Social Psychology Exam 3

Take responsibility for providing help

Diffusion of responsibility-as number of people increases, each person's feeling of personal obligation decreases. Bike theif- Brothers wen to public places in New York City like Union Square and pretended to steal their own bikes. Even with hack saw, angle grinder, etc. Nobody stopped any of them. Would it be different with a black person?

o How are non-heterosexual relationships the same or different from heterosexual relationships?

Equity theory doesn't apply to gay and lesbian and relationships, even though they don't have a big difference from heterosexuals. Tend to reject traditional husband-wife roles as models for their relationships. Tend to be just as successful as heterosexual relationships, no differences in measures of love, satisfaction Hard to get estimates on the longevity of gay relationships, but many traditional barriers to ending relationships (children, financial dependence) don't exist for gay couples. Study measured liking and loving of partner, no difference between married, gay, and lesbian couples. Only cohabitating couples were lower on liking.

o How do men and women differ in in their minimum standards for partners? How do they respond differently to sexual requests?

Experiment when male or female requestor asked "Would you got out with me tonight?" "...Come over to my apartment tonight?" "...go to bed with me tonight?" Half of women would go out, 6% apartment, none go to bed. 50% men would go out, more go to apartment, 75% go to bed.

Evolutionary perspectives on mate selection

Know the main tenets of evolutionary perspectives on mate selection and.. Men more likely to offer professional status and to seek attractiveness. Offer height, seek weight, see younger women. Women are more likely to offer physical attractiveness and to seek professional status. Offer weight, seek height, seek older men.

Decide how to help

Lack of competence can interfere. Can help either directly, or get someone else, 911

o What are Gottman's 4 trouble markers for relationship longevity?

Long-lasting relationships happen when-incorporated each other into one's self, have become interdependent and have invested much into relationships. But intensify stress and make coping more difficult after relationship ends. Dissatisfaction in relationships predicting longing for ex-partners. Increased longing for exes over time predicted decreased relationships quality, but only among those considering recent exes.

Notice the event

May fail to notice things because we are distracted or in a hurry "Good Samaritan" Study- told seminary students they had to give a speech across campus that was either neutral or the parable of the "Good Samaritan." On their way saw a man slumped in doorway. Didn't matter which version of speech, most of them only stopped if they were ahead of schedule, some on time, and hardly any if they were late

Be able to pick out and give examples of the evolutionary perspective on mate selection.

Men can father unlimited number of children and ensure their reproductive success by inseminating many women. Lower parental investment. Women must be highly selective because they are biologically limited in the number of children they can bear and raise in a lifetime. Higher parental investment.

Evolutionary theory

- Female reproductive strategies and male reproductive strategies (can produce fewer children, can conceive from puberty until death. Resources, reproduction, etc.)

o We talked about gender differences in attitudes toward sexuality. Which major attitudes changed from when Oliver & Hyde first did their study (in 1993) to 2010? Which stayed the same?

Men report being more sexually permissive and active than women. Men and women see sex differently in everyday interactions, men view the world in more "sexualized" terms. In 1993 Oliver and Hyde-men more liber in attitudes toward premarital sex, accepting of extramarital sex, likely to have had sex, more sexual partners, only slightly more liberal in attitude toward masturbation, had greater incidence of masturbation. No differences in sexual satisfaction, incidence of kissing, incidence of oral sex, or attitudes toward homosexuality. In 2010- men somewhat more likely to engage in heterosexual intercourse, but is small and decreasing. Males report somewhat more frequent intercourse, but negligible difference. Average age at first intercourse before 1970 is 18 for men, 19 for women. Oral sex rates have gone up, but no gender differences. Men have more extramarital sex, but attitudes about it have no gender difference. Men still report higher masturbation incidence, but gap is narrowing and there's no difference in attitudes. Biggest gender difference is PORN USAGE. Gender differences in sexual permissiveness and attitudes about premarital sex are shrinking. Women more accepting toward gay men, no gender differences for lesbians. Women more likely to identify as bi than homo, men more likely to identify as homo than bi.

Interpret event as emergency

Pluralistic ignorance, we thing everyone else interprets the situation as we do Smoke-filled room study Peter lying in street pretending to be ill, no one helped for 20 minutes. Woman didn't receive help for six until someone else helped her. Peter laid down well-dressed and immediately got help from multiple people because he was part of their group. People follow actions of others. Also assume danger because homeless, drugs, drunk, or "just don't get involved."

o What is the general relationship between age (or age of relationship) and amount of sex? How about the relationship between age of relationship and marital satisfaction?

The older you are, the less sex you have. Lesbians have the least. Married couples have more sex than single people, except cohabitating couples. Sex is most likely to be finished in less than 15 minutes, single people are more likely to say most recent sex had more than genital intercourse. Married people more likely to say most recent sex partner brought physical or emotional satisfaction, single people have more partners of the course of a year, orgasm rates are about the same. Matiral satisfaction-U-shaped. Decreases with children and then raises when children move out Muise said that people who are motivated to meet sexual needs of partner are more likely to maintain sexually passionate relationship, even after controlling for relationship satisfaction, frequency of intercourse, age, and children. If people have similar discrepancies in relationship they have higher longevity.

Sternberg's triangular theory of Love

Three basic ingredients: passion, intimacy, commitment. Consummate love-ideal love. Intimacy, passion, and commitment. Liking=intimacy alone, comanionate love= intimacy and commitment, empty love=commitment alone (is a decision), fatuous love=passion, commitment, infatuation=passion alone, romantic love=intimacy, passion Changes in love over time-commitment has to grow, intimacy grows, passion dies off

Hostile aggression

"hot," impulsive angry behavior that is motivated by a desire to harm someone

Arousal

(Excitation transferal/misattribution of arousal) Excitation transfer theory- One's physiological arousal can be labeled in many ways; sometimes arousal is misattributed to romantic interest. Ex.-shaky bridge study. More aroused the men were, the more likely they were to call the woman back.

Similarity

(Matching hypothesis)-People tend to become involved romantically with others who are equivalent in their physical attractiveness. Individual photos of engaged troubles were matched together by participants. Instead of random matching, they matched according to attractiveness.. People in couples start to look alike after they have been together longer -- why do psychologists suspect this is the case? Some people start to look alike, as in engage in similar activities, dress similarly, etc. Sharing negative attitudes brings people closer together than sharing positive ones.

Familiarity

(Mere exposure effect)-Develop more positive attitude toward people you're around.

Social exchange theory

(investment model)-All social relationships are like economic bargains. Seek out and maintain relationships where rewards exceed costs. Also, look at possible rewards and costs in alternative relationships. Explains why people stay in dissatisfying relationships because don't want to leave relationship with big investment (money, children, property). Costs->satisfaction->commitment

Fear and affiliation

- female participants told that they would receive electrical shocks that were either quite painful or "like a tickle." Those who expected fear preferred to wait with others. Those with low fear waited alone.

Physical Attractiveness

- freshmen couples in high school did speed dating. Matched people randomly, not according to the dating profiles. None of the factors mattered except how attractive they thought each other were when asked to dance. Facial features

Consensual non-monogamy

- people in these are less jealous, more sexually satisfied, share child rearing responsibilities, lower incidence of STI's, but have greater stigma.

Instrumental aggression

-"cold," premeditated, calculated harmful behavior that is a means to some practical or material end.

• There are several different theories of prejudice -- you should know how these theories work and what their assumptions are.

1. Authoritarian (socially dominant) personality/orientation-Allport-Prejudice is an inevitable consequence of stereotypes. Wherever there are stereotypes prejudice will follow. ??? 2. Evolutionary explanations-In humans' Environment of Evolutionary Adaptedness (1.8 million-10,000 years ago), it was adaptive to treat unfamiliar others with suspicion/dislike. Those who feared unfamiliar others were more likely to survive and reproduce. Tendency toward prejudice is part of humans' evolutionary heritage. 3. Realistic group conflict theory- Limited resources lead to conflict. Prejudiced attitudes increase when times are tense and conflict exists over mutually exclusive goals (Immigrants and getting jobs?) 4. Motivational explanations- Stereotypes, prejudice, and/or discrimination fulfill psychological needs (communion, self-enhancement, protection against death anxiety) Normative conformity Social identity theory Terror management theory

• There are many ways that stereotypes resist change, make sure you can give examples (along with the studies that support them) for a few of them.

1. Biased storage and processing of new information 2. Subtyping 3. Illusory correlations 4. Media perpetuation 5. Self-fulfilling prophecies 6. Stereotype threat

• Latané and Darley gave two primary reasons for what happened to Kitty. What were they (2) ? What were the studies associated with each?

1. Diffusion of responsibility-The more people present at an emergency, the less likely that any one of them will help. Told participants they were participating in a study about the stresses of college. Did "Round-Robin" question style. Experimenter stepped out, and no one was allowed to interrupt each other. Were to receive a phone call. Either heard one or four people, and one person talked about bad seizures. That person has one on the phone in each group, all were actually pre-recorded tapes. If participant was alone, 85% of them went to get help and it only took 52 seconds. If there were a bunch of people, much more time and less likely to do so. Kitty example- "My wife wanted to call the police, but I told her not to Surely a dozen other people had already called." 2. Pluralistic Ignorance-In uncertain situations, people look to actions of others. People mistakenly believe their own thoughts and feelings are different from those of others because everyone's behavior is the same. Had people go to fill out a survey in a room either alone or with other confederates. Smoke started to enter the room. If person was alone, 50% left after two minutes, and 75% after six minutes. If in a group that didn't leave, only 12% left after two and 38% after six. Kitty example-"I thought it was a lover's quarrel" "I figured it was just a couple of kids having some fun."

• Define/contrast Evolutionary theories of aggression from early instinct theories on aggression.

1. Early instinct theories Freud: We have a death instinct that is driving against life instinct, it's an unconscious impulse toward self-destruction. Death shows in aggression, life in reproduction. Konrad Lorenz-aggression is an innate, instinctual motivation. Aggression secures an advantage in the struggle to survive. 2. Evolutionary theory-similarities between Lorenz's instinct theory and evolutionary psychology. Emphasis placed on genetic survival rather than survival of the individual. Accounts for inhibition of aggression against genetically related others.

• What is aggression? What are the three important features?

1. Is a behavior 2. Is intentional (not accidental), and the intent is harm 3. Victim wants to avoid the harm

How do stigmatized groups respond to negative stereotypes?- Stigma can actually protect self-esteem when:

1. Make social comparisons to ingroup members and not to outgroup members. 2. Attributin negative feedback to group membership (attributional ambiguity) 3. Devaluing domans on which your group performs poorly • But can also lead to anxiety, which is a stereotype threat

Long-term effects of exposure to media violence

1. Modeling-Aggression becomes seen as more legitimate for resolving conflicts 2. Desensitization-We become desensitized to violence and therefore more accepting of aggressive behavior 3. Values and expectations are changed-come to see the world as much more violent than it really is

• There are 4 theories of prosocial behavior and altruism

1. Negative State Relief Model 2. Empathic Joy Hypothesis 3. Empathy-Altruism Theory 4. Evolutionary theories

• What are some biological factors implicated in aggression? What evidence is there to support this?

1. Neural influences-amygdala 2. Genetic influences-twin studies, selective animal breeding 3. Blood chemistry 4. Testosterone-strong, positive correlation between testosterone levels and aggression. Not sure if it accounts for sex differences in physical aggression. If you give lab rats testosterone, they get more aggressive, but when people are aggressive, they're testosterone increases. Which comes first? Testoersone in male prisoners is highest in violent crime, then socially dominant, and then nonaggressive. 5. Serotonin-Neurotransmitter; appears to restrain impulsive acts of aggression. Low levels of serotonin are associated with high levels of aggression. Drugs that increase serotonin levels can reduce aggressiveness as well as other impulsive and socially deviant behaviors.

• What are 5 situational factors that influence whether or not someone will help?

1. Number of people present-Kitty Genovese, or California girl gang-raped at Homecoming 2. Time constraints-Good Samaritan study 3. Modeling-Presence of a model can increase helping. When there is a flat tire on the high way with a model helping another person, it increased the chances of someone stopping down the road when they saw someone else with a flat tire. Same with someone donating in a salvation army kettle. 4. Location-Cities vs. small towns. Small town people feel more pressure to help because everyone knows everyone 5. Culture-Some cultures stress sympathy towards strangers. Hispanic countries rated high in helping. Elderly in Hiroshima help clean up after nuclear disaster

• What are some individual factors that influence whether or not someone will help?

1. Personality-Penner and Finkelstein interviewed AIDS service organization volunteers about motives for helping. Rated high in other-oriented empathy. 2. Mood- Researchers left dimes in the coins lot of a payphone. Man drops a folder ahead of him, the people who found the dime were 80% more likely to help the mam with his folders. Good moods make us look on the bright side of life. Helping others can prolong our good mood. Good moods increase self-attention/self-awareness. Lost Wallet Study- Lost wallet being returned is lost in the letter and has a message. Three different messages were options. There was appositive note, and 70% random people were likely to seal it and mail it. If it was negative 60% people were likely too. Neutral only 10 %. The attitudes whether positive or negative triggered an attitude in the participant, changed their mood to want to help the poor person who lost the wallet. 3. Gender-Women don't usually get Carnegie medals, but they take the majority of other helpful acts like Righteous among the Nations, U.S. Kidney Donors, Peace Corps volunteers, and Doctors of the World. Women less likely to put themselves in danger, but more likely to nurture in other areas. Empathy drives altruism

Two types of social learning

1. Reinforcement (direct) Aggression can be positively as well as negatively reinforced Positive reinforcement: Aggression produces desired outcomes Negative reinforcement: Aggression prevents or stops undesirable outcomes 2. Imitation (indirect learning) • Example-Bobo doll study. Adult hit and kicked bobo doll, punched it. Kid did same thing after seeing the model. When didn't have one, didn't know what to do with the doll. The child with the model was also more attracted to a gun and hostile language. Did this because the model didn't get punished. Aggression without punishment is reinforced. People aren't born with schemas for aggression, but they can be learned. Nonaggressive models decrease aggressive behavior.

• What are some interpersonal factors that influence whether or not someone will help?

1. Relationship between helper and recipient- Bystander effect in medical care. Dermatology service evaluated a sick previously healthy 32 year old man who was acutely ill after 3 days of nonspecific symptoms. Over 40 doctors participated in his care in only 11 days in ICU. Inability to easily name is disease created ambiguity about "ownership" of the patient. Nobody certain what was wrong, so everyone waited for someone else to diagnose him. Only when acute decompensation occurred did the doctor of the moment act decisively to save him. Medical personal need to be aware of how their relationship with patient changes when there are multiple physicians. Photographer at subway accident-he benefited from photographing man's death instead of helping 2. Race 3. Physical characteristics of victim

Where do stereotypes come from?

1. Social cognitive explanation-stereotypes arise inevitable from the manner in which we process and organize information. Allport-law of least effort. 2. Social categorization explanation-Categorize objects (people) into groups: in-grous (us) and out-groups (them). Bias in favor of the in-group (social identity theory), out groups seen as DIFFERENT from ingroups, outgroup homogeneity bias-they're all alike. 3. Attributions-Negative behaviors from an outgroup member is based on the personality and characteristics of the member which is then extended to all of the members of that outgroup. Ingroup positive behavior is because of characteristics of group, and negative because of characteristics of situation, opposite for outgroup.

• The model of bystander intervention describes 5 stages or hurdles, what are they? What are the studies associated with each one?

1. notice the event 2. interpret event as emergency 3. take responsibility for providing help 4. decide how to help 5. provide help

• In what ways does the media perpetuate stereotypes and promote prejudice?

29% of individuals that are living in poverty are black, but 62% of photos representing poor are of black individuals. When asked to guess the percentage, participants guessed 50% of poor are black. Time Magazine's "Poverty in America" cover shows blacks.

• Describe/define frustration-aggression theory. What are some limitations to the theory?

3 main propositions to original theory, situational factors. 1. Frustration will always elicit the drive to attack others 2. Every act of aggression could be traced to some previous frustration 3. Engaging in aggression causes catharsis, which reduces aggressive drive Catharsis=reduction of the motive to aggress that is said to result from any imagined, observed, or actual act of aggression. Displacement=aggressing against a substitute target because aggressive acts against the source of the frustration are inhibited by fear or lack of access. Limitations: Frustration is related to aggression, but does not always produce aggressive inclinations. Produces anger or annoyance and a readiness to aggress if other things about the situation are conducive to aggressive behavior. Catharsis concept is NOT SUPPORTED.

• Are there gender differences in aggression? Why?

Aggression is a means for mails to achieve and maintain status. Females place higher value on protecting their own lives in order to protect their offspring, so they are more likely to engage in indirect aggression.

• How is alcohol related to aggression?

Alcohol, like high arousal, can impair the cognitive control of aggression. Increases aggression through-reducing anxiety, which lowers inhibitions against aggression. Also causes alcohol myopia, a disruption in the way we process information. Also has expectancy effects, people act like they expect to when they think they're drunk, even if had a placebo.

• How is pornography linked to sexual violence?

As porn became more available in 1960s and 70s, rapes sharply increased except in countries where porn was controlled. In Hawaii, rapes rose ninefold between 1960-74, dropped with law change, and then rose again when law was lifted. Rapists and child molesters use porn MUCH more than men who are not sexual offenders. Study-Men exposed to nonsexual violent films are sexually violent films, 1 week later the men exposed to sexually violent films were more accepting of violence against women. Study- Men angered by female accomplice than watched neutral, erotic, or aggressive-erotic film. In supposed unrelated study, men who watched the rape film gave strong shocks to the female target. Apparently not explicit sex per se, but aggression with sex that leads to violence.

Empathy-Altruism Theory

Batson study-motivations behind some helpful actions are truly altruistic. It is nature of helper's motivates that counts, not whether or not the helper receives benefits or costs for the helping. If empathy is high enough, we'll help out because of true altruism. Carol study-high empathy people wanted to help whether high or low cost (whether she'd be in class next week or not coming back to class). Low empathy people helped with high cost of her returning to class soon. Really empathy drives altruism.

• What did Linville & Jones (1980) find in their studies on outgroup homogenization and outgroup polarization? What are the implications of that work for what we know about stereotyping?

Because we see in-groups as more complex, we see them as more moderate, see our own groups as heterogenous and out groups as homogenous (Frats in 80s asked to evaluate their frats and others. Everyone claimed their frat was most diverse, but back then none of them were). Had participants read applications by white (in-group) or black (out-group). They were either or weak or strong applications, but were identical whether white or black. When black applications were strong they were thought to be better for the job than the white person, but when weak weak, the whites were seen as better fitter. Partiicpant fills in blanks for application's lacking because whites are part of their in group. Saw black as REALLY weak or strong because doesn't have as many excuses like it does for white folks. Not willing to see out-group for more than it is on paper, but will for in-group.

• Under what conditions does the "contact hypothesis" work? Will simple contact work without some of those conditions?

Contact hypothesis-Under certain conditions, direct contact between rival groups will reduce stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination. Critical conditions: 1. Mutual interdependence 2. Common goal 3. Equal status 4. Informal, interpersonal contact 5. Multiple contacts 6. Social norms of equality • Jigsaw classroom-Kids placed into racially diverse groups to work on an assignment. Each person assigned a unique piece of the puzzle. It decreased prejudice and stereotyping, increased the academic performance, and increased self-esteem and empathy for others.

• What is the relationship between heat and aggression? How is excitation transferal theory related to this?

Crime increases in the summer. Murders and rapes increase with temperature. Transfer of Arousal 1. Arousal can be transferred from one source to another 2. Whether it is transferred depends on the subject's attributions • Excitation transfer theory example-You have near miss in traffic on the way to the airport that heightens your arousal, arousal weakens, then you have another frustrating experience (gate delayed), if you attribute your arousal to the traffic incident your aggression will not increase, but if you attribute it to the gate delay your arousal will increase.

LaPierre study

Discrepancy between attitudes and behavior (cognitive dissonance). Wanted to study prejudice against Chinese in 30s and 40s. Called restaurants and hotels and asked about policy for serving Chinese. 94% said they wouldn't do it, but when the Chinese grad student went to these places and asked for service, only one motel refused him. Something different between way people hold implicit and explicit categories.

• What is the culture of honor? What kinds of evidence is there to support it? What kind of experimental evidence is there to support culture of honor theory?

Emphasis is placed on honor and status, particularly for males, and the role of aggression in protecting that honor. Even minor conflicts or disputes are often seen as challenges to social status and reputation and can therefore trigger aggressive responses. Evidence for culture of honor in U.S. South 1. Homicide analyses-More argument related homicides than felony related homicides in south and southwest 2. Attitude surveys-survey on violence for protection of self, family, and property. First two popular in north too, but only in south is violence acceptable for property. 3. Field studies and experiments- Cohen study- when swabbed for testosterone, insults made testosterone increase, especially when insulted in public. Southern men that were insulted thought others would see them as less masculine if they didn't respond aggressively. Southerns thought okay to respond aggressively to some situations, like when asked to finish the story of someone else hitting on your fiancée. When played "chicken" game with the big guy in a small hallway, Northerner's gave way at 70". Southerner's who weren't insulted or were at least insulted privately gave way at 110", such as southern hospitality would expect, but when they were insulted privately they got VERY close to him. They also thought that the experimenter would think of them as less masculine. 4. Laws and social policies- Southern states have fewer restrictions on gun ownership, have laws that allow people to shoot first and ask questions later, are more accepting of corporal punishment of children at home and in schools, and are more supportive of any wars involving U.S. troops 5. Place names-80% of places with violent names were in south and west, like "Gun Point, FL" etc. 68% of business with violent names were in south. "Shot gun willy's daycare center."

What is the role of nonverbal bias in prejudice?

Exposure to non-verbal pro-white characters increased participants negative implicit racial attitudes toward blacks.

Empathic Joy Hypothesis

Helping makes people feel better about themselves (raises self-esteem). We receive vicarious pleasure from other people's happiness through empathy.

Negative State Relief Model

Helping reduces negative arousal associated with witnessing another's suffering. Observe emergency->negative state induced-> Reduce distress by helping

Ignorance hypothesis

If people only learned what members of other groups are truly like, they wouldn't be prejudiced. Solution would be contact or education, but it doesn't work too well. Robber's Cave Study

Reciprocity

If someone likes you, hard to resist liking them back. Mimicry-nonverbal liking. If you want someone to like you, mimic their nonverbal movements. I-sharing-to promote interpersonal attraction, reframe from "me-self" to "I-self"

• What did Bodenhausen (1988) find in his study about information processing (confirmation bias)?

Information processing-confirmation bias. Participants reviewed evidence in a crime. Suspect's name was either: Carlos Ramirez or Robert Johnson. Learned suspects name before or after hearing evidence. If heard name after evidence, thought Johnson was guilty. If heard name before, thought it was the stereotype of Ramirez.

• What was Devine's (1988) major contribution to stereotyping? How did her findings differ for high and low prejudiced people?

Is it true that people don't know content of stereotypes, and that's why they're low prejudice? Had paraphobial priming task. Had people stare screen and would flash priming words at in peripheral vision on edges of screen and then read an ambiguous story about Donald, with no indication on what his race was. 20% or 80% of the words were racial slurs. Group that saw 20% rated Donald as less hostile whether they were high or low in prejudice. 80% rated Donald as more aggressive, whether they were high or low in prejudice. Evidence that stereotype content leads to greater prejudice. Low prejudice people had more positive thoughts about blacks and vice versa. Low prejudice people suppress negative thoughts because clearly have these thoughts as shown in previous study. Had them make a list of the stereotypes of these races. People high in prejudice talked about stereotypes, "Blacks cause problems." People low in them talked about beliefs, "I think this is wrong." Evidence that people have knowledge but suppress it and have beliefs about stereotypes. Stereotype content is shared equally, but what separates the low vs. high prejudice is their thoughts toward the subject.

• How are self-fulfilling prophecies implicated in stereotyping and prejudice? What did Word, Zanna, & Cooper (1974) do in their study? What happened when they "turned the tables" on the white participants?

Mothers' belief that girls lack math abilities-> Mothers' behaviors toward daughters->Daughters' belief that they lack math abilities->originate from mothers' belief that girls lack math abilities White participants played part of an interviewer, and they interviewed either a white or black confederate. Results showed that the Black applicant received less immediacy, higher rates of speech errors, and shorter interview times. In the second part of the experiment, whit participants were interviewed by a confederate interviewer. White applicants received behaviors that were similar to those given to either the Black or White applicants from experiment one, results showed that those who were treated like the black job applicants performed less adequately, were more nervous, and did worse on the interview.

Altruistic

Motivated by desire to increase another's welfare

Egoistic

Motivated by the desire to increase one's own welfare

• What implications does Social Identity Theory have for prejudice? Self-esteem?

Need for self-esteem can drive people towards personal identity, draw attention to personal achievements, and then leads to self-esteem. BUT, people can look at SOCIAL identities, and lean towards either favoritism toward ingroups or derogation of outgroups, which also lead to self-esteem. Fein and Spencer-Participants received positive or negative personal identity feedback, and then rated a job applicant who shared their Italian heritage or did not and was Jewish. People who had positive feedback, rated the Jew and Italian about the same, but with negative feedback they rated the Italian much higher than the Jew. People who rated the Jewish woman negatively exhibited a large increase in self-esteem. Increase in self-esteem for Italians (in-group) for degrading the Jews (out-group)

• Under normative conformity, what happened when people were led to believe their views were more/less stereotypic than their peers?

Normative conformity-the strong tendency to go along with the group in order to fulfill the group's expectations and gain acceptance. Minard study-studied race relations among miners working in the Pocahontas coal field. When miners were working below the groud, integration between black and white miners was complete and relatively conflict-free. When above ground and off the job, segregation in housing and social lives was almost total. Workers easily adopted highly racist or highly egalitarian norms and moved between the two settings easily. When the experimenters led people to believe that their view of Black people was more stereotype than their peers's reduced endorsement of black stereotypes. However, when they led people to believe that their view of Black people was less stereotypic than their peers;, it increased the endorsement of Black stereotypes

Proximity

One of most important factors in relationship. People in dorms were closest to the people next door, same in a hall building.

• What were the results of the Shooter Bias studies?

Participants told to pay attention to press one key if certain pictures showed a tool and another key if it was a gun, in only ½ second. People were significantly more likely to misidentify a tool as a gun when it was preceded by a black face than when it was preceded by a white face.

• What was Darwin's problem with altruism? What are some evolutionary theories about altruism (2)? What limitations does each theory have?

People and animals go out of their way to keep species protected, even if they kill themselves doing it. Kinship selection and norm of reciprocity.

Empathy training

Perspective taking increases empathy and increases situational attributions. Role playing-like Jane Elliot's "Brown Eyes-Blue Eyes"

• What are some factors that affect how people are initially attracted to one another?

Proximity Familiarity Physical Attractiveness Similarity Reciprocity Arousal Evolutionary

Provide help

Risk feeling like a fool

• How is Terror Management Theory related to prejudiced, or adherence to a cultural worldview? What did McGregor et al. (1998) find in his "Hot Sauce" study?

Self-preservation instinct and awareness of mortality lead to a paralyzing terror. The anxiety buffer is to immerse in a cultural worldview. Mortality salience (being primed with death) leads to anxiety (fear, arousal) leads to prejudice (toward those who challenge one's cultural worldview) Cultural worldview-collection of beliefs, values, and social institutions that are shared by members of one's in group. Provides prescriptions for feeling good and valued, and promise of (literal or symbolic) immortality. McGregor-participants wrote about either death or an exam, then read an essay that either upheld or insulted their worldviews. Participants who wrote about their death allocated more hot sauce to someone who did not share their cultural worldview, but there was no difference for people who wrote about an unpleasant experience.

Theories of romantic relationships

Social exchange theory Equity theory Evolutionary theory

• What is stereotype threat? Know the results of the studies that support the stereotype threat effect for whites/blacks, men/women, asian women, gay men, etc.

Stereotype threat- Apprehension felt by members of negatively stereotyped groups when their behavior might confirm the stereotype. • Claude Steele-Members of stigmatized groups can fear being seen as "through the lens of diminishing stereotypes and low expectations." Stereotype threat can create an apprehension leading to decreased performance on academic tasks. When reminded of negative stereotypes about their group, targets of those stereotypes feel anxiety and self-doubt, show reductions in working memory capacity, underperform, relative to non-stereotyped others. 1. Average SAT score-when told that it was a "Test of intelligence," whites far outperformed blacks, but when told it was a "Task unrelated to intelligence," they did about the same. 2. When black students had to fill out their face before the test (reminded of negative stereotypes about their intelligence), they did much worse on the test than whites, but when didn't, actually did better than whites. 3. When women had to fill out gender before math test, they were reminded of stereotype about their math abilities. They did much worse than men, but when didn't have to fill out gender, they did about the same. 4. Asian-American women take a quantitative test. Female0identity salient condition had to indicate sex and answer questions related to gender identity. Another group was Asian-identity salient, and they had to indicate ethnicity and answer questions related to ethnic identity They were most accurate with Asian identity, and least with female identity? 5. Mini golf game presented to white and black participants as measure of either sports intelligence or natural ability. If sports intelligence, blacks did better, but whites did better with natural ability.

• What are Prejudice, Stereotypes, and Discrimination? How are they different from one another? How are they related to components of (group) attitudes?

Stereotypes-Cognitive. Schemas about the qualities associated with particular social groups. Generalization about a group of people in which identical characeristics are assigned to virtually all members of the group, regardless of actual variation among members. "Women are not as good at math as men." Prejudice- Affective. Hostile or negative emotional reaction to members of a particular social. Attitude towards a distinguishable group of people based solely on membership to that group. "I don't like politicians." Discrimination-Behavioral. Negative, inequitable, harmful behavior toward members of a social group. Unjustified negative or harmful action/behavior toward a member of a group, simply because of hir or her membership in that group. Example-early voting restrictions in Florida and Redlining mortgages harm blacks. Attitudes have all of these components-affective, behavioral, and cognitive. ABC's of prejudice.

• What did Weisbuch et al. (2009) do in his study on Televised non-verbal bias? What was its most important feature?

Study- picked top 10 TV shows and watched white and black dyads interacting with each other and asked people if they were interacting positively or negatively. Then, they took out black character and turned off the sound. It still increased people's implicit bias of the targeted (black) character, even though they couldn't see him or her.

Evolutionary theories

Survival of the fittest. Are traits that promote selfish behavior passed on? Kinship selection-Price equation-how likely you would be to help someone else. Helping others related to us helps preserve some of our genes. Strong when biological stakes are high. BUT people save strangers. Study says equation is right for who people say they would save, especially in life or death situation, decreases with age. More likely to save younger too, maybe for reproductive reasons. Don't help elderly in life or death. Everyday situations it's more U-shaped, elderly still get help. Norm of reciprocity-Helping other people so they'll help us in the future. We preserve our genes this way. BUT, we could die in the process of trying to help them, or they could not help us in the future or be present to help

• What is the hostile attribution bias?

Tendency to interpret ambiguous behaviors as aggressive or having hostile intent. Aggressive children show larger hostile attribution biases than less aggressive children.

• What is illusory correlation, and under what conditions does it occur? What evidence to we have from minimal groups studies to support this? Be able to generate examples of this.

Tendency to perceive relationships where none exists, or to overestimate how often two things go together. Because... 1. When things are rare, they are more distinctive 2. People tend to overestimate association between variables that are already expected to go together • Example- Subjects read series of 36 statements. Statements describe a person performing a behavior. Person in each statement described as belonging to either Group A or Group B. Each statement described either a positive or a negative behavior. Group A had twice as many cards, but both groups were proportioned the same, with 70% positive behaviors and 30% negative. Because less cards, group B was the rare group. When asked to recall proportions fro groups, people guessed fairly accurately fro Group A, but they way overestimated negative and underestimated positive for Group B because of rarity of group. • Boston Bombing-rare event. Police targeted Middle Eastern men, and raided a Saudi man's apartment with no evidence.

Averaging effect

The more faces you average the more attractive they get. 1. Evolutionary view-Symmetry increases, signaling health. 2. Cognitive psych view-They are "prototypes" of the average population, "best example" of the category.

Police officer training to avoid racial bias

Training the "shoot" or "no shoot" with officers helps them not be as biased, otherwise they are just as bad as civilians.

• What is the Ultimate Attribution Error? How is it different from or similar to the Fundamental Attribution Error?

Ultimate attribution error- positive behavior is seen as characteristics of group, and negative behavior as characteristics of situation, opposite for outgroup. Example, men see success as result of their ability,and failure as lack of effort/bad luck. However, they see women's success of hard work/effort and failure as lack of ability. Fundamental attribution error-tendency for observers to underestimate situational (external) influences and overestimate dispositional (internal) influences on others' behavior. AKA the correspondence bias. Ultimate attribution error describes how prejudiced individuals rationalize their intergroup perceptions. The fundamental attribution error describes an OVEREMPHASIS of internal explanations for behavior in others, without taking into account the external facts that may influence behavior.

• What is the "Law of least effort" and what does it theorize about stereotyping?

We automatically categorize ( identify people as members of certain groups), and generalize (assume that group members share similar traits) Stereotypic activation is activated by mere presence of someone in that stereotype.

When do we get more aggressive? Farther or closer?

We get more aggressive when interrupted closer to goal-10 feet from ticket booth instead of a block away. Bendi-people had to wait hours just to get bread, relative depravation lead to aggressionl

Need for affiliation

We have desire to establish social contact with others. Stress arouses our need for affiliation. Others help us gain cognitive clarity about the stressful event allowing us to better cope with the impending threat.

Social Learning theory

We learn from the examples of others, as well as from direct experience with rewards and punishments. Models who use aggression to obtain desired goals and are not punished for their behaviors are most likely to increase aggression among observers.

• What is the weapons effect (or gun bias)? What empirical support is there for this effect?

Weapons effect- Tendency of weapons to increase the likelihood of aggression by their mere presence. Priming for weapons makes aggressive thoughts more accessible (Anderson, et al), berkowitz-"The finger pulls the trigger, but the trigger may also be pulling the finger." Berkowitz experiment-guns vs. badminton racquets. Participants more likely to give longer, intense electrical shocks if there was a gun in the room instead of a badminton racket. Especially if they were angry, but even when not. Mere presence of violent objects increases violence, even if not angry. Holding a gun, we see more guns even if not present. People make more accuracy errors when holding a gun than with a ball. Relationships between households with guns and gun homicide and suicide in all countries, even if the outlier of the U.S. is taken out.

Example of Model of Bystander Intervention

Wesley jumping over man having seizure in the Subway had to overcome all five of these barriers. Maybe he did so because he used to be in military so had training on being quick and risking his life. Daughters being there could have inhibited. He also felt obligated because someone tried to shoot him once and the gun didn't shoot.

• What evidence is there that links violence on television with interpersonal violence? Why are some theories why this relationship might exist?

When TV is introduced into societies, violence goes up. 22-year study showed that exposure to violence at age 8 predicted aggression at age 30, but only for boys. Exposure to violent films increases aggressive behavior • Belgium delinquent boys' home • Boyatzis et al-kids watching Power Rangers were 7 times more aggressive than control

• Under what conditions did women in Amanatullah & Morris (2010) negotiate for less salary money? More?

Women and Men negotiated a salary either for themselves or on behalf of someone else. Women negotiated a salary that was $7,000 less for themselves. If it was for someone else, there wasn't a noticeable change.

Indirect/relational aggression

an attempt to hurt another person without obvious face-to-face conflict.

Direct aggression

behavior aimed at hurting someone to his or her face

Equity theory

benefits should be the same for both partners, if one is better off than the other, they feel guilty.

Loneliness

feeling of deprivation about social relations. Most likely to occur during times of transition or disruption. Loneliest groups in America are adolescents and young adults 18 to 30 years old.

Cultural views on love

many people in other countries say they would marry someone they were not in love with, there are still arranged marriages in these places.

Allport's "Kernel of Truth"

misinterpreted. Means people see one person who acts a certain way and then they generalize it to an entire group. DOES NOT mean that stereotypes were fundamentally true.

Weapons effect racial bias

more likely to see guns in hands of black people. Payne study-if give people "shoot" or "no shoot" options when briefly seeing a person holding a gun or a tool, they make more errors with blacks. They make less errors when blacks are actually holding guns because it fits their STEREOTYPIC EXPECTATIONS. Important in split second decisions because we don't have time to process, so we fill in the blanks with schemas.

Cultural differences in attractiveness

nonfacial attractiveness for body size and shape determined by culture and changes over time. There is a correlation between body preference and food supply. High food supply, skinny bodies valued and vice versa, except in U.S. because skinny body can mean wealth, surgeries, better food, PT, etc.

• What is the difference between volunteerism and other kinds of prosocial behavior?

o Volunteerism 1. Planned action 2. Long-term behavior 3. Involves nonobligated behavior 4. Occurs within an organizational context o Omoto and Snyder identified five categories of motivations underlying peoples decisions to become volunteers to help people with AIDS 1. Values-"I enjoy helping other people" 2. Understanding-to learn more about how to prevent aids 3. Personal development-gain experience dealing with emotionally difficult topics 4. Community concern-because my sense of obligation to the gay community 5. Esteem enhancement-I feel better about myself

• When might people not want to receive help?

o When an individual has high self-esteem o Being helped by a similar other (competition) o When a significant other helps on a task that is highly relevant to self-concept o When the help isn't asked for or expected (Overhelping)

• Who is Kitty Genovese? What happened to her?

o Woman followed home one night from work and stabbed to death by a man. 37 people heard her and no one helped.

Schneider study

regardless of SES, blacks are less likely to receive good medical care and a follow up.

Subtyping

sometimes people don't neatly fit into a single stereotype, so "Oh you're not one of those blacks, you're one of these..." Mental mechanism for keeping negative stereotypes in the face of contradictory evidence. Individual cases seen as exceptions to the general rule.

Affiliation signal

when we look "down," we signal to others that we're lonely and need affiliation.

• What are some (socialized) gender differences in aggression? Why might these differences exist? How aggressive do men think they should be (in the eyes of others) vs. how aggressive do they think others should be?

• Men are more violent than women in virtually every culture. BUT while boys tend to be more overtly aggressive, but girls often are more indirectly, or relationally, aggressive than boys. Boys are more physical, women are more indirect and verbal • Men think others will think they're a wimp if they don't respond aggressively. But given another situation they wouldn't think that of another person. They think they'll be attractive by women if they respond aggressively, but not true. The male idea on how they SHOULD act is actually what women say is attractive. • Males and females are rewarded and punished differently for aggression. They also have different models. Social roles have a strong influence on gender differences in physical aggression. Overt aggression tends to be more socially acceptable in stereotypically male roles than female roles