best predictor of whether Marquel will wear a seat belt on a given day? a. He generally agrees that safe driving is important. b. His best friend, Trevor, who is always talking about how important it is to wear a seat belt, is in the car with him. c. His attitude toward seat belts is not very accessible. d. Marquel believes that it is hard to remember to wear his seat belt.

b. His best friend, Trevor, who is always talking about how important it is to wear a seat belt, is in the car with him.

Ben is worried that he will do poorly on his psychology test. Which of the following is the best example of behavioral self-handicapping? a. He spends a couple of extra hours studying, and right before the test, he tells his friends that he studied really hard. b. Instead of studying the night before, he stays up late watching movies on his computer. Right before the test, he tells his friends that he saw some great movies instead of studying. c. He spends a couple of extra hours studying. Then, right before the test, he tells his friends that he isn't feeling very well. d. Right before the test, Ben tells the professor that her class is the best one he's ever taken.

b. Instead of studying the night before, he stays up late watching movies on his computer. Right before the test, he tells his friends that he saw some great movies instead of studying.

Which of the following is most true about narcissism? a. In general, college students are becoming less narcissistic. b. It is characterized by excessive self-love and a lack of empathy toward others. c. People who are narcissistic do better academically than those who are not. d. People who are narcissistic have more friends and a better social life than those who are not.

b. It is characterized by excessive self-love and a lack of empathy toward others.

Which of the following is true of the holistic thinking style? a. It involves a focus on the properties of objects without considering their surrounding context. b. People living in the West can think holistically if they are primed with pictures taken in Japan. c. The holistic style of thinking has a genetic basis. d. It may have its roots in the Greek philosophic traditions of Aristotle and Plato.

b. People living in the West can think holistically if they are primed with pictures taken in Japan.

Which of the following is the best summary of research on automatic goal pursuit? a. People can only select which goals to work toward using controlled thinking. b. People often pursue goals that have been recently primed, without realizing that that is why they are pursuing the goal. c. People often pursue goals that have been recently primed, but only if they are consciously aware that the goal has been primed. d. People never choose their goals consciously; they only pursue automatically primed goals.

b. People often pursue goals that have been recently primed, without realizing that that is why they are pursuing the goal.

Which of the following is one of the ethical principles of the American Psychological Association? a. Psychologists respect the dignity and worth of all people, and the rights of individuals to privacy, confidentiality, and self-determination. b. Psychologists may not use minors (those younger than age 18) as participants in research. c. If a study is conducted over the internet, psychologists need not obtain informed consent from participants. d. Psychologists are not responsible for protecting the confidentiality of information they obtain from participants.

b. Psychologists may not use minors (those younger than age 18) as participants in research.

One afternoon at work Rachel has a meeting with her boss, who is wearing the silliest-looking outfit Rachel has ever seen. Rachel is tempted to laugh and make fun of her boss, but she knows this would be a bad idea. Under which of the following conditions would Rachel be most likely to resist the temptation to make fun of her boss? a. Rachel spent all morning writing a difficult report and believes that willpower is a limited resource. b. Rachel spent all morning writing a difficult report, but she believes that willpower is an unlimited resource and that she thus has a lot of it. c. Rachel says to herself over and over, "Don't think about the boss's outfit!" d. Rachel says to herself, "Remember that the most important thing is not to insult my boss."

b. Rachel spent all morning writing a difficult report, but she believes that willpower is an unlimited resource and that she thus has a lot of it.

Rob is definitely not the most attractive guy in the dorms, but he is extremely confident about who he is and how he looks. He is convinced that most women find him to be very attractive, and he in fact usually gets dates with women who are much more attractive than he is. What is the best explanation of Rob's success? a. Self-affirmation theory b. Self-fulfilling prophecy c. The representativeness heuristic d. Holistic thinking

b. Self-fulfilling prophecy

Rachel was accepted at both University A and University B. She has a hard time making up her mind because she sees pros and cons to attending either university. Which of the following is true, according to dissonance theory? a. She will experience the most dissonance right before making up her mind because it is such a difficult choice. b. She will experience the most dissonance right after making up her mind. c. Whichever university she chooses, she is likely to regret her choice. d. Because the choice is so difficult, she is unlikely to fully commit herself to the university she chooses to attend.

b. She will experience the most dissonance right after making up her mind.

Which of the following is true about research on free will? a. People rarely overestimate the amount of control they have over their behavior. b. Sometimes people underestimate the amount of control they have over their behavior. c. Studies have shown that people have free will over almost everything they do. d. The more people believe in free will, the more likely they are to engage in immoral actions such as cheating

b. Sometimes people underestimate the amount of control they have over their behavior.

You are selling $30 souvenir books for a club fund-raiser. How could you use the technique of lowballing to improve your sales? a. Start by offering the books at $70 each and pretend to bargain with customers, making $30 your "final offer." b. Start by selling the books at $25, but once the customer has retrieved his or her checkbook, tell him or her you made a mistake and the books are actually $5 more than you thought. c. Offer the customers additional incentives to buy the book, such as free cookies with every purchase. d. Start by selling the books at $40, but tell the customer he or she will get $10 back in three weeks.

b. Start by selling the books at $25, but once the customer has retrieved his or her checkbook, tell him or her you made a mistake and the books are actually $5 more than you thought.

Which of the following does not reflect the motive to maintain high self-esteem? a. After Sarah leaves Bob for someone else, Bob decides that he never liked her much anyway. b. Students who want to take Professor Lopez's seminar have to apply by writing a 10-page essay. Everyone who is selected ends up loving the class. c. Janetta did poorly on the first test in her psychology class. She admits that she didn't study enough and vows to study harder for the next test. d. Zach has been involved in several minor traffic accidents since getting his driver's license. "There sure are a lot of terrible drivers out there," he says. "People should learn to be good drivers like me."

b. Students who want to take Professor Lopez's seminar have to apply by writing a 10-page essay. Everyone who is selected ends up loving the class.

Which of the following is the best explanation for why product placement can be effective at changing attitudes? a. It tends to operate via the central route to persuasion. b. The audience is often unaware that an effort at attitude change is occurring. c. It usually leads to a reactance response. d. Cognitively based efforts at persuasion tend to have longer-lasting effects.

b. The audience is often unaware that an effort at attitude change is occurring.

Paul Ekman and Walter Friesen traveled to New Guinea to study the meaning of various facial expressions in the primitive South Fore tribe. What major conclusion did they reach? a. Facial expressions are not universal because they have different meanings in different cultures. b. The six major emotional expressions appear to be universal. c. There are nine major emotional expressions. d. The members of the South Fore used different facial expressions than westerners to express the same emotion.

b. The six major emotional expressions appear to be universal.

Research on public service ads designed to promote healthy behavior indicates that such efforts a. almost always fail. b. are more effective at changing the attitudes of men versus women. c. are more effective via television than print ads when their target is young people. d. are most effective when they are subliminal.

b. are more effective at changing the attitudes of men versus women.

The concept of attitude inoculation indicates that we are better able to resist a later attempt to change our attitudes when we are first exposed to arguments that a. support our existing attitude. b. are weakened versions of arguments we might hear later. c. prevent us from considering alternative viewpoints ahead of time. d. lead us to pay more attention to peripheral cues.

b. are weakened versions of arguments we might hear later.

Newman is currently overweight, but as a child he was quite thin. His current explicit attitude toward the overweight is likely to be more ______, and his current implicit attitude toward the overweight is likely to be more ______. a. behaviorally based; cognitively based b. cognitively based; behaviorally based c. negative; positive d. positive; negative

b. cognitively based; behaviorally based

Sam is playing a carnival game challenging him to guess which of the 20 cups is hiding the red ball. Unfortunately, he picked the cup directly to the left of the winning cup and thus did not win the stuffed donkey he wanted. According to social psychological research, he is most likely to a. experience cognitive dissonance. b. engage in counterfactual thinking. c. blame his mistake on the noise of the crowd. d. subsequently avoid similar games.

b. engage in counterfactual thinking.

A researcher conducts a study with participants who are college students. The researcher then repeats the study using the same procedures but with members of the general population (i.e., adults) as participants. The results are similar for both samples. The research has established ________ through ________. a. external validity, replication b. internal validity, replication c. external validity, psychological realism d. internal validity, psychological realism

b. internal validity, replication

A team of researchers wants to test the hypothesis that drinking wine makes people like jazz more. They randomly assign college students who are 21 or older to one room in which they will drink wine and listen to jazz or to another room in which they will drink water and listen to jazz. It happens that the "wine room" has a big window with nice scenery outside, whereas the "water room" is windowless, dark, and dingy. The most serious flaw in this experiment is that it a. is low in external validity. b. is low in internal validity. c. did not randomly select the participants from all college students in the country. d. is low in psychological realism.

b. is low in internal validity.

Under which of the following conditions would people be most likely to vote for a political candidate? They a. like the candidate's policies but have negative feelings toward him or her. b. know little about the candidate's policies but have positive feelings toward him or her. c. see subliminal ads supporting the candidate on national television. d. see television ads supporting the candidate while they are distracted by their children.

b. know little about the candidate's policies but have positive feelings toward him or her.

The major finding of LaPiere's (1934) classic study on attitudes and behavior involving prejudice and hotel/ restaurant owners is that a. people are more prejudiced than their self-reported attitudes would lead us to believe. b. people's attitudes are not always reliable predictors of their behaviors. c. the less accessible an attitude is, the more likely it is to shape behavior. d. when it comes to racial prejudice, people's attitudes are particularly strong predictors of their behaviors.

b. people's attitudes are not always reliable predictors of their behaviors.

Suppose that Mischa has found that when she sits in the first row of discussion classes, she gets a better participation grade, regardless of how much she actually participates. Her positioning in front of the teacher could have an effect on how large of a role the teacher thinks Mischa has in discussion due to a. the teacher's use of schemas. b. perceptual salience. c. the "what is beautiful is good" schema. d. the two-step process of attribution.

b. perceptual salience.

How does social psychology differ from personality psychology? a. social psychology focuses on individual differences, whereas personality psychology focuses on how people behave in different situations b. social psychology focuses on the shared processes that make people susceptible to social influence, whereas personality psychology focuses on individual differences c. social psychology provides general laws and theories about societies, whereas personality psychology studies the characteristics that make people unique d. social psychology focuses on individual differences, whereas personality psychology provides general laws and theories about societies

b. social psychology focuses on the shared processes that make people susceptible to social influence, whereas personality psychology focuses on individual differences

Mr. Rowe and Ms. Dabney meet on a blind date. They get along well until they get into his black convertible to go to a movie. Ms. Dabney is quiet and reserved for the rest of the evening. It turns out that her brother had recently been in a serious accident in that same type of car and seeing it brought up those unwanted emotions. Mr. Rowe assumes that Ms. Dabney has a cold and reserved personality, thereby demonstrating a. a belief in a just world. b. the fundamental attribution error. c. perceptual salience. d. insufficient justification.

b. the fundamental attribution error.

Megan reads a research study which shows that children who see a lot of violence on television are more likely to be aggressive on the playground. Megan thinks, "This is obvious; I could have predicted that!" Megan's reaction to the study is probably an example of: a. internal validity. b. the hindsight bias. c. external validity. d. psychological realism

b. the hindsight bias.

In social psychology, the level of analysis is a. society at large. b. the individual in a social context. c. groups and organizations. d. cognitive and perceptual brain processes.

b. the individual in a social context.

Emilia would be most likely to pay attention to facts about the danger of AIDS during a school assembly and remember the facts for a long time if a. the speaker emphasized statistical information about AIDS throughout the world. b. the speaker emphasized how the disease has spread in her community and there isn't anything distracting Emilia from listening. c. the speaker emphasized how the disease has spread in her community and at the same time Emilia's best friend is whispering to her about a big party that weekend. d. the speaker is a nationally known expert on AIDS.

b. the speaker emphasized how the disease has spread in her community and there isn't anything distracting Emilia from listening.

Ambady and colleagues were able to conclude that the thinsliced impressions formed by their participants were based on meaningful information because a. their ratings based on 30-second clips were little different than their ratings based on 6-second clips. b. their ratings of the silent video clips corresponded strongly with the ratings that the instructors received from their actual students at the end of the semester. c. ratings were similar for silent video clips and for the same video clips when shown with audio. d. while the thin-sliced video clips were brief, it took participants a relatively long amount of time to come up with ratings of the instructors they viewed.

b. their ratings of the silent video clips corresponded strongly with the ratings that the instructors received from their actual students at the end of the semester.

The basic dilemma of the social psychologist is that a. it is hard to teach social psychology to students because most people believe strongly in personality. b. there is a trade-off between internal and external validity in most experiments. c. it is nearly impossible to use a random selection of the population in laboratory experiments. d. almost all social behavior is influenced by the culture in which people grew up.

b. there is a trade-off between internal and external validity in most experiments.

Fear-arousing persuasive communication is most likely to be effective when a. very high levels of fear are induced. b. very low levels of fear are induced. c. a plan for reducing the fear is provided. d. the target of the communication is a utilitarian or functional object.

b. very low levels of fear are induced.

The topic that would most interest a social psychologist is: a. how the level of extraversion of different presidents affected their political decisions b. whether people's decision about whether to cheat on a test is influenced by how they imagine their friends would react if they found out c. the extent to which people's social class predicts their income d. what passers-by on the street think of global warming

b. whether people's decision about whether to cheat on a test is influenced by how they imagine their friends would react if they found out

According to reactance theory, what of the following public service messages would be least likely to get people to wear seat belts? a. "Please wear your seat belt every time you drive." b. "Wear your seat belt to save lives." c. "It's the law—you must wear your seat belt." d. "Buckle up your children—you might save their lives."

c. "It's the law—you must wear your seat belt."

Which of the following does not illustrate the fundamental attribution error? a. A man says, "My wife has sure become a grouchy person," but explains his own grouchiness as a result of having a hard day at the office. b. A woman reads about high unemployment in poor communities and says, "Well, if those people weren't so lazy, they would find work." c. "The people who committed suicide at Jonestown were socially isolated and thus cut off from other points of view about their leader." d. "The people who committed suicide at Jonestown were mentally ill."

c. "The people who committed suicide at Jonestown were socially isolated and thus cut off from other points of view about their leader."

Wendy is a member of a political group on your campus and is interested in finding out how many students plan to vote in the next presidential election. According to the theory of planned behavior, which of the following attitude questions Wendy could ask would be the best predictor of whether or not a particular student will vote in the next presidential election? a. "What are your attitudes about U.S. politics?" b. "What are your attitudes about voting?" c. "What are your attitudes about voting in the next U.S. presidential election?" d. "What are your attitudes about former U.S. President Barack Obama?"

c. "What are your attitudes about voting in the next U.S. presidential election?"

Which of the following is least likely to pass the "mirror" test suggesting they have at least a rudimentary self-concept? a. An orangutan b. A chimpanzee c. A 12-month-old human infant d. A 3-year-old human child

c. A 12-month-old human infant

Who among the following individuals would you predict would be most likely to make an external attribution for any given behavior observed? a. A U.S.-born American adult b. An 8-year-old born and raised in India c. A Hong Kong Chinese college student who had just been shown images related to Chinese culture d. A Hong Kong Chinese college student who had just been shown images related to American culture

c. A Hong Kong Chinese college student who had just been shown images related to Chinese culture

Which of the following is true about the use of schemas? a. Schemas are an example of controlled thinking. b. When people have an incorrect schema, rarely do they act in a way to make it come true. c. Although schemas can lead to errors, they are a useful way of organizing information about the world and filling in gaps in our knowledge. d. The schema we use is influenced only by what information is chronically accessible and not by our goals or by what has been primed recently.

c. Although schemas can lead to errors, they are a useful way of organizing information about the world and filling in gaps in our knowledge.

Which of the following psychological phenomena shows the least cultural variation? a. Self-serving attributions b. Preferences regarding eye contact and personal space c. Anger facial expressions d. Fundamental attribution error

c. Anger facial expressions

Your little sister enjoys taking time out of her day to make bead necklaces. A birthday party is coming up, and you decide you want to give a necklace to each person at the party. She offers to make a necklace for each of your friends, but for added motivation you give her a dollar for each one she makes. Which of the following is most likely to happen? a. After the party, your sister will enjoy making beads more than she did before because you gave her a reward. b. After the party, your sister will enjoy making beads less than she did before because you rewarded her for something she already liked to do. c. Because your sister already enjoys making beads, paying her for making them will have no effect on how much she enjoys the activity. d. Paying your sister for making the beads will increase her self-awareness.

c. Because your sister already enjoys making beads, paying her for making them will have no effect on how much she enjoys the activity.

Which component of an attitude is most related to the process of examining facts and weighing the objective merits of a target? a. Affective b. Behavioral c. Cognitive d. Operant

c. Cognitive

Which one of the following involves the least amount of automatic thinking? a. Acting according to goals that have been primed b. Using metaphors about the body to make judgments c. Counterfactual reasoning d. Self-fulfilling prophecies

c. Counterfactual reasoning

Eduardo is tempted to eat some of his roommate's cookies, even though his roommate told him not to. Under which of the following conditions would Eduardo be mostly likely to resist the temptation to eat the cookies? a. It's the afternoon, and Eduardo has had a busy morning. b. Eduardo believes that willpower is fixed resource and that people have a limited amount of it. c. Eduardo went to the gym that morning and had a good workout. d. Eduardo puts the cookies in a cupboard so he doesn't have to look at them.

c. Eduardo went to the gym that morning and had a good workout.

Which of the following is not one of the six major emotional expressions examined by Ekman and his colleagues in their influential cross-cultural research on perception of emotions? a. Disgust b. Anger c. Embarrassment d. Sadness

c. Embarrassment

Which of the following is not one of the three factors considered by the Yale Attitude Change approach? a. Nature of the audience b. Message source c. Fear d. Nature of the communication itself

c. Fear

Ben is worried that he will do poorly on his psychology test. Which of the following is the best example of reported self-handicapping? a. He spends a couple of extra hours studying, and right before the test, he tells his friends that he studied really hard. b. Instead of studying the night before, he stays up late watching movies on his computer. Right before the test, he tells his friends that he saw some great movies instead of studying. c. He spends a couple of extra hours studying. Then, right before the test, he tells his friends that he isn't feeling very well. d. Right before the test, Ben tells the professor that her class is the best one he's ever taken.

c. He spends a couple of extra hours studying. Then, right before the test, he tells his friends that he isn't feeling very well.

A stranger approaches Emily on campus and says he is a professional photographer. He asks if she will spend 15 minutes posing for pictures next to the student union. According to social psychologists, Emily's decision will depend on which of the following? a. How well dressed the man is b. Whether the man offers to pay her c. How Emily construes the situation d. Whether the man has a criminal record

c. How Emily construes the situation

Which of the following is true about Institutional Review Boards (IRBs)? a. Universities can decide whether to have an IRB to approve psychological research. b. The purpose of IRBs is to review research after it is conducted and review any complaints. c. IRBs review psychological studies before they are conducted to make sure they meet ethical guidelines. d. IRBs must be made up entirely of nonscientists.

c. IRBs review psychological studies before they are conducted to make sure they meet ethical guidelines.

Suppose a certain student, Jake, falls asleep during every chemistry class. Further suppose that Jake is the only one who falls asleep in this class and he falls asleep in all of his other classes. According to Kelley's covariation theory of attribution, how will people explain his behavior? a. It results from something unusual about this particular class because his behavior is low in consensus, high in distinctiveness, and high in consistency. b. Chemistry is really a boring class because Jake's behavior is high in consensus, high in distinctiveness, and high in consistency. c. It results from something unusual about Jake because his behavior is low in consensus, low in distinctiveness, and high in consistency. d. It results from something peculiar about the circumstances on a particular day because his behavior is high in consensus.

c. It results from something unusual about Jake because his behavior is low in consensus, low in distinctiveness, and high in consistency.

What was the main contribution of Gestalt psychology to social psychology? a. It added an understanding of how the brain works. b. It emphasized how people perceive the physical world. c. It showed that the whole is larger than the sum of its parts. d. It added historical perspective to the study of behavior.

c. It showed that the whole is larger than the sum of its parts.

Under which of the following conditions is Khalid most likely to feel the romantic attraction toward Heather? a. Khalid isn't sure whether he wants to go out with Heather, so he spends time introspecting about why he feels the way he does about her. b. Khalid isn't sure whether he wants to go out with Heather, but he agrees to do so after Heather's roommate says she will help him with his calculus homework if he does. c. Khalid and Heather go for a long run together. After a couple of hours, when they are well-rested, Heather gives Khalid a hug and tells him that she really likes him. d. Khalid and Heather nearly get into a serious car accident, and both are terrified. Then Heather gives Khalid a hug and tells him that she really likes him

c. Khalid and Heather go for a long run together. After a couple of hours, when they are well-rested, Heather gives Khalid a hug and tells him that she really likes him.

Which of the following is true regarding cross-cultural comparisons of advertising? a. Korean ads are more likely than American ads to focus on utilitarian products like shoes. b. Korean ads are more likely than American ads to portray women and men in a state of complete or partial undress. c. Korean ads are more likely than American ads to focus on family and concern for others. d. Korean magazines have fewer ads than American magazines.

c. Korean ads are more likely than American ads to focus on family and concern for others.

Which of the following is a basic assumption that social psychologists make? a. Social problems have complex causes and we will never know why they occur. b. It is hard to study what effect looking at pornography has on people, because everyone is different. c. Many social problems can be studied scientifically. d. Many people fail to help others in emergencies because they don't care about other people.

c. Many social problems can be studied scientifically.

Which of the following statements best describes cultural differences in the fundamental attribution error? a. Members of collectivist cultures rarely make dispositional attributions. b. Members of Western cultures rarely make dispositional attributions. c. Members of collectivist cultures are more likely to go beyond dispositional explanations, considering information about the situation as well. d. Members of Western cultures are more likely to go beyond dispositional explanations, considering information about the situation as well.

c. Members of collectivist cultures are more likely to go beyond dispositional explanations, considering information about the situation as well.

Which of the following best illustrates the idea of belief perseverance? a. The first time Lindsay meets Tobias, she is impressed with his intellect and ambition, but quite quickly she comes to sour on him and see him as lazy and ineffectual. b. Gob is quite smitten with Marta when he first gets together with her, but once they begin an exclusive dating relationship, he feels that he has made a big mistake. c. Michael's first impression of Anne is a negative one, and even though he comes to observe her in a variety of scenarios displaying a variety of skills, he remains convinced that she will never amount to very much. d. Buster was shy and awkward as a young boy and remains much the same now as an adult.

c. Michael's first impression of Anne is a negative one, and even though he comes to observe her in a variety of scenarios displaying a variety of skills, he remains convinced that she will never amount to very much.

In terms of dissonance theory, what is the primary reason that "we" (our side) often dehumanize "them," the enemy, seeing them as animals, brutes, or monsters? a. The enemy is violent and cruel and deserves whatever we do to them. b. The enemy started the war. c. Our side has treated the enemy brutally and needs to justify these actions. d. Our side is more moral and humane than their side.

c. Our side has treated the enemy brutally and needs to justify these actions.

Research using fMRI brain scanning technology indicates which of the following? a. East Asian participants use a greater percentage of their frontal and parietal regions when making judgments than do American participants. b. Neither East Asian nor American participants are able to overcome their typical, learned ways of attending to (or overlooking) context. c. Participants from both cultures demonstrate greater activation in higher-order cortical regions when asked to perceive objects in a way that is unusual for them. d. Social neuroscience data provide no support for the hypothesis that holistic versus analytic thinking styles tend to vary by cultural background.

c. Participants from both cultures demonstrate greater activation in higher-order cortical regions when asked to perceive objects in a way that is unusual for them.

Which of the following is true about social tuning? a. People decide consciously about whether to agree with someone else's attitudes. b. People will adopt someone else's attitudes only if they largely agree with that position to start with. c. People are especially likely to adopt someone else's attitudes when they want to get along with that person. d. Members of Western cultures are more likely to engage in social tuning than members of East Asian cultures.

c. People are especially likely to adopt someone else's attitudes when they want to get along with that person.

Which of the following is true about self-esteem and narcissism? a. The best way to be happy is to focus on ourselves and our own needs. b. Narcissists are disliked by others but do better academically and in business than other people. c. People who are optimistic (but not narcissistic) persevere more in the face of failure and set higher goals than do other people. d. Narcissism has been decreasing among college students in the United States over the past 30 years.

c. People who are optimistic (but not narcissistic) persevere more in the face of failure and set higher goals than do other people.

Which of the following is most true about self-esteem? a. It's good to have low self-esteem because that motivates people to improve. b. In general, women have lower self-esteem than men. c. People who are optimistic try harder, persevere more in the face of failure, and set higher goals than do people who are not. d. The higher a person's self-esteem, the better off he or she is.

c. People who are optimistic try harder, persevere more in the face of failure, and set higher goals than do people who are not.

The physical attractiveness of the source of a persuasive communication would be best described as which of the following? a. Systematic cue b. Central cue c. Peripheral cue d. Rational cue

c. Peripheral cue

Which of the following is the best summary of the function of schemas? a. Schemas usually result in erroneous judgments because of the self-fulfilling prophecy. b. Schemas are always beneficial because they help people organize the world and fill in the gaps in their knowledge. c. Schemas are useful in helping people organize information about the world, but they are problematic when they result in self-fulfilling prophecies. d. Schemas are useful for helping us organize information about other people but not about events such as what we should do when eating in a restaurant.

c. Schemas are useful in helping people organize information about the world, but they are problematic when they result in self-fulfilling prophecies.

Based on everything you've read in this chapter, what is the best conclusion about social cognition? a. People would be better off if we could turn off automatic thinking and rely solely on controlled thinking. b. Whereas people are sophisticated social thinkers who have amazing cognitive abilities, there is also plenty of room for improvement. c. Social cognition is pretty much the same throughout the world in all cultures that have been studied. d. One purpose of controlled thinking is to set goals for ourselves; that cannot be done with automatic thinking.

c. Social cognition is pretty much the same throughout the world in all cultures that have been studied.

Which of the following is true about social neuroscience? a. This field is concerned exclusively with how different kinds of brain activity correlate with social information processing. b. This field is concerned primarily with how hormones influence social behavior. c. Social psychologists are increasingly interested in the connection between biological processes and social behavior. d. When it comes right down to it, the brain is not related to behavior, and there is not much to be learned by measuring its electrical activity or blood flow.

c. Social psychologists are increasingly interested in the connection between biological processes and social behavior.

Which of the following is the best description of facilitated communication? a. It is a promising new way of letting communicationimpaired people, such as those with autism, express their thoughts. b. The facilitators, who hold the fingers and arm of communication-impaired people on a keyboard, are deliberately faking the answers. c. The facilitators believe that communication-impaired people are choosing what to type, but they are probably wrong and unknowingly determining the answers themselves. d. Facilitated communication helps people with mild versions of autism to communicate but does not help those with severe cases.

c. The facilitators believe that communication-impaired people are choosing what to type, but they are probably wrong and unknowingly determining the answers themselves.

Which of the following conclusions is the most consistent with research on the heritability of attitudes? a. Our attitudes are shaped by our surroundings and do not seem to have any genetic component to them. b. Our attitudes are inherited and dictated by our genetic makeup, with little influence from environmental factors. c. We often inherit a temperament or personality that renders us likely to develop similar attitudes to those held by our genetic relatives. d. Fraternal twins are just as likely to share attitudes as are identical twins.

c. We often inherit a temperament or personality that renders us likely to develop similar attitudes to those held by our genetic relatives.

Suppose you are a parent and want your children to do well in school. Which of the following is likely to work the best? a. Tell them that they were born with a lot of academic talent. b. Tell them that academic ability is something that they can cultivate and grow if they work hard. c. When they are young, give them money for every book they read. d. Tell them that intelligence is inherited and that there is a lot of it in your family.

c. When they are young, give them money for every book they read.

Which of the following is most true about self-handicapping? a. People who self-handicap tend to try harder at a task. b. Women are more likely to engage in reported self-handicapping than are men. c. Women are more critical of people who self-handicap than are men and are less likely to engage in behavioral self-handicapping than are men. d. East Asians are more likely to engage in behavioral self-handicapping than are westerners.

c. Women are more critical of people who self-handicap than are men and are less likely to engage in behavioral self-handicapping than are men.

4. Imagine that you and your sister are both psychology majors and that you are very close to your sister. Suppose you learn that your sister's GPA in psychology classes is a lot higher than yours. According to self-evaluation maintenance theory, which of the following is least likely to occur? a. You will decide that you are not that interested in psychology. b. You will become less close to your sister. c. You will bask in your sister's reflected glory and congratulate her on her high GPA. d. You will study really hard for the next psychology test to do better than your sister.

c. You will bask in your sister's reflected glory and congratulate her on her high GPA.

Suppose that you and your best friend are both psychology majors and both want to go to grad school in psychology. Your friend is also a talented athlete, whereas athletics is not that important to you. One day you find out that your friend won an intramural free-throw shooting contest. Which of the following is most likely to happen, according to self-evaluation maintenance theory? a. You will become less close to your friend. b. You will bask in your friend's reflected glory and congratulate him or her on winning the free-throw contest. c. You will study really hard for the next psychology test to do better than your friend. d. You will decide that you are not that interested in psychology.

c. You will study really hard for the next psychology test to do better than your friend.

The best way for an advertisement to change an affectively based attitude is to use a(n) _____________ appeal. a. cognitive b. behavioral c. affective d. fact-filled

c. affective

All of the following are examples of ways to resist persuasion except a. making people immune to change of opinions by initially exposing them to small doses of arguments against their position. b. warning people about advertising techniques such as product placement. c. forbidding people to buy a product. d. role-playing using milder versions of real-life social pressures.

c. forbidding people to buy a product.

A social psychologist would tend to look for explanations of a young man's violent behavior primarily in terms of: a. his aggressive personality traits b. possible genetic contributions c. how his peer group behaves d. what his father taught him

c. how his peer group behaves

Researchers took photographs in randomly chosen locations in cities in Japan and the United States. They found that on average, city scenes in Japan contained more: a. businesses and advertisements. b. people and residences. c. objects that competed for people's attention. d. buildings and concrete.

c. objects that competed for people's attention.

Whereas individuals in Western cultures tend to think more like _______, individuals in Eastern cultures tend to think more like _______. a. children; adults b. psychologists; sociologists c. personality psychologists; social psychologists d. introverts; extraverts

c. personality psychologists; social psychologists

People will be most likely to change their attitudes about smoking if an antismoking advertisement a. uses extremely graphic pictures of how smoke can harm the body and warns of the risks of smoking. b. gives people subliminal messages about the risks of smoking as well as recommendations of how to quit. c. uses graphic pictures of the damages of smoking on the body and then provides specific recommendations on how to quit smoking. d. uses success stories of how people quit smoking.

c. uses graphic pictures of the damages of smoking on the body and then provides specific recommendations on how to quit smoking.

upward social comparison

comparing ourselves to people who are better than we are with regard to a particular trait or ability

downward social comparison

comparing ourselves to people who are worse than we are with regard to a particular trait or ability

display rules

culturally determined rules about which nonverbal behaviors are appropriate to display

Asch's (1946) research on person perception provided evidence for which of the following conclusions? a. There is a primacy effect in social perception. b. First impressions serve as a filter through which subsequently learned information is interpreted. c. Even when the content of information conveyed about two individuals remains the same, the order in which we learn it can have a powerful effect on our impression. d. All of the above

d. All of the above

How do social psychologists formulate hypotheses and theories? a. They are inspired by previous theories and research. b. They disagree with a previous researchers' interpretations of their study. c. They construct hypothesis and theories based on personal observations in everyday life. d. All of the above answers are correct.

d. All of the above answers are correct.

Which of the following people is most likely to be able to admit a major mistake? a. A prosecutor, because he or she is trained to pursue justice at all costs. b. A political leader, because otherwise he or she would be voted out of office. c. A member of a religious sect, because he or she can leave at any time. d. All of the above will find it hard to admit having been wrong.

d. All of the above will find it hard to admit having been wrong.

A researcher is interested in whether moods vary by the day of the week. She codes the postings on thousands of Facebook pages to see whether people express more positive comments on some days than others. Which research method has she used? a. Ethnography b. Survey c. Experimental method d. Archival analysis

d. Archival analysis

A debate breaks out at the town hall meeting over whether local real estate taxes should be raised to pay for a new public school building. Which of the following individuals is most likely to process the persuasive information raised during this debate through the peripheral route? a. Gob, who has no school-aged children of his own and owns no real estate b. Lindsay, whose daughter still has 3 years left of public school c. Michael, who is a real estate executive whose business is affected by local tax rates d. Buster, a local teacher, who is working in a temporary classroom because the current school building is too small for the number of students enrolled

d. Buster, a local teacher, who is working in a temporary classroom because the current school building is too small for the number of students enrolled

Paige wants to buy a puppy. She does some research and decides to buy an English Springer Spaniel rather than a Great Dane because they are smaller, more active, and good with children. Which type of attitude influenced her decision? a. Affectively based attitude b. Behaviorally based attitude c. Explicitly based attitude d. Cognitively based attitude

d. Cognitively based attitude

Where do differences in holistic versus analytic thinking come from? a. Genetic differences between Asians and non-Asian Westerners b. Different educational systems in the East versus the West c. Different weather patterns in the East versus the West d. Different philosophical traditions of the East versus the West

d. Different philosophical traditions of the East versus the West

Jennifer and Nate are walking along the street when they see a man walk out of a convenience store clutching a bag. The owner of the store runs out and shouts for the man to stop and come back. Jennifer immediately assumes that there has been a robbery, whereas Nate immediately assumes that the man forgot to get his change and that the store owner wants to give it to him. What is the best explanation for why Jennifer and Nate interpreted this event differently? a. Jennifer and Nate were engaged in controlled thinking that resulted in different assumptions about what was going on. b. Jennifer and Nate have different personalities. c. Jennifer and Nate fell prey to the self-fulfilling prophecy. d. Different schemas were accessible in Jennifer and Nate's minds, perhaps because they had different recent experiences that primed different schemas

d. Different schemas were accessible in Jennifer and Nate's minds, perhaps because they had different recent experiences that primed different schemas

The correlational method is best at answering which of these questions? a. How polite are people in public places? b. Are people from the southern United States more polite in public places than people from the northern United States? c. What makes people act politely or rudely in public places? d. Does music played in department stores influence how polite people are in those stores?

d. Does music played in department stores influence how polite people are in those stores?

The experimental method is best at answering which of these questions? a. How aggressively do people drive during rush hours in major U.S. cities? b. Are people who play violent video games more likely to drive aggressively? c. Are people who play violent video games more likely to be rude to someone who cuts in line in front of them? d. Does playing violent video games cause people to be more rude to someone who cuts in line in front of them?

d. Does playing violent video games cause people to be more rude to someone who cuts in line in front of them?

According to the social cognition approach, a. People almost always form accurate impressions about the social world. b. People rarely form accurate impressions of the social world. c. When viewing the social world, people's main goal is to feel good about themselves. d. Even when people are trying to perceive the social world as accurately as they can, there are many ways in which they can go wrong, ending up with the wrong impressions.

d. Even when people are trying to perceive the social world as accurately as they can, there are many ways in which they can go wrong, ending up with the wrong impressions.

Suppose that your friend Meghan says, "If I get less than 8 hours of sleep, I'm in a terrible mood the next day." Based on research in social psychology, what is the best conclusion about her statement? a. She is probably right because people generally know why they feel the way they do. b. She is probably wrong because people rarely know why they feel the way they do. c. She is likely to be right only if she first made a list of all the reasons why she is in a good mood or bad mood on a typical day. d. Her statement is probably based on a causal theory that may or may not be true.

d. Her statement is probably based on a causal theory that may or may not be true.

According to research in social psychology, why do many people believe that their horoscopes are accurate descriptions of who they are and what is likely to happen to them? a. Horoscopes are written in a vague way so that most people view them as representative of their personalities and past behaviors. b. Horoscopes trigger automatic decision making. c. People find it difficult to bring to mind examples that are similar to the horoscope. d. Horoscopes automatically prime people's life goals.

d. Horoscopes automatically prime people's life goals.

Which of the following is the best example of a self-fulfilling prophecy? a. A teacher believes that boys are better at math than girls, but boys in his class do worse than girls in math. b. Bob thinks that members of the Alpha Beta Psi sorority are unfriendly and snobby. Whenever he meets members of this sorority, they are friendly toward him. c. Sarah is worried that her son is not gifted in music, but he does better at his piano lessons than she expected. d. Jill thinks her daughter is not a good reader and doesn't spend much time reading to her. As a result her daughter falls behind in reading at school.

d. Jill thinks her daughter is not a good reader and doesn't spend much time reading to her. As a result her daughter falls behind in reading at school.

Which of the following is the best example of a deliberative behavior? a. Buying a candy bar from the rack next to the check-out line at the grocery store b. Telling a salesman who calls you on the phone that you aren't interested in the item he's selling c. Deciding at the last minute to skip a class because your friends just told you that they're going to a movie you want to see d. Making a decision regarding where you want to travel over your next vacation break

d. Making a decision regarding where you want to travel over your next vacation break

What is the "hypocrisy paradigm" in experimental research? a. Choosing participants who are hypocrites in order to study their rationalizations. b. Requiring participants to write essays that are critical of hypocrisy. c. Making participants understand that everyone is a hypocrite. d. Making participants aware of their own hypocrisy in not practicing what they preach.

d. Making participants aware of their own hypocrisy in not practicing what they preach.

Which of the following statements is least true, according to research on self-knowledge? a. The best way to "know thyself" is to look inward, introspecting about ourselves. b. Sometimes the best way to know ourselves is to see what we do. c. We often try to figure out ourselves by comparing ourselves to others. d. One way we know ourselves is by using theories we learn from our culture.

d. One way we know ourselves is by using theories we learn from our culture.

According to this chapter, which is the best analogy to describe people's thinking abilities? a. People are cognitive misers. b. People are motivated tacticians. c. People are skilled detectives. d. People are flawed scientists

d. People are flawed scientists

What is a major assumption of Kelley's covariation model of attribution? a. We make quick attributions after observing one instance of someone's behavior. b. People make causal attributions using cultural schemas. c. People infer the cause of others' behaviors through introspection. d. People gather information to make causal attributions rationally and logically.

d. People gather information to make causal attributions rationally and logically.

Which of the following is most true? a. Every member of a Western culture has an independent view of the self, and every member of an Asian culture has an interdependent view of the self. b. Members of Western cultures are more likely to have an interdependent sense of self than are members of Asian cultures. c. People with independent selves can easily appreciate what it is like to have an interdependent self. d. People who live in parts of the United States and Canada that were settled by Europeans more recently have more of an independent sense of self than people who live in parts of those countries that were settled earlier.

d. People who live in parts of the United States and Canada that were settled by Europeans more recently have more of an independent sense of self than people who live in parts of those countries that were settled earlier.

Which of the following concepts relates to the ironic research finding that the stronger the warning against a certain attitude or behavior, the more people sometimes wish to exhibit it? a. Attitude inoculation b. Peer pressure c. Implicit attitude d. Reactance theory

d. Reactance theory

Research indicates that which of the following candidates would be most likely to win a political election? a. Denise, whose face other people often perceive as indicating a warm personality b. Theo, who many people believe is gay based only on his facial appearance c. Vanessa, who has large eyes, a high forehead, and a small, child-like nose d. Rudy, whose face is usually seen by others as indicating a cold, calculating, and powerful personality

d. Rudy, whose face is usually seen by others as indicating a cold, calculating, and powerful personality

2. Which of the following is not a function of the self? a. Self-knowledge b. Self-control c. Impression management d. Self-criticism

d. Self-criticism

All of the following are examples of an internal attribution except for which one? a. After winning close to $100 playing poker, Fred explains that he's always been a skilled gambler. b. Velma blames her poor grade on her biology exam on the idea that she's never been good at taking multiple-choice exams. c. Daphne thinks that the reason her brother is never able to hold a steady job is that he's lazy and quick to get angry with others. d. Shaggy says that the only reason for his recent van accident is that the road he was traveling on that day was wet from a recent rainfall

d. Shaggy says that the only reason for his recent van accident is that the road he was traveling on that day was wet from a recent rainfall

Elise wants to increase her ability at self-control, such as by spending more time studying. Which of the following is most likely to work? a. When she is studying, she should try hard to suppress thoughts about the party she could have gone to. b. Just before it is time for her to study, she should do something that requires a lot of concentration, such as a difficult puzzle. c. She should eat a small, sugary snack before studying. d. She should adopt the belief that willpower is an unlimited resource.

d. She should adopt the belief that willpower is an unlimited resource.

Suppose you are trying to raise money for your favorite charity and you set up a table in the lobby of a campus building. Which of the following is likely to increase the likelihood that passersby will donate money? a. Give them a light clipboard with information about your charity. b. Ask people to hold a cold bottle of water while they listen to what you have to say. c. Show them pictures of Japanese cities so that they think holistically. d. Spray some citrus-scented cleaning solution on the table

d. Spray some citrus-scented cleaning solution on the table

Over Thanksgiving break, your parents ask you if you can think of 12 reasons why your college is better than its arch rival. You find it hard to come up with many reasons and end up thinking, "Hmm, maybe the schools aren't all that different." Which of the following mental strategies did you probably use to reach this conclusion? a. The representativeness heuristic b. Base rate information c. The anchoring and adjustment heuristic d. The availability heuristic

d. The availability heuristic

Briñol and Petty (2003) conducted a study in which participants tried on headphones while listening to a persuasive editorial. Half of the participants shook their heads side-to-side while listening; the other half nodded up-and-down while listening. Which group of participants expressed the greatest agreement with the arguments expressed in the editorial at the end of the study? a. The head-shakers who heard weak arguments in the editorial b. The head-shakers who heard strong arguments in the editorial c. The head-nodders who heard weak arguments in the editorial d. The head-nodders who heard strong arguments in the editorial

d. The head-nodders who heard strong arguments in the editorial

What does the Wall Street Game reveal about personality and situation? a. Competitive people will compete fiercely no matter what a game is called. b. Cooperative people will try hard to get competitive opponents to work with them. c. The name of the game makes no difference in how people play the game. d. The name of the game strongly influences how people play the game.

d. The name of the game strongly influences how people play the game.

Which of the following is true about new frontiers in social psychological research? a. Social psychologists are interested in the role of culture but not in evolutionary processes. b. Social psychologists are interested in evolutionary processes but not the role of culture. c. Social psychologists use functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to correlate different kinds of brain activity with social information processing. d. The purpose of cross-cultural research is to show that all social psychological findings are universal with no cultural variations.

d. The purpose of cross-cultural research is to show that all social psychological findings are universal with no cultural variations.

A researcher wants to see whether people are more likely to donate money to a charity when they receive a small gift from that charity. She sends an appeal for money from the charity to 1,000 people. For half of the people (randomly chosen) the letter includes free address labels and for half it does not. The researcher then sees whether those who got the address labels donate more money. Which of the following is true about this study? a. It uses the correlational method. b. The independent variable is whether people got address labels and the dependent variable is how much money they donate. c. The independent variable is how much money people donate and the dependent variable is whether they got address labels. d. The study is low in internal validity because the people who got the address labels may differ in other ways from the people who did not.

d. The study is low in internal validity because the people who got the address labels may differ in other ways from the people who did not.

All of the following except one are part of the guidelines for ethical research. Which is not? a. All research is reviewed by an IRB (institutional review board) that consists of at least one scientist, one nonscientist, and one person unaffiliated with the institution. b. A researcher receives informed consent from a participant unless deception is deemed necessary and the experiment meets ethical guidelines. c. When deception is used in a study, participants must be fully debriefed. d. There must be a cover story for every study, because all studies involve some type of deception.

d. There must be a cover story for every study, because all studies involve some type of deception.

What do social psychology and sociology have in common? a. They both examine demographic trends in society. b. They both study national institutions. c. They both are concerned with personality differences. d. They both are concerned with group processes.

d. They both are concerned with group processes.

Which of the following is the most accurate conclusion based on the Jones and Harris (1967) Castro essay study? a. When a target's behavior is forced, perceivers do not attribute it to any sort of internal cause. b. We are less generous with ourselves when making attributions for negative events than we are when others are the actors. c. We are more likely to make an internal attribution for a chosen action versus a forced action. d. We are more likely to make an internal attribution when the actor in question is perceptually salient.

d. We are more likely to make an internal attribution when the actor in question is perceptually salient.

Eleanor gets a bad grade on the first paper in her English class. To predict whether she will drop the course or stick with it, which question would a social psychologist be most likely to ask? a. How did she score on a personality test of persistence? b. How did she do in the English class she took the previous semester? c. What were her SAT scores? d. What is her explanation for why she got the bad grade?

d. What is her explanation for why she got the bad grade?

Suppose that while you are watching a film at a movie theater the words "Drink Coke" are flashed on the screen at speeds too quick for you to see consciously. According to research on subliminal perception, which of the following is true? a. You will get up and buy a Coke, but only if other people start to do so first. b. You will get up and buy a Coke, but only if you prefer Coke to Pepsi. c. You will be less likely to get up and buy a Coke. d. You will be no more likely to buy a Coke than if the subliminal messages were not flashed.

d. You will be no more likely to buy a Coke than if the subliminal messages were not flashed.

What central motives influence the way we construe the world? a. The need to maintain self-esteem. b. The need to be accurate in our perceptions and decisions. c. The need for self-expression. d. a and b. e. a and c.

d. a and b. e. a and c.

Suppose a psychologist decides to join a local commune to understand and observe its members' social relationships. This is a. cross-cultural research. b. applied research. c. an experiment. d. ethnography.

d. ethnography.

Which of the following is true about evolutionary psychology? a. natural selection works differently in humans than other animals b. it is easy to test evolutionary hypotheses by doing experiments c. most social behaviors are genetically determined with little influence by the social environment d. evolutionary approaches can generate novel hypotheses about social behavior that can then be tested with experiments

d. evolutionary approaches can generate novel hypotheses about social behavior that can then be tested with experiments

In Miller's (1984) cross-cultural investigation of attribution style in the United States and India, a. among young children, Americans were more likely to make external attributions, and Indians were more likely to make internal attributions, but few cultural differences emerged with adult participants. b. among young children, Americans were more likely to make internal attributions, and Indians were more likely to make external attributions, but few cultural differences emerged with adult participants. c. few cultural differences emerged with children, but among adults, Americans were more likely to make external attributions, and Indians were more likely to make internal attributions. d. few cultural differences emerged with young children, but among adults, Americans were more likely to make internal attributions, and Indians were more likely to make external attributions.

d. few cultural differences emerged with young children, but among adults, Americans were more likely to make internal attributions, and Indians were more likely to make external attributions.

Professor X wants to make sure his study of gifted youngsters will get published, but he's worried that his findings could have been caused by something other than the independent variable, which was a new teaching method he introduced. He is concerned with the ________ his experiment. a. probability level b. external validity c. replication d. internal validity

d. internal validity

After spending 2 years of tedious work fixing up an old house themselves, Abby and Brian are even more convinced that they made the right choice to buy the place. Their feelings are an example of a. counterattitudinal behavior. b. insufficient punishment. c. the Ben Franklin effect. d. justifying their effort.

d. justifying their effort.

Although he claims to hate reality television, Simon never misses an episode of Hoarders. Simon's behavior (i.e., watching Hoarders) is a. high in distinctiveness. b. low in distinctiveness. c. low in consensus. d. low in consistency.

d. low in consistency.

"Naïve realism" refers to the fact that a. most people are naïve (uneducated) about psychology. b. few people are realistic. c. most people would rather be naïve than accurate. d. most people believe they perceive things accurately

d. most people believe they perceive things accurately

The basic tenet of terror management theory is that a. people are becoming increasingly narcissistic. b. it is important for governments to protect its citizens from terrorist attacks. c. people are less terrified of dying if they are religious. d. self-esteem protects people against thoughts about their own mortality.

d. self-esteem protects people against thoughts about their own mortality.

For social psychologists, the likely explanation of the mass suicide at Jonestown was a. members of the cult were mentally unstable or clinically depressed. b. the cult leader used hypnotism or drugs to coerce his followers into obedience. c. processes that could ensnare almost any healthy person. d. the open, welcoming nature of the cult that made members feel it was safe to obey their leader.

d. the open, welcoming nature of the cult that made members feel it was safe to obey their leader.

Darwin's evolutionary perspective on nonverbal communication of emotion led him to predict that facial expressions were a. specific to particular cultures. b. related to physiological reactions that proved to be a useful way to respond to a particular type of stimulus. c. a way to increase but not decrease input through senses such as vision and smell. d. universal across all animal species.

d. universal across all animal species.

Briana undergoes treatment for drug addiction. After she leaves the clinic, Briana is most likely to stay off drugs if the treatment at the clinic was a. involuntary (she was ordered to undergo treatment) and a difficult ordeal. b. involuntary (she was ordered to undergo treatment) and an easy experience. c. voluntary (she chose to undergo treatment) and an easy experience. d. voluntary (she chose to undergo treatment) and a difficult ordeal.

d. voluntary (she chose to undergo treatment) and a difficult ordeal.

Which of the following research topics about violence is one that a social psychologist might investigate? a. how rates of violence change over time within a culture b. why murder rates vary across cultures c. brain abnormalities that produce aggression when a person is provoked d. why some situations are more likely to provoke aggression than others

d. why some situations are more likely to provoke aggression than others

postdecision dissonance

dissonance aroused after making a decision, typically reduced by enhancing the attractiveness of the chosen alternative and devaluating the rejected alternatives

attitudes

evaluations of people, objects, and ideas

field experiment

experiments conducted in natural settings rather than in the laboratory

debriefing

explaining to participants, at the end of an experiment, the true purpose of the study and exactly what transpired

self-serving attributions

explanations for one's successes that credit internal, dispositional factors and explanations for one's failures that blame external, situational factors

affect blends

facial expressions in which one part of the face registers one emotion while another part of the face registers a different emotion

social cognition

how people think about themselves and the social world; more specifically, how people select, interpret, remember, and use social information to make judgments and decisions

base rate information

information about the frequency of members of different categories in the population

attitude inoculation

making people immune to attempts to change their attitudes by initially exposing them to small doses of the arguments against their position

internal validity

making sure that nothing besides the independent variable can affect the dependent variable; this is accomplished by controlling all extraneous variables and by randomly assigning people to different experimental conditions

judgmental heuristics

mental shortcuts people use to make judgments quickly and efficiently

schemas

mental structures people use to organize their knowledge about the social world around themes or subjects and that influence the information people notice, think about, and remember

counteractual thinking

mentally changing some aspect of the past as a way of imagining what might have been

deception

misleading participants about the true purpose of a study or the events that will actually transpire

emblems

nonverbal gestures that have well-understood definitions within a given culture; they usually have direct verbal translations, such as the OK sign

the problem with asking people why did they behave the way they did?

people are often unaware of the reasons behind their own responses and feelings. Justification might not be the reason.

self-esteem

people's evaluations of their own self-worth—that is, the extent to which they view themselves as good, competent, and decent

implementation intentions

people's specific plans about where, when, and how they will fulfill a goal and avoid temptations

fear-arousing communication

persuasive message that attempts to change people's attitudes by arousing their fears

replications

repeating a study, often with different subject populations or in different settings

cross-cultural research

research conducted with members of different cultures, to see whether the psychological processes of interest are present in both cultures or whether they are specific to the culture in which people were raised

surveys

research in which a representative sample of people are asked (often anonymously) questions about their attitudes or behavior

performance-contingent rewards

rewards that are based on how well we perform a task

task-contingent rewards

rewards that are given for performing a task, regardless of how well the task is done

cross-cultural research

sharpens theories, either by demonstrating their universality or by leading us to discover additional variables that help us improve our understanding and prediction of human behavior.

applied research

studies designed to solve a particular social problem

basic research

studies that are designed to find the best answer to the question of why people behave as they do and that are conducted purely for reasons of intellectual curiosity

self-control

the ability to subdue immediate desires to achieve long-term goals

impression management

the attempt by people to get others to see them as they want to be seen

evolutionary psychology

the attempt to explain social behavior in terms of genetic factors that have evolved over time according to the principles of natural selection

peripheral route to persuasion

the case in which people do not elaborate on the arguments in a persuasive communication but are instead swayed by more superficial cues

central route persuasion

the case in which people have both the ability and the motivation to elaborate on a persuasive communication, listening carefully to and thinking about the arguments presented

self-fulfilling prophecy

the case wherein people have an expectation about what another person is like, which influences how they act toward that person, which causes that person to behave consistently with people's original expectations, making the expectations come true

narcissism

the combination of excessive self-love and a lack of empathy toward others

naïve realism

the conviction that we perceive things "as they really are," underestimating how much we are interpreting or "spinning" what we see

extrinsic motivation

the desire to engage in an activity because of external rewards or pressures, not because we enjoy the task or find it interesting

intrinsic motivation

the desire to engage in an activity because we enjoy it or find it interesting, not because of external rewards or pressures

cognitive dissonance

the discomfort that people feel when they behave in ways that threaten their self-esteem

insufficient punishment

the dissonance aroused when individuals lack sufficient external justification for having resisted a desired activity or object, usually resulting in individuals devaluing the forbidden activity or object

social influence

the effect that the words, actions, or mere presence of other people have on our thoughts, feelings, attitudes, or behavior

distinctiveness information

the extent to which a particular actor behaves in the same way toward different stimuli

consensus information

the extent to which other people behave the same way toward the same stimulus as the actor does

accessibility

the extent to which schemas and concepts are at the forefront of people's minds and are therefore likely to be used when making judgments about the social world

consistency information

the extent to which the behavior between one actor and one stimulus is the same across time and circumstances

psychological realism

the extent to which the psychological processes triggered in an experiment are similar to psychological processes that occur in everyday life

external validity

the extent to which the results of a study can be generalized to other situations and to other people

growth mindset

the idea that achievement is the result of hard work, trying new strategies, and seeking input from others

two-factor theory of emotion

the idea that emotional experience is the result of a two-step self-perception process in which people first experience physiological arousal and then seek an appropriate explanation for it

self-affirmation theory

the idea that people can reduce threats to their self-esteem by affirming themselves in areas unrelated to the source of the threat

theory of planned behavior

the idea that people's intentions are the best predictors of their deliberate behaviors, which are determined by their attitudes toward specific behaviors, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control

fixed mindset

the idea that we have a set amount of an ability that cannot change

social comparison theory

the idea that we learn about our own abilities and attitudes by comparing ourselves to other people

reactance theory

the idea that when people feel their freedom to perform a certain behavior is threatened, an unpleasant state of resistance is aroused, which they can reduce by performing the prohibited behavior

self-awareness theory

the idea that when people focus their attention on themselves, they evaluate and compare their behavior to their internal standards and values

internal attribution

the inference that a person is behaving in a certain way because of something about the person, such as attitude, character, or personality

the major difference between sociology and social psychology

the level of analysis is the group, institution, or society at large, whereas the level of analysis in social psychology is the individual within a group, institution, or society.

ethnography

the method by which researchers attempt to understand a group or culture by observing it from the inside, without imposing any preconceived notions they might have

self-concept

the overall set of beliefs that people have about their personal attributes

classical conditioning

the phenomenon whereby a stimulus that elicits an emotional response is repeatedly paired with a neutral stimulus that does not, until the neutral stimulus takes on the emotional properties of the first stimulus

operant conditioning

the phenomenon whereby behaviors we freely choose to perform become more or less frequent, depending on whether they are followed by a reward or punishment

priming

the process by which recent experiences increase the accessibility of a schema, trait, or concept

social tuning

the process whereby people adopt another person's attitudes

ingratiation

the process whereby people flatter, praise, and generally try to make themselves likable to another person, often of higher status

introspection

the process whereby people look inward and examine their own thoughts, feelings, and motives

misattribution of arousal

the process whereby people make mistaken inferences about what is causing them to feel the way they do

internal justification

the reduction of dissonance by changing something about oneself (e.g., one's attitude or behavior)

social psychology

the scientific study of the way in which people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the real or imagined presence of other people

perceptual salience

the seeming importance of information that is the focus of people's attention

self-handicapping

the strategy whereby people create obstacles and excuses for themselves so that if they do poorly on a task, they can avoid blaming themselves

social perception

the study of how we form impressions of and make inferences about other people

personality psychology

the study of the characteristics that make individuals unique and different from one another

observational method

the technique whereby a researcher observes people and systematically records measurements or impressions of their behavior

correlational method

the technique whereby two or more variables are systematically measured and the relationship between them (i.e., how much one can be predicted from the other) is assessed

justification of effort

the tendency for individuals to increase their liking for something they have worked hard to attain

hindsight bias

the tendency for people to exaggerate, after knowing that something occurred, how much they could have predicted it before it occurred

overjustification effect

the tendency of people to view their behavior as caused by compelling extrinsic reasons, making them underestimate the extent to which it was caused by intrinsic reasons

fundamental attribution error

the tendency to overestimate the extent to which people's behavior is due to internal, dispositional factors and to underestimate the role of situational factors

belief perseverance

the tendency to stick with an initial judgement even in the face of new information that should prompt us to reconsider

bias blind spot

the tendency to think that other people are more susceptible to attributional biases in their thinking than we are

terror management theory

the theory that holds that self-esteem serves as a buffer, protecting people from terrifying thoughts about their own mortality

basic dilemma of the social psychologists

the trade-off between internal and external validity in conducting research; it is very difficult to do one experiment that is both high in internal validity and generalizable to other situations and people

independent variable

the variable a researcher changes or varies to see if it has an effect on some other variable

dependent variable

the variable a researcher measures to see if it is influenced by the independent variable; the researcher hypothesizes that the dependent variable will depend on the level of the independent variable

nonverbal communication

the way in which people communicate, intentionally or unintentionally, without words; nonverbal cues include facial expressions, tone of voice, gestures, body position and movement, the use of touch, and gaze

construal

the way in which people perceive, comprehend, and interpret the social world.

empirical questions

their answers should be derived from experimentation or measurement rather than by personal opinion

casual theories

theories about the causes of one's own feelings and behaviors; often we learn such theories from our culture (e.g., "absence makes the heart grow fonder")

controlled thinking

thinking that is conscious, intentional, voluntary, and effortful

encode

to express or emit nonverbal behavior, such as smiling or patting someone on the back

decode

to interpret the meaning of the nonverbal behavior other people express, such as deciding that a pat on the back was an expression of condescension and not kindness

the task of social psychologists...

to understand and predict human behavior

primary effect

when it comes to forming impressions, the first traits we perceive in others influence how we view information that we learn about them later

subliminal messages

words or pictures that are not consciously perceived but may nevertheless influence people's judgments, attitudes, and behaviors