Social Psychology EPPP Test Questions
The assumption that prejudice and discrimination are outgrowths of the drive to enhance one's own self-esteem is most consistent with the perspective of which theory? A. social identity theory B. social comparison C. self-perception theory D. self-verification theory
Correct Answer is: A According to Tajfel (1982), people strive to maintain and enhance their self-esteem, and this is associated with two components: personal and social identity. Social identity theory states that social identity, the aspect of self-esteem based on group membership, is enhanced by believing one's own group (the ingroup) is attractive and belittling the members of the other groups (the outgroups). Social comparison theory proposes people self-evaluate by comparing themselves with similar others when objective information is not available. Self-perception theory proposes when clear internal cues are absent, individuals infer feelings and beliefs by observed behavior or external cues. Self-verification theory proposes individuals need and seek confirmation of their self-concept, whether the confirmation is positive or negative.
A patient of yours seeks help because he is depressed over his failures to advance in his career. The learned helplessness model of depression would predict that, of the following, the patient is most likely to attribute his lack of advancement to A. a lack of ability. B. difficult work. C. demanding bosses. D. not working hard enough.
Correct Answer is: A According to the learned helplessness model, depression is associated with an attributional style whereby negative events are viewed as stable over time rather than transient, global rather than specific, and internal rather than external. Of the choices, only a lack of ability (correct answer) meets all three of these criteria.
The idea that watching violent television shows reduces aggressive impulses is predicted by A. catharsis theory. B. negative affect theory. C. the model of incompatible responses. D. the deindividuation model.
Correct Answer is: A The catharsis model of aggression holds that an aggressive act (or witnessing an aggressive act) can reduce a person's inclination to engage in other aggressive acts. The idea, first put forth by Dollard and his colleagues as an outgrowth of the frustration-aggression hypothesis, is that activities such as observing fictional violence or making hostile jokes could drain energy away from violent tendencies. However, this theory has not been supported by empirical research, which suggests that engaging in or witnessing aggression may actually increases aggressive behavior.
The phenomenon of "groupthink" which occurs in highly cohesive groups is characterized by A. group members' failure to analyze and evaluate their own decisions. B. group decisions that are more conservative than they otherwise would be. C. group behavior that results in greater positive outcomes for others not associated with the group. D. group members feeling more free to express their opinions than they would in less cohesive groups.
Correct Answer is: A The phenomenon of groupthink was studied extensively by Irving Janis, who developed the notion based on his post-hoc studies of poor decision-making in history. He defined groupthink as "a mode of thinking that people engage in when they are deeply involved in a cohesive in-group, when the members' strivings for unanimity override their motivation to realistically appraise alternative courses of action." In other words, in highly cohesive groups, groupthink occurs when group members are more concerned with agreeing with each other than acting rationally and evaluating alternatives. As stated by Janis' definition, groupthink involves the group's failure to analyze and evaluate its decisions. Other signs of groupthink include illusions of invulnerability that lead to more risky decisions than would otherwise be the case; fear among group members of expressing dissenting opinions; rationalizing warnings that challenge the group's assumptions; unquestioned belief in the goodness of the group; stereotyped beliefs about people who oppose the group; pressure for conformity; an illusion among group members that their beliefs are unanimous; and the emergence of self-appointed "mindguards", or group members who shield the group from dissenting information.
In the Prisoner's Dilemma game, it was found that people: A. compete from the beginning. B. cooperate initially but then compete. C. compete initially but later cooperate. D. cooperate from the beginning.
Correct Answer is: A This is a famous piece of social psychological research. People are presented with a situation where, if they cooperate, they each will receive moderate rewards. If they compete, one will receive a big reward and the other will receive nothing. What happens is that people tend to compete straight away. They take a risk. This supports the pessimistic view of human nature: outside of our family and reference group we tend to be suspicious and hostile.
According to social comparison theory, Select one: A. individuals look to similar others to validate their own opinions. B. individuals look to dissimilar others to validate their own opinions. C. individuals look to themselves to evaluate the opinions of similar others. D. individuals look to themselves to evaluate the opinions of similar and dissimilar others.
Correct Answer is: A According to Festinger's social comparison theory, individuals evaluate their own opinions, perceptions, reactions, and beliefs by comparing these opinions, etc., to those of individuals in a reference group. Members of this reference group are those who are similar to the perceiver in terms of beliefs, attitudes, and values.
An aggressive child was probably Select one: A. Spanked often and inconsistently B. Never given proper boundaries C. Spanked for specific naughty behaviors D. Encouraged to think about the end results of her behaviors
Correct Answer is: A According to Jerry Patterson and his colleagues, aggressive behavior often develops from the parent's style of parenting; an aggressive child's parent used lots of directives combined with inconsistent harsh physical punishment.
A peripheral message is more likely to alter a person's attitude if the receiver: Select one: A. feels happy B. feels bored C. feels angry D. devotes considerable thought to the content of the message
Correct Answer is: A According to the Elaboration Likelihood Model, persuasive messages can be communicated via a central route or a peripheral route. The central route is used when listeners think carefully about the contents of the message. When listeners do not think carefully about an argument's content, they rely more on superficial (peripheral) cues. Peripheral cues include the messengers' perceived attractiveness or expertise, and the receivers' mood. A positive mood, and in some cases fear, has been shown to increase the likelihood of attitude change. Advertisers and politicians often use strategies designed to elicit either a positive mood or fear in order to increase the persuasiveness of their message.
A man who is very shy goes out with a friend. Suddenly, a crowd breaks out into a riot and the man becomes very aggressive. This is an example of Select one: A. deindividuation. B. social power. C. social comparison. D. reactance.
Correct Answer is: A Deindividuation, which occurs under conditions of anonymity, refers to the loss of a person's identity and a loosening of normal restraints against deviant behavior. It has been offered as an explanation for mob violence, and it describes what is happening in the question. social power. Social power refers to the means by which a person is influenced by another (i.e., expert, legitimate, reward, coercive, or referent power). Here, the person is being influenced by a crowd rather than another individual, so deindividuation is a more accurate term. social comparison. Social comparison refers to the process by which we evaluate our opinions and abilities by comparing them to those of others. reactance. Reactance refers to the theory that a person will react against perceived threats to freedom by choosing a course of action that is the opposite of what he or she is being pressured to do.
Research on the relationship between group size and the size of tips in restaurants has lent credence to the construct of diffusion of responsibility in its findings that as group size increases, the average tip per customer Select one: A. decreases. B. increases. C. decreases only when diners are charged separately. D. increases only when diners are charged separately.
Correct Answer is: A Diffusion of responsibility refers to the notion that the presence of others reduces people's feeling of personal responsibility for events, as individuals tend to shift responsibility to others present. Both laboratory and field studies have shown that the presence of others does in fact reduce individual helping, charitable giving, task effort, and other types of non-mandatory giving behaviors, including restaurant tipping. The results of such studies are often explained as examples of diffusion of responsibility.
According to the recent U.S. Department of Justice's National Violence Against Women Study, ______________ females have the lowest lifetime rate of victimization by an intimate partner. Select one: A. Asian American B. American Indians/Alaska Natives C. African American D. White American
Correct Answer is: A Findings from the National Violence Against Women Study (July 2000) that Asian/Pacific Islander women reported significantly less intimate partner violence than women of other racial backgrounds with a lifetime victimization rate of 15%. It has been suggested that traditional Asian values emphasizing close family ties and harmony may discourage Asian women from disclosing physical and emotional abuse by intimates. Therefore, the lower rates may be partially due to under-reporting. American Indians/Alaska Native women* report the highest rates of intimate partner victimization with a lifetime rate of 37.5%. African American females* report a rate of 29.1% and White females*, 24.8% (* incorrect options). It is unclear how much of the difference between victimization rates among women of differing racial backgrounds may be explained by differences in willingness to report; by demographic, social, and environmental factors; and how much by actual victimization experiences.
You see an African-American client who tells you that he can't get anywhere in life due to racism, but then tells you "I get what I deserve." Based on this information, the client has a world view of Select one: A. external locus of control, internal locus of responsibility. B. external locus of control, external locus of responsibility. C. internal locus of control, internal locus of responsibility. D. internal locus of control, external locus of responsibility.
Correct Answer is: A J.B. Rotter identified internal-external locus of control as a personality trait of attributional tendency. People with an internal locus of control tend to view positive and negative outcomes as the result of their own actions; i.e., they believe they have control over their own fate. Those with an external locus of control view outside forces, such as luck, powerful external entities, or societal injustices, as in control over what happens to them. Derald Wing Sue identified locus of responsibility as an additional attributional tendency. People with an internal locus of responsibility credit or blame themselves for what happens to them; those with an external locus of responsibility place credit or blame with others. According to Sue, one's worldview can fall into one of four quadrants, based on different combinations of locus of control and locus of responsibility. Sue noted that the internal locus of control/internal locus of responsibility (IC-IR) is the world view considered normal and healthy in the dominant culture, but that this is not necessarily the case in minority cultures. In this question, the person sees the external force of racism as in control of his outcomes, yet he still apparently blames himself for what happens to him. Therefore, the best answer is that his worldview is external locus of control/internal locus of responsibility. Sue points out that this is the typical world view of "self-hating" minority group members; these are people who are marginalized by the dominant culture and attempt to fit in with both the dominant and the ethnic culture but fail to do so in both cases.
Jane describes her friend Mike to her other friend Mary, as "intelligent, hard-working, stubborn, and critical." A week later Mary is most likely to remember Mike as: Select one: A. intelligent B. hard-working C. stubborn D. critical
Correct Answer is: A Research has found that people are more likely to recall the first item (primacy effect) and the last item (recency effect) in a series of presented items. The relative magnitude of these two effects varies depending on the length of the time interval. Within the first few seconds after presentation of a series of items, the recency effect is more powerful. However, for longer intervals, the primacy effect has been shown to be stronger.
According to Self Verification Theory, a person who believes that he dances poorly would prefer to be told by friends: Select one: A. You are a pretty bad dancer B. You are not a bad dancer C. You should become a professional dancer D. nothing about dancing
Correct Answer is: A Self Verification theory proposes that people need and seek confirmation of their self-concept, regardless of whether their self-concept is positive or negative. Thus, people prefer to be right rather than happy. According to this theory, a person who dances poorly would prefer to be told so (assuming the other's evaluation matches the person's self evaluation).
Which of the following have NOT been associated with higher levels of sexual prejudice according to findings on heterosexuals' attitudes toward gays and lesbians? Select one: A. younger age B. male gender C. authoritarianism D. fundamentalist religious views
Correct Answer is: A Studies on heterosexuals attitudes toward gay and lesbians indicate that older age is predictive of higher levels of sexual prejudice along with high levels of authoritarianism*, fundamentalist religious views* and male gender*, especially toward gays (versus lesbians)
In order to increase the chances that Mary Ann is altruistic it would help if she Select one: A. has younger siblings. B. comes from a large extended family. C. is inherently wealthy. D. has at least one older sibling.
Correct Answer is: A This is one of those questions that would even cause social psychologists to despair. Nevertheless, a very similar question has been on the examination. Whiting and J. Whiting's study of six cultures. They found that responsibility for the welfare of others was the most important factor in the development of altruism
A person with high self-esteem is likely to make what type of attributions for his or her achievements? Select one: A. internal and specific B. internal and global C. external and specific D. external and global
Correct Answer is: A This question is related to Weiner's attributional theory of motivation and emotion. Attributions are our causal explanations for events and the behavior of ourselves and others. According to Weiner, attributions can be due to factors that are either internal or external, stable or unstable, controllable or uncontrollable, intentional or unintentional, and global or specific. Someone with high self-esteem would take credit for his or her achievements and be proud of them. Thus, he or she would likely attribute them to internal, stable, controllable, intentional, and specific causes. The attributions are most likely specific rather than global because a person with high self-esteem will acknowledge that he or she isn't successful in everything. For example, a very successful athlete or CEO would not assume proficiency in heart surgery.
After viewing sexually explicit films, men are more likely to do all of the following except: Select one: A. recommend more severe prison sentences for convicted rapists B. rape, when the films depict sexual coercion by a man over a woman and if the viewer was sure they would not get caught. C. rate their sexual partners as less attractive D. interpret a woman's friendliness as a sexual gesture.
Correct Answer is: A Viewing sexually explicit films, particularly those which depict violence against women, has been shown to have several negative effects on men. They are more likely to rate their sexual partners as less attractive and to interpret a woman's friendliness as a sexual gesture. If the film they viewed depicted a man sexually overpowering a woman, the men subsequently reported a greater likelihood of committing rape as long as they were sure they would not get caught. Contrary to this choice (recommend more severe prison sentences for convicted rapists ), the men were more likely to recommend a more lenient prison sentence for convicted rapists.
Experimenters find conformity is lowest when the: A. group size is reduced from 15 to 6. B. subject has a "partner" in the group who shares his or her opinion. C. subject is "deserted" by a partner. D. stimuli to be judged are highly ambiguous.
Correct Answer is: B Experimenters have found that just having a "partner" in a group liberates an individual to latch on to the partner and defy the wrong majority. Reducing the size isn't correct, since, if anything, reducing the size is likely to increase group cohesiveness and thereby increase conformity. The remaining choices also are incorrect because they would increase the pressure to conform.
A person calls into a radio talk show psychic, hears the psychic's reading and says "that is exactly my situation." This is NOT an example of: A. subjective validation B. functional fixedness C. the Barnum effect D. the Forer effect
Correct Answer is: B Functional fixedness refers to the tendency to think of objects only in terms of their usual functions. Subjective validation is the process of validating words, initials, statements or signs as accurate because one is able to find them personally meaningful and significant. The other two response choices are frequently used interchangeably to describe the tendency of people to accept vague and general personality descriptions as uniquely applicable to themselves without realizing that the same description could be applied to just about anyone. Specifically, the Barnum effect is the name given to a type of subjective validation in which a person finds personal meaning in statements that could apply to many people. The Forer effect refers to the tendency of people to rate such statements as highly accurate for them personally.
Several coworkers meet for lunch, during which, a couple of the employees express their frustration about their new supervisor. By the end of the lunch break all members of the group agreed that their supervisor is indeed "a jerk". This is an example of: A. social loafing B. group polarization C. social facilitation D. negative framing
Correct Answer is: B Group polarization is the tendency of individuals who start off with similar views to end up with a more extreme position after group discussion.
Which of the following would most likely improve the quality of decision making in a group? A. increasing the cohesiveness of the group B. decreasing the cohesiveness of the group C. increasing emphasis on group consensus D. use of a directive leader
Correct Answer is: B Groupthink is an intensive tendency to seek agreement among members of the group which often results in poor decision-making. You should be familiar with the factors which contribute to groupthink, which include high cohesiveness, homogeneous backgrounds and values, and a strong, directive leader. Since increasing cohesiveness increases the pressure to conform, it is likely that decreasing the cohesiveness of a group should decrease the pressure to conform. In some circumstances, seeking consensus or unanimity can actually improve decision-making; however, it often becomes detrimental when the drive for consensus prevents full consideration of alternative decisions.
Research on gender differences in judgments of sexual harassment indicate: A. men and women are equally as likely to judge a sexually-toned behavior as sexual harassment regardless of the severity of the behaviors. B. men and women are equally as likely to judge a sexually-toned behavior as sexual harassment but only in severe cases. C. men are more likely than women to judge a sexually-toned behavior as sexual harassment but only in severe cases. D. women are more likely than men to judge a sexually-toned behavior as sexual harassment regardless of the severity of the behaviors.
Correct Answer is: B Sexual harassment research has consistently found that males and females are equally as likely to judge a sexually-toned behavior as sexual harassment in severe cases; however, there are significant gender differences in judgments in mild to moderate cases of harassment. Studies have continually found females are more likely than males to rate mild to moderately severe or sexually-ambiguous behaviors as constituting sexual harassment.
The concept that individuals will work harder when alone than when in a group is called: A. group think B. social loafing C. social facilitation D. by-stander effect
Correct Answer is: B The question describes social loafing. The theory of social facilitation suggests the mere presence of others facilitates (enhances) performance. More specifically, if the dominant response is the right one, then the presence of others will enhance performance and when the dominant response is incorrect, the presence of others results in social inhibition.
Which of the following is related to minority influence? Select one: A. Ambiguity B. Idiosyncracy credits C. Conformity D. Psychological reactance
Correct Answer is: B According to Hollander (1985) in order to successfully challenge the majority opinions of a group, a person must first conform to the group in order to establish credibility as a competent insider. By becoming accepted members of the group, we accumulate idiosyncracy credits which are like brownie points.
Xandria's idea on how to solve a problem is at odds with how members of her team want to proceed. Research on minority influence suggests that Xandria will be most successful in convincing her fellow team members to see things her way if she: Select one: A. first agrees with their position and than gradually introduces her solution. B. introduces her solution and then firmly sticks to it. C. uses ingratiation to win the group leader over to her side. D. cashes in her "idiosyncracy credits."
Correct Answer is: B Although there is probably more than one way for Xandria to get her way, research on minority influence has found that firm, consistent commitment to a position is the best way to change the opinion of the majority.
Journal reviewers who show strong bias against manuscripts that report results contrary to their theoretical perspective are demonstrating: Select one: A. self-serving bias B. confirmatory bias C. fundamental attribution bias D. self verification theory
Correct Answer is: B Confirmatory bias or "confirmation bias" is the tendency to seek, interpret, and create information that verifies our existing beliefs. Self-serving bias is the tendency to attribute one's successes to internal factors and one's failures to external factors. The fundamental attribution bias or error refers to the tendency to overestimate dispositional (personality) factors and underestimate situational factors in explaining a person's behavior. Self verification theory proposes that people seek confirmation of their self-concept.
A group member has idiosyncratic credits. This refers to the idea that the member has: Select one: A. Upward mobility B. Brownie points C. Unusual behaviors D. Referent power
Correct Answer is: B Idiosyncratic credits are related to minority influence. Hollander (1985) found that in order to become either the leader of a group or successfully challenge the majority opinion of a group, a person must first conform to the group in order to establish his or her credentials as a "competent insider". By becoming accepted, member's idiosyncracy credits are accumulated, which are like "brownie points".
A person's reactions to stress are most negative when the stress is unexpected. Moreover, a person's reactions are most affected by Select one: A. his or her actual capacity to cope with the stress. B. his or her beliefs regarding his or her ability to cope with the stress. C. the total number of stressors. D. the actual availability of adequate social support.
Correct Answer is: B It is a person's perception of control or ability to cope that determines his or her response to stress. When a person believes he or she has no control over the situation or does not have the necessary coping mechanisms, stress will have a more detrimental effect.
A person, in anticipation of failure, develops explanations and behavioral reactions to minimize ability deficits as possible attributions for the failure. This process is referred to as: Select one: A. Self-fulfilling prophecy B. Self-handicapping C. Self-perception theory D. Self-serving bias
Correct Answer is: B People engage in self-handicapping strategies in order to avoid an internal attribution for failure. When a person anticipates failure, explanations and behavioral reactions are developed that minimize ability deficits as possible attributions for the failure. Self-fulfilling prophecy* refers to a prediction made about some future behavior or event that modifies interactions so as to produce what is expected. Self-perception theory* is the idea that people observe themselves in order to figure out the reasons they act as they do; people infer what their internal states are by perceiving how they are acting in a given situation. Self-serving bias* refers to a class of attributional biases in which people tend to take credit for their successes and deny responsibility for their failures (* incorrect options).
herif's social judgment theory suggests an individual is most likely to be persuaded when a message is within his/her: Select one: A. latitude of rejection B. latitude of acceptance C. level of self-monitoring D. categories of judgment
Correct Answer is: B Sherif's social judgment theory posits people evaluate persuasive messages through three categories of judgment - latitude of acceptance, latitude of non-commitment, and latitude of rejection. and is most likely to be persuaded when a message is within his/her "latitude of acceptance."
An actress portrays a philanthropist in a TV series. In each show, she performs an act of kindness toward a downtrodden individual or group. The actress receives a great deal of mail from fans who tell her what a fantastic person she is because she is so willing to share her time and wealth with others who are in need. The response of the actress's fans illustrates which of the following. Select one: A. the ultimate attribution error B. the fundamental attribution bias C. the self-serving bias D. the selectivity bias
Correct Answer is: B The fundamental attribution bias (error) refers to the tendency of people to overestimate the contribution of dispositional factors to an actor's behavior. In the situation described in the question, the actress's fans attribute her good deeds to her rather than to the role she plays in the TV series. Ultimate attribution error is to a whole group of people.
According to Weiner's attribution theory, a person with high-self esteem is most likely to attribute success on an achievement-related task to Select one: A. effort. B. ability. C. luck. D. the easiness of the task.
Correct Answer is: B Weiner's attribution theory has to do with reasons people use to explain causes of behavior, events, and outcomes. According to Weiner, these explanations or attributions have three dimensions: locus-of control (internal-external), stability (stable-unstable), and controllability (controllable-uncontrollable). This makes for eight possible attribution types: internal-stable-controllable, internal-stable-uncontrollable, and so on. The focus of this theory is on attributions for achievement, and Weiner identified ability, effort, task difficulty, and luck and the most important explanations of achievement. The theory has a number of applications in a variety of settings. For example, students who attribute success to ability, an internal, stable, and uncontrollable factor, are likely to have higher self-esteem. Students who attribute academic successes and failure to effort (an internal, unstable, controllable factor) are more likely to persist at tasks.
When you look up to a person, are influenced by that person, identify with that person and hold them in high regard, that person has: A. Expert power B. Coercive power C. Referent power D. Reward power
Correct Answer is: C Referent power is based on a person's attraction to or desire to be like the holder of power. Expert power is based on the belief that the power holder has special knowledge or expertise. Coercive power results from the holder's ability to punish others. And finally, reward power, results from the holder's ability to reward others.
A supervisor realizes that his employees are becoming less productive when working in a group. To avoid the effects of social loafing he should: A. provide clearly defined goals B. require everyone to provide an equal amount of effort C. make their jobs more challenging D. offer the group a reward for meeting the company's goal
Correct Answer is: C Social loafing often occurs when employees, particularly those in high-level positions, are evaluated based on a combined effort of the group, rather than for their individual contributions. It is also more likely to occur when tasks are simple and boring. Thus, to avoid social loafing an employer should insure that each employee's job is challenging and that they receive recognition for their individual efforts. This choice (providing clearly defined goals) is also a useful suggestion, but is more related to goal-setting theory than social loafing.
You are trying to recall the facts surrounding a mugging you recently witnessed. According to the notion of state dependence, your recall of these facts will be best if you are in the same __________ when you recall the crime as you were at the time you witnessed it. A. attitudinal state. B. physical environment. C. emotional state. D. state of alertness.
Correct Answer is: C The notion of state dependence predicts that memory is maximized when we are in the same emotional state during learning and recall.
A lab subject heard a woman in the next lab fall and cry for help. In this "lady in distress" experiment, a person was least likely to help when tested with: A. no others present. B. a stranger. C. a passive confederate. D. a friend.
Correct Answer is: C The subject is most likely to rush to aid someone in distress when all alone in the lab; less likely when there is a stranger or a friend in the room; and least likely when there is a passive confederate in the same room who has been instructed to ignore the whole thing. There is no "diffusion of responsibility" or "pluralistic ignorance" when the subject is alone.
The term "group polarization" refers to the tendency of groups to make decisions that are Select one: A. more risky than those that might be made by individual members. B. more conservative than those that might be made by individual members. C. more risky or more conservative than those that might be made by individual members. D. more illogical than those that might be made by individual members.
Correct Answer is: C A group's decisions tend to be more extreme (in one direction or the other) than those that would be made by individuals in the group acting alone. This phenomenon is referred to as group polarization. One explanation for group polarization is that group members are more willing to support extreme decisions because, as group members, they won't have to take as much personal responsibility for their decisions as they would if they were acting alone.
Which of the following statements is most consistent with Lewin's field theory? Select one: A. As a person moves towards one of the goals in an approach-approach conflict, it becomes less attractive and the other goal becomes more attractive. B. Leadership is a function of the relationship between a task and the environment. C. Behavior is a function of the relationship between the person and the environment. D. A person's "life space" is equivalent to Jung's notion of the collective unconscious.
Correct Answer is: C According the Lewin's field theory, behavior is a function of the relationship between a person and his or her environment. Lewin used the following formula to express this relationship: B = f(P,E) where B is behavior, P is the person, and E is the environment. "Life space" is also a central concept in field theory but refers to everything in a person's psychological environment - not the collective unconscious.
According to the Elaboration Likelihood Model, a persuasive message processed via the peripheral rather than the central route is most likely to be successful when: Select one: A. the message is not of an urgent nature B. the listener has time to process the message C. the communicator is of high status D. the communicator is demographically similar to the listener
Correct Answer is: C According to the Elaboration Likelihood Model, there are two routes of communication: a central route and a peripheral route. A listener is most susceptible to persuasion via the peripheral route when the communicator is appealing (e.g., is of high status), the listener is uninvolved with the message or is distracted, and/or the message appeals to fear.
The idea that violence on television is a cause of violence in the real world is most supported by Select one: A. Pavlov's classical conditioning theory. B. Tolman's latent learning theory. C. Bandura's social learning theory. D. Vygotsky's constructivism theory.
Correct Answer is: C Bandura's social learning holds that direct external reinforcement of behavior cannot account for all learning. He proposed, for instance, that some behavior is intrinsically reinforcing, and also that some learning can occur through imitation of other people. Because his theory deals with the imitation of models, it provides more support than other theories for the idea that watching violence on television leads to violent behavior. It should be noted that this is not a necessary outcome according to Bandura, as he identifies four requirements--attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation--that must be present for a behavior to be imitated. In other words, not all observed behaviors are imitated, but because Bandura's theory deals directly with the imitation of models, it is the best answer to this question.
Compared to decentralized networks, centralized networks Select one: A. are less effective but more accepted by employees. B. are more effective when the task is complex. C. are more effective when the task is easy. D. are more effective and more accepted by employees.
Correct Answer is: C In a centralized communication network, all communication goes through one person (usually the person in charge). This type of network is most effective when the problem or task is easy; i.e., it does not require a lot of communication among workers to be resolved or accomplished. are less effective but more accepted by employees. are more effective and more accepted by employees. We can rule out these two options not only because these networks are not automatically more or less effective than decentralized networks (again, it depends on the nature of the task), but also because it is usually the leader, not the employees, who prefers a centralized network.
When men and women are asked to judge photos of women's faces: Select one: A. attractive women are viewed as less intelligent. B. there is no relation between ratings of beauty and personality. C. unattractive women are rated as having less positive personalities. D. women and men disagree on standards of facial beauty.
Correct Answer is: C Researchers find a consistently moderate positive correlation between ratings of facial beauty and ratings of personality and intelligence, regardless of whether the faces are female or male. This is an example of the halo effect. In other words, attractive people are rated as having better personalities and unattractive people are rated less positively.
Which of the following methods of reducing inter-group conflict and hostility is most likely to be successful? Select one: A. increasing contact between groups. B. disseminating accurate information about members of the outgroup. C. introduction of a superordinate goal. D. having leaders of the conflicting groups meet and negotiate.
Correct Answer is: C Sherif and Sherif, in their "Robber's Cave" studies, divided 11-year-old boys into two groups that were pitted against each other in a series of competitions. Hostility between the two groups developed rapidly, with members of each group developing negative stereotypes of the other. Sherif tested a number of ways to reduce this inter-group conflict, and found that the only effective method was introducing a common goal that required the two groups to work together. Later research has clarified this finding: for groups that have not worked together cooperatively in the past, superordinate goals are only effective in reducing inter-group hostility when the goals are successfully achieved, each group has a distinctive role to play in achieving the goal, and group members feel that both groups contributed in a clearly defined way.
Conformity involves adhering to implicit group norms, whereas compliance occurs when people agree to explicit requests to do something. According to the literature, all of the following increase compliance except: Select one: A. "door-in-the-face" technique B. "foot-in-the-door" method C. psychological reactance D. low-balling
Correct Answer is: C The "door-in-the-face" technique involves making an initial request that is so large that it is sure to be rejected and then coming back with a second, more reasonable request. The "foot-in-the-door" technique involves moving from a small request to a larger one. Low-balling involves securing an agreement with a request and then increasing the size of that request by revealing its hidden costs. All three of these techniques have been shown to increase compliance. On the other hand, psychological reactance, a phenomenon identified by Brehm (1966), states compliance and conformity are less likely to occur in situations where the person feels his or her freedom to choose is being threatened. Group pressures can sometimes produce the opposite of conformity or compliance and if a person perceives that his or her sense of control or freedom of choice is threatened, there will be an attempt to re-establish that freedom - i.e., to act in the opposite direction of the attempted influence.
The tendency of sports teams to win more often when they are playing on their home court is referred to as the "home advantage." This phenomenon is best explained by: Select one: A. home court familiarity B. expectations of the players C. social support from fans D. demoralization of the visiting team
Correct Answer is: C The home advantage in team sports has generated various explanations; however, it most consistently has been linked to a supportive home audience.
The tendency to make dispositional attributions to an entire group of people is referred to as: Select one: A. self-serving bias B. fundamental attribution error C. ultimate attribution error D. actor-observer effect
Correct Answer is: C The ultimate attribution error refers to attributional biases that occur at the group level. The tendency to assume that whole groups of people have similar dispositions may be based on stereotypes or limited evidence and occur to protect a group in which one belongs. Self-serving bias is the tendency to take credit for our successes and to blame situational factors for our failures. Fundamental attribution error is the tendency to explain others' behavior in terms of internal disposition, (e.g., personality traits, abilities, motives, etc.) as opposed to external situational factors. This bias occurs when situational factors are underestimated and dispositional factors are overestimated in understanding the behavior of others. The actor-observer effect is the tendency to overestimate situational factors and underestimate dispositional factors regarding one's own behaviors and to underestimate situational factors and overestimate dispositional factors in others.
According to the "iceberg profile" developed by Morgan, which of the following psychological characteristics displayed by successful athletes is typically above the general population mean? Select one: A. anxiety B. anger C. vigor D. confusion
Correct Answer is: C Through the use of psychological testing, Morgan (1978) found that athletes scored significantly lower in negative mental health traits such as tension, depression, anger, fatigue and confusion, but significantly higher for vigor compared to U.S. norms. He referred to the mood characteristics of accomplished athletes as the "iceberg profile." Morgan's presented correlation between exercise and a decrease in anxiety has been confirmed in subsequent studies in both serious and recreational athletes.
Allport (1954) proposed the most effective way of reducing prejudice and discrimination is by intergroup contact presuming certain conditions are met. Which of the following is not one of the conditions? A. frequent intergroup contact B. equal status between groups C. social and institutional support D. empathy toward the other group
Correct Answer is: D According to Allport, intergroup contact for reducing prejudice is only likely to be beneficial when intergroup contact is both frequent ("frequent intergroup contact") and of a duration that allows meaningful relationships to develop; the two groups have equal status ("equal status between groups "); the two groups are working towards common goals based on co-operation and social and institutional support is given. Allport notes that if these conditions are not met, contact may actually increase prejudice.
The tendency to experience losses more heavily than gains of equal magnitude results in less risky decisions and is referred to as: A. risky shift B. adverse impact C. satisficing D. loss aversion
Correct Answer is: D Loss aversion is one component in Kahneman and Tversky's prospect theory. Loss aversion refers to the tendency to base decisions more heavily on the fear of loss than the hope of gain. For example, if you heard from a friend that his mechanic did a good job fixing his car but another friend told you that the same mechanic did a poor job fixing his car, you would be less likely to risk using that mechanic. The other answer choices are terms that you should be familiar with. Risky shift occurs when a group makes a decision that is riskier than would have been made by the members individually. Adverse impact occurs when the hiring rate for a minority group is less than 80% of the hiring rate of the majority group. Satisficing refers to the decision-making style of using the minimal amount of information to reach a "good enough" solution.
Research on the self-serving bias has found support for all of the following conclusions except A. it is more likely to occur in individuals with high self-esteem than low self-esteem. B. it may be present both under conditions of anonymity and in the presence of an audience. C. failure is more likely to be attributed to external factors when the person expects future improvement. D. it operates in the same manner across cultures.
Correct Answer is: D The self-serving bias refers to the tendency to attribute one's own successes to internal factors and one's failures to external factors--i.e., to take credit for one's successes and place blame for one's failures. Research shows that the self-serving bias does not operate the same way across cultures, and in fact may be reversed in more collectivist cultures. For example, a study of Japanese students found that on a difficult memory task, they were more likely to attribute their failures to internal factors and their successes to external factors. Some authors therefore have concluded that a modesty bias rather than a self-serving bias occurs in some cultures. The other choices are true of the self-serving bias. Self-esteem mediates its likelihood of operating; those with high self-esteem are more likely to display it than those with low self-esteem.
If a speaker with moderate to low credibility presents a well-stated argument in favor of a particular position, he can expect the greatest attitude change Select one: A. if the audience is very ego-involved in the issue. B. if there is a large degree of discrepancy between his position and that of the audience. C. if his argument arouses a great deal of fear. D. as time passes.
Correct Answer is: D The effectiveness of persuasive communication depends on numerous factors. One important factor is the credibility of the communicator. Individuals who are perceived as trustworthy and possessing expertise are credible, and such communicators can induce attitude change in an audience even when there is a large discrepancy between the audience's initial position and the communicator's argument. However, research shows that the effectiveness of well-presented communication from a source low in credibility tends to increase over time, because people tend to remember the message but forget the source. This phenomenon is known as the "sleeper effect". The other choices all present factors likely to decrease the effectiveness of an argument from a source low in credibility. Message recipients who are very ego-involved in a particular issue are less-likely to change their opinion about that issue than those who are less ego-involved. And as noted already, individuals who are low in credibility are unlikely to induce opinion change when there is a large discrepancy between the communicator's and the audience's position. Finally, messages that arouse a moderate amount of fear are associated with greater attitude change than messages than induce very little or very high fear.
Introducing a goal that requires cooperation between conflicting intergroups results in: Select one: A. increased hositility, increased competition B. increased hostility, reduced competition C. reduced hositility, increased competition D. reduced hostility, reduced competition
Correct Answer is: D The introduction of a superordinate goal, one that requires cooperation to accomplish, was found to be the most effective way of reducing or alleviating intergroup hostility and competition in Sherif et al.'s "Robber's Cave" study.
A person making a "fundamental attribution error" would: Select one: A. overestimate the impact of the situation and underestimate dispositional factors in interpreting the behavior of others. B. overrestimate the impact of the situation and underestimate dispositional factors in interpreting one's own behavior. C. overestimate the impact of the situation and underestimate dispositional factors in interpreting one's own failures and underestimate the impact of the situation and overestimate dispositional factors in interpreting one's own successes. D. underestimate the impact of the situation and overestimate dispositional factors in interpreting the behavior of others.
Correct Answer is: D You need to be able to differentiate between the different types of attributional errors. The fundamental attribution error or bias only refers to interpretations of others' behaviors. It occurs when we underestimate situational factors and overestimate dispositional factors in understanding the behavior of others. For example, if we see someone trip and assume it's because they're clumsy. overrestimate the impact of the situation and underestimate dispositional factors in interpreting one's own behavior. This describes the actor-observer effect. overestimate the impact of the situation and underestimate dispositional factors in interpreting one's own failures and underestimate the impact of the situation and overestimate dispositional factors in interpreting one's own successes. This describes the self-serving bias.
A psychologist is hired as a consultant by an agency which works with homosexual men whose behavior places them at very high risk for the HIV virus. The psychologist is asked to work with groups of the agency's clients, with the goal of decreasing high-risk activity in this population. Assuming the psychologist is familiar with the research in this area, she is most likely to take which of the following approaches? A. attempting to engender a group norm of disapproval for high-risk activity B. providing knowledge to the group about AIDS C. threatening the group with punishment if they don't change their behavior D. taking a laissez-faire approach and letting the group learn on its own how dangerous its behavior is
orrect Answer is: B Studies show that, among individuals who are at high-risk for the AIDS virus, knowledge about AIDS is a better predictor of less risk-taking behavior than perceived peer norms. Thus, the correct choice ("providing knowledge to the group about AIDS") is the best answer. By contrast, among low-risk groups, perceived peer norms are a better predictor. So if this question was about the best strategy for low-risk groups, this option would have been a better answer: attempting to engender a group norm of disapproval for high-risk activity.
