Social Psychology Exam 2: Ch5-7

A dozen participants were gathered into a group. An authority figure approached the group and ordered the group to do something most of the participants thought was morally wrong. The group defied the authority, refusing to obey. According to social impact theory, a factor likely to have helped the group defy the authority is that the: a. social impact of the authority was divided among the dozen targets. b. source of the social influence was not immediate. c. situation created normative influence rather than informational influence. d. situation was ambiguous.

Social impact of the authority was divided among the dozen targets. Social impact theory maintains that social influence depends on the strength, immediacy, and number of source persons relative to target persons. According to this theory, resistance to the social influence is more likely to occur to the extent that the social impact of the source (in this case, the authority figure) is divided among many targets (in this case, the dozen participants). In this example, the source of the social influence was immediate; the authority was described as having approached the group to give the order. Normative influence is influence that produces conformity because a person fears the negative social consequences of appearing deviant; but there is no evidence that this was a factor in this example. Indeed, the fear of appearing deviant might have prevented anyone from starting the resistance against the authority in the first place. The situation did not seem to have been ambiguous—most of the participants thought that the order they had received was morally wrong. Moreover, they probably would have been more likely to obey if the situation were ambiguous because they'd have had little reason to defy the command.

Jane conducts a new experiment based on Milgram's study of destructive obedience. She manipulates the number of authorities and participants present in the room. She finds that when there are three people in authority present all giving similar commands to one participant, obedience rates are extremely high. However, when there are several participants and only one person in authority giving orders, obedience rates are quite low. These findings are most consistent with: a. research findings on informational influence. b. social impact theory. c. the two-step compliance technique. d. reciprocation ideology.

Social impact theory. Social impact theory holds that social influence depends on the strength, immediacy, and number of source persons relative to target persons. In Jane's study, the levels of obedience are affected by the number of source persons relative to target persons. Informational influence produces conformity because a person believes others are correct in their judgments. There is no evidence that the participants would have this belief; in addition, Jane's study is about obedience to commands rather than conformity to a group norm. There is no single (i.e., "the") two-step compliance technique but rather several, including the foot-in-the-door and the door-in-the-face techniques. These concern eliciting compliance to a request rather than obedience to an authority; moreover, there is nothing in this question about a technique involving two steps. A person's reciprocation ideology refers to his or her individual motives in using the norm of reciprocity; this is not relevant here.

According to ________ theory, gender stereotypes result from expectations created by a sex-based division of the labor market. a. realistic conflict b. social identity c. social role d. outgroup homogeneity

Social role. Social role theory suggests that the sex-based division of labor provides a justification for gender stereotypes. From this perspective, gender roles, which contain a stereotypical component, create a sex-based division of labor. This division of labor is then used as a justification for the original stereotype. Realistic conflict theory, social identity theory, and outgroup homogeneity all have little to say about sex-based division of labor.

Social categorization and ingroup favoritism are two processes that lead to: a. stereotypes. b. authoritarian personalities. c. contrast effects. d. contact hypotheses.

Stereotypes. Social categorization and ingroup favoritism are two mechanisms that produce stereotyping. Social categorization is the dividing of people into groups based on salient differences between the individuals. Research has demonstrated that once people are categorized into groups, their differences are exaggerated. Ingroup favoritism takes social categorization one step further. When people make social categorizations, they not only exaggerate group differences but they do so in a way that favors their own group. Social categorization and ingroup bias are less likely to produce contrast effects. These emerge when people face disconfirming information. They also are unrelated to authoritarian personalities, which are thought to arise from early childhood experience. Contact hypotheses suggest that intergroup contact can diminish stereotypes and prejudice.

Bickman and his colleagues had a stranger (actually a confederate) approach people on the street and order them to do something. People were most willing to comply with these orders when the: a. stranger watched them closely. b. stranger was dressed in a uniform. c. the initial command was extreme and a subsequent one was smaller. d. participants were not authoritarian.

Stranger was dressed in a uniform. The presence of a uniform suggests authority. Even when those authorities are not very powerful, they can elicit obedience. Bickman found that obedience levels were high even when the stranger gave the order and then turned the corner, not waiting to see if the orders had been followed. In this study, the stranger did not make an initial extreme command followed by a subsequent, smaller command, nor did this study measure how authoritarian (a personality dimension characterized by attitudes and behaviors concerning authority, rigidity, dissent, ethnocentrism, etc.) the participants were.

Though in the minority and new to the Senate, a group of senators argued consistently, persuasively, and successfully against a particular bill. Most of the other senators eventually agreed with them that the bill should not be approved. In this example, the first group of senators derived their power to influence from their: a. idiosyncrasy credits. b. style of behavior. c. sheer number. d. reciprocation ideology.

Style of behavior. According to Moscovici, people in the majority derive social influence power by virtue of their sheer number and inherent power, but people in the minority derive social influence power from the style of their behavior. These senators, who were in the minority, argued in a consistent and persuasive style. Idiosyncrasy credits are interpersonal "credits" a person earns by following group norms, but there is no evidence that these senators had any such credits or that they had followed group norms; indeed, because they were new to the Senate, they probably hadn't had time to earn any idiosyncrasy credits, and they certainly were not earning any by arguing consistently against the majority in this example. A person's reciprocation ideology refers to his or her individual motives in the use of the norm of reciprocity; but this is not relevant here because no mention is made either of the senators' motives or attitudes about this norm or of any behaviors that the senators might want to reciprocate.

Frank thinks that all his instructors are windbags, but he also thinks there are two kinds of instructors: those who are arrogant and those who are incompetent. Frank's classification of instructors is an example of: a. a contrast effect. b. subtyping. c. ingroup bias. d. the confirmation bias.

Subtyping. Frank seems to have a negative stereotype about instructors, but he has also differentiated them into two subcategories. Frank's classification of the instructors does not show evidence of contrast effects, ingroup bias, or confirmation bias. If his views depicted contrast effect, one would expect him to have an overly positive view of instructors if they gave a good lecture. If his views depicted ingroup bias, one would expect him to state how people in his group (i.e., students) are so much better than instructors. Finally, if his views depicted the confirmation bias, one would expect to find evidence that he quickly judges instructors to be windbags.

conformity

Tendency to change perceptions, opinions, or behavior in ways that are consistent with group norms.

This effect shows that people often forget the source but not the message, so the effects of source credibility dissipate over time: a. The insufficient justification effect b. The elaboration effect c. The bogus pipeline effect d. The sleeper effect

The Sleeper Effect. Time may heal the effects of a bad reputation. Hovland and Weiss (1951) varied communicator credibility (for example, the physicist versus Pravda) and found that the change had a large and immediate effect on persuasion. But when they re-measured attitudes four weeks later, the effect had vanished. Over time, the attitude change produced by the high credibility source decreased, and the change caused by the low-credibility source increased. This latter finding of a delayed persuasive impact of a low credibility communicator is called the sleeper effect.

In their campaigns, John Smith and Jane Doe both present arguments stressing the logic of their positions and detailing the many reasons for their views. These candidates are trying to persuade voters through a. attitude-discrepant behavior. b. heuristics. c. the peripheral route. d. the central route.

The central route. The central route to persuasion, as elaborated by the dual-process theory, leads to persuasion through the quality of the arguments that are presented for or against a position. John Smith and Jane Doe appear to be trying to use this route to persuasion. The peripheral route to persuasion, also elaborated by the dual-process theory, leads to persuasion through the use of heuristics or simplistic rules that people may use without even being aware of it. There is no evidence that John Smith and Jane Doe are trying to use heuristics or a peripheral route to persuasion. Finally, it does not appear that the campaigners are trying to use attitude discrepant behavior to influence voters. This strategy would require the voters to engage in actions that would later lead to a change in their attitudes.

Lisa thinks that women are more critical than men. At parties, she is more likely to notice a sarcastic remark from a woman than from a man. Lisa's perceptions illustrate: a. ingroup favoritism. b. the confirmation bias. c. contrast effects. d. androgyny.

The confirmation bias. The confirmation bias, or the tendency to pay particular attention to information that confirms one's beliefs, is evident in the fact that Lisa finds it easy to notice sarcastic remarks made by women at parties. This phenomenon is unlikely to result from ingroup favoritism, because Lisa is a woman herself, and there is no evidence that it is related to contrast effects or androgyny.

Summarize the door-in-the-face technique. Give two reasons why this is such an effective strategy for eliciting compliance.

The door-in-the-face technique is a two-step compliance technique in which an influencer prefaces the real request with one so large that it is sure to be rejected. One reason this technique works may have to do with the principle of perceptual contrast. The contrast effect is the tendency to perceive stimuli that differ from expectations or other stimuli as even more different than they really are. In this case, after exposure to the very large request, the second request may seem even smaller than it would otherwise. Cialdini and his colleagues concluded that perceptual contrast is only partly responsible for the effectiveness of the door-in-the-face technique. A second, and possibly more compelling, reason for the effectiveness of this technique concerns reciprocal concessions - namely, the pressure to respond to changes in a bargaining position. When the influencer backs down from the original large request and makes a subsequent smaller request, the person who rejected the original request may perceive the influencer's second request as a concession or gesture of compromise and thus feel pressure to respond in kind by complying with this second request.

Compare and contrast the central and peripheral routes to persuasion

The dual-process model proposes that there are two basic routes by which persuasive communication leads to changes in attitudes: the central route and the peripheral route. The central route to persuasion leads to attitude change that occurs when the audience pays attention to the quality of the arguments and elaborates or thinks about the content of the message. When people are persuaded via the central route to persuasion, they systematically process the information with which they are presented. The peripheral route to persuasion leads to attitude change that occurs when the audience pays attention to heuristics that suggest what attitude change should take place. When people are persuaded via the peripheral route, they spend little time analyzing the information that is being presented, and they may not even be aware that they are being persuaded.

Central and peripheral routes to persuasion are proposed by: a. the dual-process theory. b. cognitive dissonance theory. c. self-perception theory. d. the theory of planned behavior.

The dual-process theory. The dual-process theory of persuasion suggests that people process information through one of two channels: a central channel in which the quality of the arguments affects people's response to a persuasive message, and a peripheral channel in which heuristics or simplistic rules affect people's response to a persuasive message. Cognitive dissonance theory, self-perception theory, and the theory of planned behavior do not propose central and peripheral routes to persuasion.

In the media, images of men are more likely than images of women to emphasize: a. activity. b. strength. c. the face. d. the body.

The face. Studies of the contents of advertisements show that men's faces and heads - but women's bodies - are more likely to be pictured in ads. There is no evidence that men are more often seen as active and strong.

Joanie asked an acquaintance named Chachi if he would do a small favor for her. After he agreed and did the small favor, Joanie then asked him to do an even larger favor for her. This scenario describes a. the foot-in-the-door technique. b. reciprocal concessions. c. low-balling. d. minority influence.

The foot-in-the-door technique. The foot-in-the-door technique is a two-step compliance technique in which an influencer prefaces the real request by first getting a person to comply with a much smaller one; this is what is described in this example. Reciprocal concessions refer to changes one makes in a bargaining position to reciprocate the opposing side's changes in their bargaining position; there is no bargaining going on in this example. Low-balling is a two-step compliance technique in which the influencer secures agreement with a request but then increases the size of that request by revealing hidden costs. In this example, Joanie did not change an already secured agreement by revealing extra costs; rather, she secured an agreement, and then made a separate request that did not change the original agreement. Finally, minority influence is the process by which dissenters produce change within a group. There is no issue between a group and some dissenter(s) in this question.

inoculation hypothesis

The idea that exposure to weak versions of a persuasive argument increases later resistance to that argument.

Heuristics and body movements are two kinds of cues that determine persuasion in a. attitude-discrepant behavior. b. cognitive dissonance. c. the peripheral route. d. the central route.

The peripheral route. When people are persuaded through the peripheral route, they are persuaded without fully processing the incoming information. Instead of relying on the content of the information, they use simplistic rules, or heuristics, and rely on simple cues like body movements when processing information along this route. In contrast, persuasion in the central route is determined by the quality of the arguments, not peripheral cues. Attitude-discrepant behavior and cognitive dissonance are likely to promote attitude change through self-justification.

peripheral route to persuasion

The process by which a person does not think carefully about a communication and is influenced instead by superficial cues.

central route to persuasion

The process by which a person thinks carefully about a communication and is influenced by the strength of its arguments.

outgroup homogeneity effect

The tendency to assume that there is a greater similarity among members of outgroups than of ingroups.

ingroup favoritism

The tendency to discriminate in favor of ingroups over outgroups.

contrast effect

The tendency to perceive stimuli that differ from expectations as being even more different than they really are.

theory of planned behavior

The theory that attitudes toward a specific behavior combine with subjective norms and perceived control to influence a person's actions.

contact hypothesis

The theory that direct contact between hostile groups will reduce prejudice under certain conditions.

cognitive dissonance theory

The theory that holding inconsistent cognitions arouses psychological tension that people become motivated to reduce.

realistic conflict theory

The theory that hostility between groups is caused by direct competition for limited resources.

social identity theory

The theory that people favor ingroups over outgroups in order to enhance their self-esteem

psychological reactance

The theory that people react against threats to their freedom by asserting themselves and perceiving the threatened freedom as more attractive.

social role theory

The theory that small gender differences are magnified in perception by the contrasting social roles occupied by men and women.

social impact theory

Theory that social influence depends on the strength, immediacy, and number of source persons relative to target persons.

What determines whether a culture becomes individualistic or collectivistic?

There are three key factors. The first is the complexity of a society. As people come to live in more complex industrialized societies, there are more groups to identify with, which means less loyalty to any one group and a greater focus on personal rather than collective goals. Second is the affluence of a society. As people prosper, they gain financial independence from each other, a condition that promotes social independence as well as mobility and a focus on personal rather than collective goals. The third factor is heterogeneity. Societies that are homogeneous, sharing the same language, religion, and social customs, tend to be rigid and intolerant of those who deviate from the norm. Societies that are culturally diverse, where two or more cultures coexist, tend to be more permissive of dissent, allowing for more individual expression. Cultural orientations may also be rooted in religious ideologies; for example, the link between Christianity and individualism.

By their willingness to maintain independence from the majority, people in the minority force other group members to: a. publicly, but not privately, conform. b. respond with informational influence. c. issue idiosyncrasy credits to them. d. think carefully about a problem.

Think carefully about a problem. When faced with a persistent minority, majorities often think about a problem more carefully than they would otherwise. As a result, the overall quality or creativity of group decisions is enhanced. Minority influence is more likely to lead to private, rather than public, conformity. Minorities are not particularly likely to cause other group members to respond with informational influence, which is influence that produces conformity because a person believes others are correct in their judgments; instead, the group members are likely to apply their sheer number and power and use normative influence. Idiosyncrasy credits are interpersonal "credits" a person earns by following group norms, but minorities are not in a position of power to "issue" credits to the rest of the group. Indeed, by going against the majority, the minorities are acting in a way that should cost them idiosyncrasy credits.

Advertisers and others often use the "overheard communicator" technique to enhance a speaker's a. likeability. b. perceived competence. c. reactance. d. trustworthiness.

Trustworthiness. People will often discount a persuasive communication if they know that the person is trying to persuade them. The "overheard communicator" technique tries to nullify this discounting by presenting the persuasive appeal as if it were not directed at the audience. This technique gives the impression that the communicator is quite sincere and trustworthy. The "overheard communicator" technique has not been shown to have an affect on likeability or the perceived competence of the communicator, nor has it been shown to create reactance.

Although they are distinct techniques, the foot-in-the-door, door-in-the-face, low-balling, and that's-not-all techniques are similar in that they all involve a. starting with a small request and subsequently raising the costs. b. normative influence. c. two steps. d. the norm of reciprocity.

Two steps. All of these techniques involve a two-step, sequential trap. In the foot-in-thedoor technique, the influencer first gets a person to comply with a relatively small request, and next makes a much larger request. The door-in-the-face technique involves the opposite sequence: first a large request (one so large that it is likely to be rejected), followed by a much smaller request. In low-balling, the influencer first secures an agreement, and next changes the agreement by revealing hidden costs. In the that's-not-all technique, the influencer first begins with an inflated request, then immediately decreases the apparent size of that request by offering a discount or bonus. Thus, each of these techniques involves two steps. As is particularly evident in the door-in-the-face technique, they do not all start with a small request and subsequently raise the costs. Normative influence, which is influence that produces conformity because a person fears the negative social consequences of appearing deviant, is not relevant here because these techniques do not involve groups (against which one could appear deviant) or conformity. And finally, the norm of reciprocity dictates that we should treat others as they treat us; but this is not relevant in the foot-in-the-door technique, in which the influencer does not do anything that would make the person feel the need to reciprocate.

Research on stereotype threat shows that stereotypes can: a. motivate people to try harder in order to improve their performance. b. undermine the academic performance of women and minorities. c. only affect members of groups who do not have power in society. d. lower the self-esteem of members of stereotyped groups.

Undermine the academic performance of women and minorities. Research on stereotype threat shows that when members of a stereotype group are in a situation where others may stereotype them they perform below their potential; but, when this stereotype threat is lifted, their performance improves. Although most of the research on stereotype threat has been on groups that have less power in society (women and minorities), there is some evidence that stereotype threat can affect dominant groups as well. There is no evidence that stereotype threat lowers self-esteem; in fact, the theory behind stereotype threat predicts that when people face stereotype threat they will protect their self-esteem rather than have their self-esteem lowered. Finally, although it is an interesting idea, there is no evidence that stereotype threat motivates people to try harder in order to improve their performance.

Which of the following is most accurate concerning gender differences in levels of conformity? a. Across situations, men are reliably more likely than women to conform to a group norm. b. Across situations, women are reliably more likely than men to conform to a group norm. c. When they think they are being observed, women conform more and men conform less than they do in more private situations. d. There is no evidence of gender differences in levels of conformity.

When they think they are being observed, women conform more and men conform less than they do in more private situations. This is one of the few reliable sex differences reported in the literature.

In a television commercial for dental floss, the spokesperson (a well-known TV celebrity) says that eight out of ten dentists recommend the product. The reference to dentists is an attempt to establish: a. communicator credibility. b. self-monitoring. c. insufficient deterrence. d. fear arousal.

communicator credibility. In referring to the expert's opinion, the spokesperson is drawing upon the credibility of the expert in an attempt to influence the audience. It does not appear that the spokesperson is arousing fear or attempting to deter (or use insufficient deterrence against) people's use of the product. Finally, the spokesperson does not seem to be using a selfmonitoring strategy, attempting to present himself or herself in a way that is appropriate for the specific situation.

subliminal presentation

A method of presenting stimuli so faintly or rapidly that people do not have any conscious awareness of having been exposed to them.

that's-not-all technique

A two-step compliance technique in which the influencer begins with an inflated request, then immediately decreases its apparent size by offering a discount or bonus.

low-balling

A two-step compliance technique in which the influencer secures agreement with a request but then increases the size of that request by revealing hidden costs.

implicit attitudes

Attitudes that we cannot report in questionnaires because we're not aware of having them.

obedience

Behavior change produced by the commands of authority.

compliance

Changes in behavior that are elicited by direct requests.

ambivalent sexism

Comprised of two elements: hostile sexism, which concerns negative, resentful feelings about women's abilities, value, and challenging of men's power, and benevolent sexism, which concerns affectionate, chivalrous, but potentially patronizing feelings of women needing and deserving protection.

outgroups

Different from groups to which we do not belong.

sexism

Discrimination based on a person's gender.

prejudice

Negative feelings toward persons based solely on their membership in certain groups.

superordinate goals

Shared goals that can be achieved only through cooperation among individuals or groups.

Explain how social identity theory accounts for favoritism of the ingroup over the outgroup.

Social identity theory suggests that people favor their own group over other groups because they want to maintain a positive social identity; they want to see their group as being a good group and as having status. This positive social identity, in turn, makes people feel better about themselves and raises their self-esteem. Thus people favor their own group over other groups in order to feel better not only about the group they belong to but also about themselves.

social categorization

The classification of persons into groups on the basis of common attributes.

persuasion

The process by which attitudes are changed.

minority influence

The process by which dissenters produce change within a group.

elaboration

The process of thinking about and scrutinizing the arguments contained in a persuasive communication.

group

Two or more persons perceived as related because of their interaction with each other over time, membership in the same social category, or common fate.

When Milgram exposed participants to an authority who demanded that they harm another person by administering electric shocks of up to 450 volts to him, he initially found that the percentage of participants who obeyed the authority's orders to administer all of these shocks was a. 0.1 percent. b. 10 percent among the male participants and 50 percent among the female participants. c. 65 percent. d. more than 97 percent.

65 percent. Although psychiatrists who were told about Milgram's experimental procedure predicted that only about 0.1 percent of participants would obey through the maximum level of shock, 65 percent of the participants did so all the way to 450 volts. This was true of both male and female participants.

stereotype

A belief that associates a group of people with certain traits.

insufficient justification

A condition in which people freely perform an attitude-discrepant behavior without receiving a large reward.

insufficient deterrence

A condition in which people refrain from engaging in a desirable activity, even when only mild punishment is threatened.

jigsaw classroom

A cooperative learning method used to reduce racial prejudice through interaction in group efforts.

Implicit Association Test (IAT)

A covert measure of unconscious attitudes, it is derived from the speed at which people respond to pairings of concepts—such as black or white with good or bad.

individualism

A cultural orientation in which independence, autonomy, and self-reliance take priority over group allegiances.

collectivism

A cultural orientation in which interdependence, cooperation, and social harmony take priority over purely personal goals.

sleeper effect

A delayed increase in the persuasive impact of a noncredible source.

social dominance orientation

A desire to see one's ingroups as dominant over other groups, and a willingness to adopt cultural values that facilitate oppression over other groups.

modern racism

A form of prejudice that surfaces in subtle ways when it is safe, socially acceptable, and easy to rationalize.

Harry is listening to a debate. Harry assumes that the person with the most arguments is the bestqualified candidate. Harry's reasoning is an example of a. cognitive dissonance. b. elaboration. c. a heuristic. d. impression management.

A heuristic. Here Harry is using a simplistic rule, or heuristic - whoever makes the most arguments is the best-qualified candidate. He is not elaborating on what the candidate is saying, and there is no evidence that Harry is experiencing cognitive dissonance or that he is concerned with impression management.

Karen divides her class into small, racially mixed groups. Each student learns part of the assigned work and then teaches it to others in the group. This procedure is an example of: a. a jigsaw classroom. b. a minimal group. c. ingroup favoritism. d. realistic conflict.

A jigsaw classroom. In a jigsaw classroom the instructor arranges for students of differentracial groups to interact together on joint tasks in an equal-status environment. Karen's class is an excellent example. None of her actions are related to minimal groups, ingroup favoritism, or realistic conflict. Instead, she seems to have developed an environment with real groups that undermines ingroup favoritism and realistic conflict.

Stereotypes about men and women present: a. a totally biased picture of men and women. b. a kernel of the truth that is oversimplified and exaggerated. c. an accurate description of the differences between men and women. d. unrealistic expectations for men and women.

A kernel of the truth that is oversimplified and exaggerated. There are some differences between men and women (e.g., men tend to be more aggressive than women), but gender stereotypes exaggerate these differences and fail to take into account that there are more similarities between men and women than there are differences. Thus gender stereotypes are not totally biased, and they do not portray an accurate description of the differences between men and women. Gender roles sometimes present demanding and unrealistic expectations of men and women, but this feature is less characteristic of gender stereotypes.

attitude scale

A multiple-item questionnaire designed to measure a person's attitude toward some object.

Which of the following people is least likely to conform to group pressure? a. An adolescent in eighth grade b. A person from an individualistic culture c. A person from a collectivistic culture d. A person whose attention has been drawn to the group norm

A person from an individualistic culture. An individualistic culture is one that values independence, autonomy, and self-reliance over group allegiances. People from such a culture are more likely to exert their independence and autonomy over group allegiances and hence to resist conformity than are people from a collectivistic culture, which is one that values interdependence, cooperation, and social harmony over purely personal goals. Adolescents are particularly vulnerable to peer pressure, so an adolescent in eighth grade is relatively likely to conform to group pressure. And making people aware of a group norm increases the likelihood that they will conform to the group norm.

need for cognition (NC)

A personality variable that distinguishes people on the basis of how much they enjoy effortful cognitive activities.

bogus pipeline

A phony lie-detector device that is sometimes used to get respondents to give truthful answers to sensitive attitude questions.

attitude

A positive or negative reaction to a person, object, or idea.

public conformity

A superficial change in observable behavior, without a corresponding change of opinion, produced by real or imagined group pressure.

door-in-the-face technique

A two-step compliance technique in which an influencer prefaces the real request with one so large that it is sure to be rejected.

foot-in-the-door technique

A two-step compliance technique in which an influencer sets the stage for the real request by first getting a person to comply with a much smaller one.

According to cross-cultural research, men are widely seen as more ______ than women. a. intelligent b. sensitive c. aggressive d. people-oriented

Aggressive. Cross-cultural research suggests that, in almost all countries that have been studied, men are seen as more aggressive than women. In most of these countries, women are seen as more sensitive and people-oriented. There are no consistent differences in perceptions of the intelligence of men and women.

facial electromyograph (EMG)

An electronic instrument that records facial muscle activity associated with emotions and attitudes.

illusory correlation

An overestimate of the association between variables that are only slightly correlated or not correlated at all.

discrimination

Any behavior directed against persons because of their identification with a particular group.

In theory, people who are high in the need for cognition should receive persuasive communications that rely on: a. arguments. b. heuristics. c. attributions. d. mood.

Arguments. The dual-process theory suggests that people who are high in the need for cognition are more likely to process information through the central route to persuasion and, therefore, are more likely to rely on the quality of arguments for or against a position. By the same token, they are less likely to rely on heuristics associated with the peripheral route to persuasion.

Gender schematics are more likely to see the world: a. as divided into masculine and feminine categories. b. as biased against their gender. c. in distorted ways that favor their gender. d. as a place where their own gender dominates.

As divided into masculine and feminine categories. Gender schematics categorize people and things as being masculine or feminine, and they use these categories more often than do people who are gender aschematic. There is no evidence that gender schematics see the world as biased against their gender, in distorted ways that favor their gender, or as a place where their own gender dominates.

The cognitive capacity to process information carefully and the motivation to be accurate are two factors that enable people to: a. engage in modern racism. b. avoid using stereotypes. c. feel relative deprivation. d. form illusory correlations.

Avoid using stereotypes. Some research suggests that when people have the cognitive capacity to process information (they are not distracted) and try hard to be accurate they can also avoid using stereotypes. By making this effort, they are also less likely to display modern racism, to feel relative deprivation, and form illusory correlations.

Helen has always been upset by doctors who are late for appointments and believes that people should criticize them for this behavior. Yet she has taken a job as a sales representative for a drug company and must try to schmooze with the doctors on her route. In time, Helen is likely to: a. learn to dislike doctors even more. b. dislike her job. c. be less concerned with doctors' tardiness. d. feel stress in most of her interactions.

Be less concerned with doctors' tardiness. On her route, Helen will probably meet a lot of doctors who are late for their appointments with her, but Helen will probably have to say things like, "That's OK. I don't mind that you are late for your appointment." This action that is discrepant with her attitude will likely set the wheels of justification in motion, and Helen will likely change her attitude to match her behavior. As she makes this transition, it is unlikely that she will dislike doctors more, dislike her job, or be stressed in most of her interactions.

Which of the following people should be least likely to conform to a unanimous majority in a situation similar to that faced by the participants in Asch's study concerning line judgments? a. Jeff, who is not confident about his eyesight b. Shari-Beth, who made her responses in public c. Jacob, who comes from a collectivistic culture d. Benjamin, who saw someone else dissent

Benjamin, who saw someone else dissent. The research of Asch and of others has shown that having an ally in dissent can break the spell cast by a unanimous majority and reduce the normative pressure to conform. Jeff, who is not confident in his eyesight, is vulnerable not only to normative influence in this study but also to informational influence because he would not be sure what the correct answers are. Thus, Jeff would be especially likely to conform. Because the conformity typically elicited in the situation faced by Asch's participants is public conformity, Shari-Beth would be likely to publicly conform. Finally, since collectivistic cultures value interdependence, cooperation, and social harmony over purely personal goals, Jacob, who is from such a culture, would be more likely to conform in order to cooperate and preserve social harmony with the group.

Recent research on the measurement of modern racism shows that it: a. is easily measured with a questionnaire. b. is impossible to measure. c. can be measured with computer tasks without the respondent's awareness. d. is difficult to measure with a questionnaire, but possible if anonymity is assured.

Can be measured with computer tasks without the respondent's awareness. Recent research has shown that bias in the measurement of modern racism occurs when it is measured with a questionnaire, even if anonymity is assured. Several researchers, however, have developed computer tasks that measure modern racism without the respondent being aware that the measurement is occurring. These tasks appear to have avoided the problems of questionnaire measures.

private conformity

Change of mind that occurs when a person privately accepts the position taken by others.

Explain how cognitive dissonance theory accounts for changes in people's attitudes based on changes in their behavior.

Cognitive dissonance theory proposes that when people have two thoughts that are psychologically inconsistent, they will experience physiological arousal and cognitive dissonance. In addition, the theory suggests that people will be motivated to reduce this cognitive dissonance by changing whatever thought is easiest to change. When people engage in a behavior that is inconsistent with their attitudes, they are likely to have conflicting thoughts such as "I just did that" and "I don't think people should do that." These two thoughts are psychologically inconsistent and, as such, lead to physiological arousal and cognitive dissonance. To reduce this dissonance, people are more likely to change their attitudes - that is, to think "Maybe it is OK if people do that." This thought is much easier to change than the thought that they had engaged in the action.

If we must make a choice between two equally desirable options, the positive attributes of the alternative we ultimately do not choose will cause: a. a sleeper effect. b. a primacy effect. c. cognitive dissonance. d. attitude inoculation.

Cognitive dissonance. When people make a choice, the positive features of the option they did not choose are inconsistent with their choice. This inconsistency creates cognitive dissonance. For example, if I choose between a chocolate chip cookie and a molasses cookie, and pick the molasses cookie, the fact that I love chocolate would be inconsistent with my choice and would create cognitive dissonance. There is no evidence that the positive attributes of the alternative not chosen (chocolate chips in my example) create a sleeper effect, a primacy effect, or attitude inoculation.

Personal involvement and the sleeper effect are two limitations on the persuasive impact of a. fear-arousing communications. b. communicator credibility. c. attitude-discrepant behavior. d. self-perception processes.

Communicator credibility. When people are personally involved with a topic, they are more likely to process information about that topic through the central route to persuasion. Processing information in this way should lead them to be less concerned with communicator credibility and more concerned with the content of the message. The sleeper effect is the tendency for people to lose track of which message was associated with which communicator such that, over time, the effect of communicator credibility becomes increasingly less and people evaluate the message more on its own merit. Fear-arousing messages may have less affect for people who are personally involved with a topic, but there is no evidence that the sleeper effect influences fear-arousing communications. Finally, attitude-discrepant behavior and self-perception processes are more likely to occur when people are personally involved with a topic and thus probably not affected by the sleeper effect.

Yvonne is buying a new car. The salesman sees a school sticker on her old car and says he went to the same university. The reference to a common alma mater is an attempt to create: a. self-monitoring. b. communicator like ability. c. the need for cognition. d. fear arousal.

Communicator likeability. The salesman is establishing that in at least one respect (attending the same school) he is similar to Yvonne. This similarity may increase Yvonne's liking for the salesman, which in turn may increase his likeability. It does not appear that the salesman is arousing fear, and need for cognition is a personality construct that distinguishes people on how much they enjoy effortful cognition, so neither of these answers is correct. The salesman may be engaging in self-monitoring or trying to present himself in a way that is appropriate to the situation, but the reference to his alma mater does not seem to be a self-monitoring strategy per se.

In the Robbers Cave experiment, young boys came to dislike each other intensely after a period of: a. striving to attain superordinate goals. b. forming friendships with one another. c. competing with one another. d. fighting a common enemy.

Competing with one another. In this famous experiment, the researchers devised a situation whereby two groups of boys competed with one another. After this period of competition, the two groups began to show intense animosity and dislike for one another. In this early part of the experiment, there was no evidence of striving to attain superordinate goals, forming friendships with one another, or fighting a common enemy.

Although neither group makes any explicit requests or demands of her, Sheetal expresses proconservative opinions when she is with her conservative friends and she expresses anticonservative opinions when she is with her liberal friends. Sheetal's actions best illustrate: a. compliance. b. individualism. c. conformity. d. obedience.

Conformity. Conformity is the tendency to change perceptions, opinions, or behavior in ways that are consistent with group norms. In this example, the norm (pro- versus anticonservative) varies among Sheetal's friends, and she changes her opinions to be consistent with the norm of each friendship group. Compliance refers to changes in behavior that are elicited by direct requests; but in this example, Sheetal was not requested to act in a particular way. Individualism is a cultural orientation in which independence, autonomy, and self-reliance take priority over group allegiances, but this is not relevant in this example. And obedience is behavior change produced by the commands of authority, but Sheetal was not commanded by an authority to change her opinions.

The tendency to change our perception, opinions, or behavior in ways that are consistent with group norms best describes a. conformity. b. minority influence. c. compliance. d. idiosyncrasy credit.

Conformity. When social psychologists talk of conformity, they specifically refer to the tendency of people to change their perceptions, opinions, and behavior in ways that are consistent with group norms.

Steve expects poor work from his Italian-American executives. One of these employees turns in a report of above-average quality. However, Steve thinks the report is fantastic. Steve's reaction may have resulted from: a. realistic conflict. b. social roles. c. contrast effects. d. old-fashioned racism.

Contrast effects. Steve's reaction is a good example of a contrast effect. He expected a poor outcome but was surprised by a decent outcome, and then he exaggerated the quality of this outcome. It is unclear how social roles or realistic conflict could have accounted for Steve's reaction, and old fashioned racism might have led Steve to deny rather than enhance the quality of the report.

Keana hopes that Naomi will pledge $5 and sign a petition in support of a community center. Keana first asks Naomi if she'd be willing to pledge $50 in support of a proposed community center. Naomi politely declines. Keana then asks Naomi if she'd be willing to pledge $5 and sign a petition in support of the community center. Naomi complies. Keana's ability to get Naomi to pledge $5 and sign the petition is likely to have been enhanced by Keana's use of the: a. foot-in-the-door technique. b. low-balling technique. c. door-in-the-face technique. d. that's-not-all technique.

Door-in-the-face technique. All of the possible answers to this question are two-step compliance techniques. It is important to recognize the differences among them. In the door-in-the-face technique, an influencer prefaces the real request with one so large that it is sure to be rejected. This is the technique described here—by prefacing the request to pledge $5 and sign a petition with a request for a much larger pledge, Keana increased the chances that Naomi would comply with the smaller, second request. In contrast, in the foot-in-the-door technique an influencer prefaces the real request by first getting a person to comply with a much smaller one; this is the opposite of what transpired in this example. In the technique of low-balling, the influencer secures agreement with a request but then increases the size of that request by revealing hidden costs; Keana did not secure an agreement first and then reveal hidden costs. And finally in the that's-not-all technique, the influencer begins with an inflated request, then immediately decreases the apparent size of that request by offering a discount or bonus. Keana did not immediately decrease the apparent size of her request by offering a discount or bonus; rather, she first made one request, which was rejected, and then made a different, smaller request.

According to theories of modern racism, discrimination against Blacks is most likely to occur when it is: a. explicit and obvious. b. socially unacceptable. c. easy to rationalize. d. confrontational in form.

Easy to rationalize. Theories of modern racism suggest that many people are torn between egalitarian values and lingering beliefs in the inferiority of Blacks. For these people, overt endorsement of stereotypes is difficult because it conflicts with their egalitarian values, but when stereotyping and prejudice can be easily rationalized the lingering belief in the inferiority of Blacks is expressed. Modern racists are unlikely to discriminate against Blacks when the discrimination is explicit and obvious, socially unacceptable, or confrontational in form, because these kinds of discrimination may challenge their egalitarian values.

People are most likely to be in a state of cognitive dissonance if they a. experience no physiological arousal. b. engage in attitude-inconsistent behavior. c. engage in attitude-consistent behavior. d. experience negative unforeseeable consequences.

Engage in attitude-inconsistent behavior. An inconsistency between people's attitudes and their behavior is likely to produce cognitive dissonance. Cognitive dissonance is associated with physiological arousal, so if people experience no physiological arousal they probably have no cognitive dissonance. Attitude-consistent behavior does not produce cognitive dissonance because the attitudes and behavior in this case are consonant, not dissonant. Finally, research has shown that unforeseeable consequences often prevent cognitive dissonance in situations when it might otherwise be present.

Mindy chose to write an essay for her English class that argued for a tuition hike even though she didn't want one. Her instructor sent the essay to the president of the university, who decided that if students could write so well then there should not be a tuition hike. Recent research on cognitive dissonance theory would suggest that Mindy will: a. experience physiological arousal. b. feel responsible for her essay. c. experience no cognitive dissonance. d. change her attitude about tuition hikes.

Experience no cognitive dissonance. Even though Mindy chose to write a counterattitudinal essay, she is unlikely to experience cognitive dissonance because her actions had no negative consequences. In fact, her actions produced a result that was consistent with her attitude; her essay actually prevented the tuition hike she opposed. Because Mindy is unlikely to feel cognitive dissonance, she is also unlikely to experience physiological arousal, take responsibility for her essay, or change her attitude about tuition hikes.

Gabriella decides to buy a portable tape player rather than a portable CD player. She wonders if she made the right decision. After discussing her purchase with a friend, she is reminded that she is a good student and a good friend. Research on self-affirmation theory would predict that Gabriella will: a. experience physiological arousal. b. feel bad about her decision. c. experience no cognitive dissonance. d. come to a stronger conviction that she made the right decision.

Experience no cognitive dissonance. Self-affirmation theory proposes that people experience cognitive dissonance because their actions have threatened their self-image and that if their self-image is repaired after it has been threatened then they will no longer experience cognitive dissonance. In this case, making a difficult decision may have threatened Gabriella's confidence that she is a competent decision maker, thus perhaps initially creating cognitive dissonance; but when she was reminded she is a good student and a good friend, this information should have repaired her self-image and removed any cognitive dissonance she may have felt. Because Gabriella is unlikely to experience cognitive dissonance, she is unlikely to experience physiological arousal, feel bad about her decision, or come to a stronger conviction that she made the right decision.

For Joel, being a part of the basketball team is very important. When asked to compare the basketball team to the football team, he states, "We're a lot better than they are." According to social identity theory, this ingroup favoritism should make Joel: a. feel better about himself and the basketball team. b. pay less attention to football. c. guilty that he judged the football team so arbitrarily. d. concerned about the status of the football team.

Feel better about himself and the basketball team. Social identity theory suggests that ingroup favoritism makes people feel better about their group, which in turn makes them feel better about themselves. Social identity theory has little to say about where people focus their attention. It would suggest, however, that Joel would not feel guilty about his evaluation of the football team and that he would be unconcerned about their status.

relative deprivation

Feelings of discontent aroused by the belief that one fares poorly compared to others.

Illusory correlations, attributions about men's and women's behavior, subtyping men and women who are not representative, and seeking information that supports one's views are four ways in which: a. gender roles develop. b. gender stereotypes endure. c. all stereotypes are overcome. d. prejudice is minimized.

Gender stereotypes endure. Illusory correlations work to exaggerate any gender differences that do exist. Research suggests that people make different attributions for men's and women's behaviors and these attributions bolster stereotypes. By subtyping people as "exceptions to the rule," people can maintain their stereotypes even when they are faced with people who do not fit the stereotypes. Finally, people tend to seek out information that supports their stereotypes about men and women. This confirmation bias causes stereotypes to endure. Gender roles may be reinforced by attributions and people's seeking of information, but it is unclear how illusory correlations or subtyping would lead to gender role development. These processes help stereotypes to endure, rather than allowing stereotypes to be overcome or allowing prejudice to be minimized.

ingroups

Groups to which we belong.

Discuss the effects of fear arousal in politics.

Guided by Terror Management Theory and the prediction that a deeply rooted fear of death motivates people to rally around their leaders as a way to ward off anxiety, Mark Landau and his colleagues (2004) found that college students expressed more support for President George W. Bush and his policies if they were reminded of their own mortality or were subliminally exposed to images of 9/11 than if they were not. This result is not limited to the laboratory. Analyzing patterns of government issued terror warnings and Gallup polls, Robb Willer (2004) found that increased terror alerts were predictably followed by increases in Presidential approval ratings.

A majority is more likely to be persuaded to change its views if the dissenting minority: a. has accumulated idiosyncrasy credits. b. seems very obstinate and unusual. c. keeps changing back and forth from conforming to dissenting. d. is perceived as an outgroup.

Has accumulated idiosyncrasy credits. Idiosyncrasy credits are interpersonal "credits" a person earns by following group norms. Research has shown that by first conforming and then dissenting, minorities may be effective in influencing the majority. Minorities are less effective if they seem very obstinate or unusual, do not appear to be sure of themselves because they keep changing back and forth from conforming to dissenting, or are perceived as an outgroup.

In one high school, students from the country have always fought with students from the city. In order to reduce this intergroup hostility, the principal decides that the people in the two groups need to have personal contact on an equal-status basis. What else might he do to try to achieve more harmonious relations between the groups? a. Have them work together on a school wide project. b. Have them identify the strengths of their own group. c. Have them take classes designed to familiarize the groups with aspects of each other's lives. d. Have teachers identify students based on their group affiliation.

Have them work together on a school wide project. The principal has met most of the necessary conditions for establishing intergroup contacts that promote racial harmony, personal contacts, equal status, and norms that support positive relations. One condition he has not met is the establishment of superordinate goals. By having the students work together on a school wide project, he could meet this condition as well. Having students identify their group's strengths, having students become familiar with each other's lives, and having teachers identify students based on their group affiliation have not been shown to promote racial harmony. Currently, it is uncertain whether these proposals will help promote racial harmony or not.

Jeanne has a negative attitude toward bikes but a positive attitude toward skateboards. If she has spent a lot of time biking and only a little time skateboarding, which attitude is likely to be the stronger one? a. Her attitude toward biking is likely to be stronger. b. Her attitude toward skateboarding is likely to be stronger. c. Both attitudes are likely to be strong. d. Both attitudes are likely to be weak.

Her attitude toward biking is likely to be stronger. Jeanne has spent more time biking and thus has more personal contact with biking. Research shows that attitudes about objects with which people have more personal contact tend to be stronger attitudes. Jeanne's attitude toward skateboarding is less likely to be strong because she has had little contact with skateboarding.

The theory that says people are motivated only to appear consistent to others is: a. Impression-management theory. b. The elaboration model. c. Self-perception theory. d. Cognitive dissonance theory.

Impression-management theory. An alternative to a dissonance view of self-persuasion is impression-management theory, which says that what matters is not a motive to be consistent but a motive to appear consistent. Nobody wants to be called fickle or be seen by others as a hypocrite. So we calibrate our attitudes and behaviors publicly just to present ourselves to others in a particular light (Baumeister, 1982; Tedeschi et al., 1971). Or perhaps we are motivated not by a desire to appear consistent but by a desire to avoid being held responsible for the unpleasant consequences of our actions (Schlenker, 1982). Either way, this theory places the emphasis on our concern for self-presentation.

Discuss whether attitudes lead to behaviors that are consistent with the attitudes. Describe aspects of attitudes that can strengthen their relationship to behavior.

In general, attitudes show a weak relationship to behavior; they predict behaviors, but not very well. For one thing, people are not always thinking about their attitudes. Indeed, attitudes are better predictors of behavior when the attitudes are accessible - that is, when people are thinking about their attitudes. In addition, not all attitudes are well thought out and clear in the minds of the people who hold them. Some attitudes are closer to a weak impression than to a strong feeling that people have toward an object. Attitudes generally are better predictors if they are strong.

A cultural orientation in which independence, autonomy, and self-reliance take priority over group allegiances best describes: a. individualism. b. collectivism. c. public conformity . d. private conformity.

Individualism. There are different cultural orientations toward persons and their relationships to groups. Some cultures primarily value individualism and the virtues of independence, autonomy, and self-reliance, while others value collectivism and the virtues of interdependence, cooperation, and social harmony. Under the banner of individualism, personal goals take priority over group allegiances. Yet in collectivistic cultures, the person is first and foremost a loyal member of a family, team, company, church, and state.

Self-perception theory suggests that people change their attitudes to match their behaviors because they: a. feel a psychological tension. b. want to maintain a positive self-image. c. infer their attitudes from their behaviors. d. want to impress other people.

Infer their attitudes from their behaviors. Self-perception theory proposes that people infer their own attitudes in the same way that they infer other people's attitudes: on the basis of behaviors. Therefore, self-perception theory suggests that people make inferences about their own attitudes from their behaviors. Self-perception theory does not propose that people change their attitudes because they feel a psychological tension, want to maintain a positive self-image, or want to manage the impressions of others.

informational influence

Influence that produces conformity because a person believes others are correct in their judgments.

normative influence

Influence that produces conformity because a person fears the negative social consequences of appearing deviant.

Before registering for class, Susan asks her friends about a professor. They all say the professor is a great teacher. Not knowing the professor, Susan therefore comes to believe that he is a great teacher and looks forward to taking his class. This illustrates: a. reciprocal concessions. b. perceptual contrast. c. informational influence. d. public conformity.

Informational influence. Informational influence is influence that produces conformity because a person believes others are correct in their judgments. Faced with a clear consensus among her friends, and not having had any opportunity to form her own opinion about the professor, Susan reasonably assumes that her friends' judgments are valid; hence, she adopts their opinion. The notion of reciprocal concessions refers to the pressure to respond to changes in a bargaining position; there is no bargaining going on in this example. In the context of social influence, perceptual contrast refers to the tendency to perceive a request as smaller if it was preceded by a larger request than if it was not; this is not relevant in this example. Public conformity is a superficial change in observable behavior, without a corresponding change of opinion, produced by real or imagined group pressure; but there is no evidence that Susan was responding to real or imagined group pressure, and in any case Susan's opinion did change.

idiosyncrasy credits

Interpersonal "credits" a person earns by following group norms.

Carly decides to write a paper for her English class that argues for capital punishment even though she is against it. Cognitive dissonance theory would predict that Carly is: a. likely to favor capital punishment more. b. likely to favor capital punishment less. c. unlikely to change her views on capital punishment. d. likely to find the experience enjoyable.

Likely to favor capital punishment more. Early research testing cognitive dissonance theory found that when people write essays that are contrary to their attitudes, they often change their attitudes so that they are closer to their essays. Cognitive dissonance explained this finding by noting that the act of writing the essay is inconsistent with the writer's attitudes, which should produce cognitive dissonance. The easiest way to reduce this dissonance is for the people to change their attitudes; after all, they cannot take back their essays. Therefore, in this example, cognitive dissonance theory would predict that Carly will change her attitude about capital punishment and become more in favor of it; and because she has experienced cognitive dissonance, she probably has not found the experience enjoyable.

Oscar was walking in a relatively clean parking lot. Walking a few feet in front of him was a man named Felix. Oscar observed Felix stop to pick up and throw into a garbage can some litter that someone had thrown on the ground. Having seen Felix do this, Oscar, who was just about to throw his gum wrapper on the ground, stopped himself from doing this and instead threw the wrapper into the garbage can. Oscar was influenced by Felix's behavior because it: a. made Oscar more aware of injunctive norms. b. elicited obedience in Oscar. c. made Oscar exhibit reciprocal concessions. d. was a sequential strategy.

Made Oscar more aware of injunctive norms. Injunctive norms specify how people in general should behave; for example, they should clean up litter. Research by Cialdini and others has shown that making people aware of group or situational norms increases the likelihood that they will be influenced by these norms. Because no authority commanded anyone in this example, there was no evidence of obedience, which is a behavior change produced by the commands of authority. The notion of reciprocal concessions refers to the pressure to respond to changes in a bargaining position; but there was no bargaining going on in this example. And finally, although several compliance techniques involve a sequential strategy, in which two or more related requests are made in a sequence, no such requests were made in this example.

In which of the following situations is Matthew most likely to exhibit private conformity? a. Matthew is sure of the proper way to behave, but he is faced with a very large group that is behaving in a very different way. b. Matthew is not at all sure of the proper way to behave, and he is in the presence of three other people who are confident that their behavior is correct. c. Matthew is sure of the proper way to behave, but he is faced with a small but unanimous group that is behaving in a very different way. d. Matthew is commanded by an authority to behave in a particular way.

Matthew is not at all sure of the proper way to behave, and he is in the presence of three other people who are confident that their behavior is correct. Private conformity is most likely to occur when there is no obviously correct or incorrect opinion. Because it is not clear to Matthew what the correct or incorrect opinion is, he is vulnerable to private conformity, particularly because the confidence of the other people should make their opinion a source of informational influence for him. If Matthew were sure of the proper way to behave, he would have been less likely to exhibit private conformity. The presence of a large group, or of a small but unanimous group, that was behaving in a very different way would increase the chances of public conformity, but Matthew's confidence would leave him less vulnerable to private conformity. If Matthew were commanded by an authority, he might exhibit obedience, which is a behavior change produced by the commands of authority, but he would not exhibit private conformity.

Attitudes are often measured by means of self-reports, questionnaires on which respondents endorse their attitudes. Another technique often used is to collect covert measures. Covert measures are a. collected from the respondent's friends, who describe what his or her attitudes are. b. measures that are taken in addition to self-report measures. c. collected by use of a bogus pipeline. d. measures collected indirectly.

Measures collected indirectly. Covert measures, like facial movements, physiological recordings, and brain-wave patterns, are collected indirectly without the respondents being able to control their responses. The bogus pipeline is not a covert measure as respondents are aware their attitudes are being measured and can control their responses. This procedure attempts to get respondents to give accurate responses. Sometimes covert measures are collected by means of self-reports but usually they are not. Finally, asking a respondent's friends about the respondent's attitudes is usually viewed as assessing the friend's attitudes about the respondent's attitude via self-report.

Summarize the ways in which Milgram varied the authority in different conditions of his research on destructive obedience. How did these variations affect the levels of obedience observed?

Milgram varied the apparent status of the experimenter (the authority) by moving his lab from the prestigious Yale University to a rundown urban office building with no university affiliation. The rate of total obedience dropped from 65 percent at Yale to 48 percent at the office building - still a surprisingly high level of obedience. When the authority of the experimenter was diminished even more by replacing him with what appeared to be another participant, there was a dramatic drop in total obedience to 20 percent. In another condition, the experimenter issued his commands to the participants by telephone. This condition also showed a dramatic drop in obedience from the original condition - 21 percent of the participants obeyed all the way.

Characterize modern racism. Describe when it is most, and least, likely to be evident.

Modern racism is a recent form of racism characterized by a tension between two values: an egalitarian value which maintains that all people are created equal and deserve equal treatment, and traditional racial prejudice which maintains that certain racial groups are inferior to other groups. The latter value, often expressed in old-fashioned racism, is not as often expressed in modern racism. Modern racists rarely endorse overt prejudice and discrimination because it contradicts their egalitarian values. Yet the influence of racist values can be seen in situations where prejudice and discrimination can be justified. Here modern racists will engage in discriminatory actions, but when the discrimination could challenge their egalitarian values, they will be less likely to discriminate.

Tom is prejudiced against Blacks but doesn't admit it. He sees a Black store owner being robbed. Although he would ordinarily try to help in such emergencies, he does nothing. Tom's lack of action is an example of: a. old-fashioned racism. b. reaction time. c. outgroup homogeneity. d. modern racism

Modern racism. Tom's actions illustrate modern racism because he failed to help the store owner in a situation that offered a good rationalization not to help. In this sort of situation, Tom would be unlikely to feel that he was not being egalitarian. Tom's behavior is less an example of old-fashioned racism because, if he were an old-fashioned racist, he would be more likely to admit his prejudice. Reaction time and outgroup homogeneity have no clear relationship to Tom's behavior.

Karen needs to type a term paper. To persuade her roommate to let Karen use her computer, Karen first lends her some notes that the roommate needs and then asks if she can use her computer. Karen is using the a. social impact theory. b. that's-not-all technique. c. low-balling technique. d. norm of reciprocity.

Norm of reciprocity. The norm of reciprocity dictates that we should treat others as they treat us. Karen apparently assumes that if she does her roommate a favor, then her roommate will feel obligated to return the favor later. Social impact theory maintains that social influence depends on the strength, immediacy, and number of source persons relative to target persons; but Karen has not manipulated any of these factors, so this theory is not relevant here. The that's-not-all-technique is a two-step compliance technique in which the influencer begins with an inflated request, then immediately decreases the apparent size of that request by offering a discount or bonus; but Karen has not offered a discount or bonus. The low-balling technique is a two-step compliance technique in which the influencer secures agreement with a request but then increases the size of that request by revealing hidden costs; but Karen has not increased the size of her request in any way.

Hector's friends all say a recent test was difficult. Hector thinks the test was easy. When asked what he thought, Hector agrees with his friends. This outcome illustrates a. normative influence. b. private conformity. c. reciprocity norms. d. obedience.

Normative influence. Normative influence is influence that produces conformity because a person fears the negative social consequences of appearing deviant. Hector's behavior is consistent with this influence; rather than stand out from his friends, Hector decides to agree with them even though he had a different opinion. Because Hector's personal opinion was that the test was easy, there is no evidence of private conformity, which refers to a change of mind that occurs when a person privately accepts the position taken by others. The reciprocity norm dictates that we should treat others as they treat us; but there is no evidence that Hector was reciprocating for a previous favor or for previous conformity on the part of his friends. Finally, obedience is behavior change produced by the commands of authority; but Hector was not commanded by an authority.

incremental theorists

People who expect less consistency within a social group, are less likely to see a group in trait terms or as having a core essence, and see the boundaries between groups as fuzzy and changeable.

entity theorists

People who tend to see social groups as relatively fixed, static entities and the borders between groups as relatively clear and rigid.

The theory of planned behavior suggests that one reason attitudes might not always predict behaviors is that: a. people may not have strong enough attitudes. b. people's attitudes may be outside their awareness. c. people may have only false attitudes. d. people's intentions to act may be different from their attitudes.

People's intentions to act may be different from their attitudes. The theory of planned behavior stresses that in order for an attitude to predict behavior, that attitude must lead to an intention to act in a specific situation. But such intentions to act do not always follow from people's attitudes, which prevents their attitudes from predicting their behavior. The theory of planned behavior does not encompass the strength of attitudes, the awareness of attitudes, or the falseness of attitudes.

racism

Prejudice and discrimination based on a person's racial background.

Sherif conducted a study in which participants in totally darkened rooms estimated how far a dot of light appeared to move. Asch conducted a study in which participants were asked to report which of three lines was identical in length to a standard line. Was the conformity found in Sherif's study private conformity, public conformity, or both? Was the conformity found in Asch's study private conformity, public conformity, or both? How can one tell the difference? Explain your answers.

Private conformity is a change of mind that occurs when a person privately accepts the position taken by others. Public conformity is a superficial change in observable behavior, without a corresponding change of opinion, produced by real or imagined group pressure. The conformity found in Sherif's study was primarily private conformity, whereas that found in Asch's study was primarily public conformity. The situation was very ambiguous for the participants in Sherif's study; they could not be sure how far the dot of light really moved. Hence, these participants looked to the other participants to provide them with information about what the correct answers were. Thus vulnerable to the informational influence that the participants provided for each other, the participants in Sherif's study exhibited private conformity to the group norm. One can tell that this was private and not merely public conformity because, when participants in Sherif's study were later asked to make the same judgments alone (in a situation where there would be little pressure against deviating from a group norm), they continued to make judgments consistent with the group norm. By contrast, the situation in Asch's study was not ambiguous; the correct answers were obvious to the participants. When these participants conformed to the judgments given by the majority, they were publicly, but not privately, conforming. That is, they continued to believe their original judgments, but they responded by giving a different judgment so as not to deviate from the rest of the group. One can tell that the conformity was more public than private here because, when participants were asked to write down their answers privately (in a situation where there was much less pressure against deviating from a group norm), levels of conformity dropped sharply.

Sherif conducted a study in which participants in totally darkened rooms estimated how far a dot of light appeared to move. Asch conducted a study in which participants were asked to report which of three lines was identical in length to a standard line. Compared to the participants in Sherif's study, those in Asch's study exhibited more: a. vulnerability to informational influence. b. private conformity. c. obedience. d. public conformity.

Public conformity. Public conformity is a superficial change in observable behavior, without a corresponding change of opinion, produced by real or imagined group pressure. Because the correct answers in Asch's study were so obvious, the participants' conformity reflected the desire to seem to agree with the majority; privately, they knew the correct answers. Because the correct answers were obvious to them, the participants in Asch's study were protected from informational influence, which is influence that produces conformity because a person believes others are correct in their judgments. In contrast, Sherif's participants were not at all sure what the correct answers were, so they looked to the other participants to provide them with information about these answers. Thus vulnerable to informational influence, the participants in Sherif's study exhibited private conformity, which is a change of mind that occurs when a person privately accepts the position taken by others, but Asch's participants did not privately accept the position taken by the others. Obedience is a behavior change produced by the commands of authority, but there were no commands given by an authority in either of these two studies.

The blue gang and the red gang are having a dispute about who controls the turf around the vacant lot next to the high school. During this dispute, fighting between the two groups escalates. This result could be most easily predicted from: a. social categorization theory. b. modern racism. c. confirmation biases. d. realistic conflict theory.

Realistic conflict theory. The two gangs appear to be fighting over a scarce resource - the vacant lot. Realistic conflict theory tries to account for such situations, predicting that when such a conflict occurs animosity between the groups will increase. Social categorization could also predict animosity between the groups, but not the escalation of conflict during the dispute. Confirmation biases and modern racism would not make clear predictions about this situation because there is insufficient information about the gangs' racial compositions or their expectations about one another.

The mayor and her challenger set up a debate three weeks before the election. They both agree that this will be the one and only debate. The challenger gets the opportunity to decide whether to go first or last in the debate. What advice would you give her? a. She should go first. b. She should go last. c. It doesn't matter whether she goes first or last. d. Whether she should go first or last depends on what she is going to say

She should go first. Because the election is just a few weeks away, the challenger would probably be better off going first, so she could take advantage of the primacy effect. Research shows that when two messages are presented together and there is a time separation before people make a decision about the quality of the messages, as is the case in this example, people tend to prefer the first message - a primacy effect. Recency effects tend to occur when people make a decision about the quality of the messages immediately after the messages are presented. Primacy and recency effects are general effects and seem to be the result of the way people's memories work; as such, they do not seem to be affected by the content of messages.

Describe how social categorization can lead people to see all members of an outgroup in the same way. Discuss the implications of this process for intergroup perceptions and interactions.

Social categorization can lead people to see all members of an outgroup in the same way through the outgroup homogeneity effect. When people categorize others as belonging to social groups, they exaggerate the differences between these groups. They also tend to see their own group as being comprised of many different types of people, whereas they see the outgroup as being composed of people who are all basically the same. One reason for this outgroup homogeneityeffect is that people usually have a lot more contact with people in their own group than they have with people in another group. Therefore, they get to know more types of people in their own group. A second reason for this effect is that even if people have contact with members of the outgroup, this contact might reflect a biased sample. They might only have contact with a certain type of member of the outgroup. The outgroup homogeneity effect has important implications. If people perceive all outgroup members as being the same, then they will evaluate the whole group based on the actions of one individual, and they will evaluate the individual based on their perceptions of the group.