Social psych exam 2
Cross-cultural research has shown that Piaget's four developmental stages
occur in the same sequence in every culture
If he were alive today, Vygotsky would identify the smartphone as a(n) ____ in modern America.
tool of intellectual adaptation
tertiary circular reactions
(18-24 months) Children start mental experiments, imagining what would happen if they did something
Coordinated secondary reactions
(8-12 months) children begin to plan and intend on their thoughts. Can think about 2 or more actions required to do something. Crawl over then and then get keys.
Episodic Memory
(Event memory) Memory for personal events in life ́ Involves mental "time travel" ́ Mentally try to recreate the past event ́Like remembering your first kiss
Semantic Memory
(Factual recall) ́General knowledge ́ Does not require mental time travel ́Like remembering who was the first president of the USA?
Explain egocentrism
At this point children view the world from their own perspective, but have trouble recognizing others point of views
Weiner's Attribution Model
Attributions depend on the individuals' point of control and stability of the outcome
Phase 2 (2 -3 years): Approval Seeking
Still try to achieve things, now want confirmation and approval.
Scaffolding
Tendency to tailor support to a learner near the limit of capability
How is achievement motivation measured?
The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) ́ A projective test ́ Write short stories about a few pictures
primary circular reactions
These are a Childs first motor habits. Includes repetitive, pleasurable, and self stimulating. Can include sucking on thumb, babbling, and cooing.
elaborative rehearsal
Try to find meaningful connections and patterns ́Organizes information into meaningful chunks
Working Memory
Use of executive functions with info in short-term memory
Long-term Memory
Vast and relatively permanent ́Not all long-term memories are equally long-term
maintenance rehearsal
When young children attempt to remember each item individually, they can use maintenance rehearsal, which is based on rehearsal.
A five-year-old describes going to the dentist as, "You get in the car, drive there, get out, go inside, wait, get in the dental chair, get teeth fixed, jump from the chair, walk to the car, and go home." This is an example of
a memory script
In terms of intelligence, g-factor refers to
an underlying general ability that applies to all types of test performance
A four-year-old tells her mother, "The telephone is angry at you because you were preapproved and didn't call back." Attributing emotions to the telephone illustrates ____ in the child's thinking
animism
In the classic test of conservation that involves pouring a tall glass of liquid into a shorter glass, preschoolers don't achieve conservation because they
become centrated on height.
Entity Theories vs. Incremental theories about Ability
believe that talent is something you are born with, you have it or don't. vs. belief that any ability can be improved with practice and hardworking
When the child's selective attention is poor, then it may be anticipated that the child
can be easily distracted.
Internal vs. External Attributions
caused by the individual vs. caused by the task or situation
The goal of Alfred Binet's first intelligence test was to identify
children who needed remedial instruction
Cultural differences in teaching math (USA vs. Asia)
different organizational strategies for learning math ́Linguistic Supports ́Language for numbers more intuitive Color codes in math textbooks to help track calculation steps
Free-recall
general question ́ Difficult for young children ́"What did you learn in school today?"... "Nothing"
Cued recall
given specific cues. ́ Easy for young children ́ "What did you work oninmathclass?".... " Oh today we did multiplication tables"
The egocentrism of adolescence occurs in the form of personal self-consciousness. This is best seen in the notion of
imaginary audience.
Dino, age 10, has read every dinosaur book in all the local libraries, and he has seen every TV show and movie about dinosaurs. When his class studies dinosaurs, Dino learns the new material faster than his peers. This illustrates the importance of ____ for memory.
knowledge base
How do we gain knowledge through schemas ?
mental concepts that provide understanding of the world
According to the adaptive strategy choice model, the level of sophistication of a chosen strategy will depend on age, experience, and information-processing ability. However, the less sophisticated fall-back strategies will be chosen when
new, unfamiliar problems are presented.
Decenting
now able to understand more than 1 thing at a time. Just because a dime is smaller doesn't mean its value ALSO is.
Selective attention• Changes between ages 7 and 13
older children ignore the irrelevant info and Young children (up to age 7) paid more attention to the irrelevant information
Stable vs. Unstable
outcomes unlikely to change vs outcomes could change
With regard to the use of mental strategies, ____ deficiency means that the child does not discover a suitable strategy to accomplish a particular task.
production
A child who makes the "A-not-B error" with hidden/lost objects will
search for a hidden object where she previously found it even after she saw it get moved to a new location
S-factor vs. g-factors of intelligence
specific forms of intelligence like verbal and math ability vs. general form of intelligence that was related to all other abilities
Piaget is credited for pioneering the field of genetic epistemology, which could be defined as the study of the
the origin and development of knowledge
The false-belief task can be used to assess children's
theory of mind.
The main difference between primary and secondary circular reactions is
whether the action is toward the infant or an object.
What is most closely related to the g-factor?
fluid intelligence
What is "circular" about a Piagetian circular reaction?
"Circular" means that the action is repetitious.
Fluid vs. Crystallized intelligence
Ability to solve novel and abstract problems Adaptable intelligence vs. Ability to solve problems apply prior knowledge ́Crystallized intelligence can increase throughout life
Global vs. Specific
Am I making an attribution true for me about everything, or if you failed at that same thing is it limited to that
Single vs. Multicomponent view
Belief that intelligence is a single trait ́A highly intelligent person could learn anything better than a less intelligent person vs. Belief there are multiple forms of intelligence ́A person could be highly intelligent in some ways, but low in intelligence other ways
What is Piaget known for?
Believed children were born as blank slates, and build knowledge. Known as the constructivist approach. Lastly for the stages of development. Where children go through specific changes of development.
Infantile amnesia
Capable of long-term memory prior to age 3, but... ́Unable to recall episodic memories from prior to age 3 ́Limited concept of self prior to age 3
Irreversibility(2-6)
Children are able to understand they have a brother as a sibling, but unable to understand their brother has a brother.
Centration(2-6)
Children can only focus on one aspect of an object at a time. (As an example nickles are larger than dimes, so children think they are worth more)
concrete operational stage(6-11)
Children can understand relationships between physical objects. At this the they understand the principle of conservation.
What is going on during the sensorimotor period?
Children have no prior knowledge, they only know basic reflexes.
formal operational stage(11-12+)
Children now have an understanding of logic, such as algebra.
Reversibility (6-11)
Children now understand that not only do they have a brother, but they are their brothers brother. Unlike those (3-5)
What is happening during the preoperational period
Children understand symbolic function. One thing can mean another. Self awareness, language acquisition, and theory of mind develop. Children become confused between reality and imagination
Information-Processing
Childrenas "learning machines" ́ Brains are similar to computer hardware ́Cognitionis similar to software (strategies for problem-solving)
How cognitive development could influence teenage emotions
Common adolescent belief that others are paying attention to and evaluating them. Improved perspective taking used to think about how other people are judging you compared to others. Linked to social status competitions common during adolescence
Correlation with IQ?
Correlations between childhood and adult IQ improves with age
The Developmental Quotient
DQ estimates rank compared to average infant of same age ́ But.... DQ is a poor predictor of childhood IQ
Sensory Memory
Detects and holds raw sensory input ́ Info from all senses processed simultaneously ́However, can only pay attention to limited sensory info
Zones of proximal development
Difference between what a learner can do independently and what can be done with guidance
Cultural differences in Piaget's stages of cognitive development?
Differences in formal operations also found within culture. ́Differences informal operations for different college majors. ́Formal logic in political science may be hard for an engineer to understand and vice versa
The Three-stratum theory
Different layers of intelligence ́ g at top of pyramid(first stratum) ́ Eight broad abilities at second stratum ́Narrow third-stratum abilities
Utilization Deficiencies
Fail to benefit immediately from a newly trained strategy ́ Use the wrong strategy ́ Even when a better strategy was previously learned
Production Deficiencies
Fail to produce effective problem-solving strategies ́Use the wrong strategy ́ Fail to give up on ineffective strategies ́ Because a better strategy isn't known
Deferred imitation
First display of episodic memory ́ Must remember an event in order to imitate it later ́ Infants capable of deferred imitation months later
How would Piaget explain how we gain knowledge
Have a schema, then use organization to combine existing or add new schemas. Then mental schemas are adjusted to fit the environment using adaptation. Children can assimilate, and add new information into existing schemas. Or they can Accommodate, and change their existing schemas for this new info
How cognitive development could influence sense of humor
Humor requires symbolic thought, it is based on perception or unusual things. Being able to understand a joke requires abilities like conservation, reversibility, or theory of mind
Internal vs. External Locus of Control
I can control myself vs. failures and successes are beyond my own control
What type of life outcomes does IQ predict?
IQ is related to occupational prestige/status ́Predicts job performance (.50) ́ Across a wide variety of occupations
Stability of IQ
IQ is relatively stable ́ High IQ children usually become high IQ adults ́ But, IQ can show large fluctuations thru childhood ́ 50% of people had IQ scores varying by 20 points between years
Changes in "Hardware": Bandwidth (attention)
Improvements in attention span due to enhanced myelinationofcentral nervous system
The information-processing perspective compares cognitive development to...
Improving a computer's hardware and software
Tools of intellectual adaptation
In cultures where majority of learning is done in schools ́Tools of intellectual adaptation promote success in schools ́(Pencils, books, computers) In cultures wheremajority of learning is done by observing ́Adults and children spend most of time together ́Children learn how to do daily tasks by watching adults ́Tools of intellectual adaption are the tools used for daily tasks ́Teaching is mostly non-verbal
Inhibitory control
Inability to suppress dominant responses •Limited until age 7
Psychometric view of intelligence
Intelligence as a trait (or set of traits) that differs among people ́A trait that can be systematically measured
Learned helplessness orientation
Internal, Stable, Global attributions for failures ́ "It's my fault" ́"I'm never going to be able to", ́"I am no good at anything"
Attribution Theory
It is how we explain our successes and failures to our self that can determine our future success and failures.
Short-term memory
Limited information (5-9 pieces) ́ About 20 seconds, info is lost if we do nothing with the info
Why do children show deficient problem-solving?
Maybe cognitive limitations Maybe new strategies used to understand why some solutions don't work• Learning from failures
Which maturational change has been identified as the source of age-related improvements in children's processing speed?
Myelinization of the brain's associative areas
Phase 3 (4 and up): Use of standards
Now children can use a standard against themselves. I am proud of myself if I can do something as well as others.
What does the development of schemas lead to?
Object permanence, problem solving abilities, and imitation of novel behaviors
Chunking
Organizing information into meaningful patterns or "chunks" ́ Can remember 7 plus or minus 2 "chunks" of information
How parents help children develop autobiographical memories
Parents helps shape autobiographical memories ́ Parents discuss events with children ́ Cued recall ́"Did you have fun at Disneyworld? Which ride was your favorite?"
What does the Thematic Apperception Test predict?
People high achievement motivation should write more stories about "accomplishments" ́People high affiliation-motivation should write more stories about "love" ́People high power motivation should write more stories about "control"
The most widely used measure of infant intelligence is DQ (developmental quotient). The most widely used method to measure intelligence in adults and children is IQ (intelligence quotient). How well does DQ in infants predict IQ in children and adults?
Poorly: because DQ and IQ measure different abilities
Why is process praise recommended over person (trait) praise?
Praising traits are more likely to lead to entity beliefs ́If they encounter difficulties later, may conclude that they are not "smart" anymore
Adaptive strategy choice model
Problem solving strategies do not occur in stages• May use simple and familiar strategies when faced with new problems •More sophisticate strategies used after more experience with the problem
Autobiographical memory
Recollection of events that belong to a person's past ́ Involves both episodic and semantic memory
Secondary reactions
Repetitive actions move from body to objects. For instance, shaking a rattle and pushing buttons to make sounds
Scripts
Schemas for recurring events ́ Predictable sequence of events ́"going to school" , "going to grandmas", "bedtime"
Phase 1 (1 -2 years): Joy in Mastery
Show visible pleasure achieving goals and learning new skills. Joy in doing things themselves.
Effects on Family and Friends on Zones of Proximal Development
Siblings ́Teach new skills through modeling or instruction More pretend play when playing with other than alone ́Mothers and fathers first play partners ́Pretend play enhances abilities for symbolic thought ́Using imagination is a boost to cognitive development
Changes in Hardware: Speed
Speed of cognitive processing increases throughout childhood and adolescence. Due to inncreased myelination of connections between associative (thinking) areas of the brain