Social psychology final exam

According to Aronson, why is relying on stereotypes a woefully incomplete strategy, even though they are often true?

Because they say nothing about the underlying reasons for the observed differences.

What is aggression? Give examples of two things that might be considered aggression from a lay-person's perspective, and why a psychologist would not consider them aggression

Behavior intended to harm another person who does not want to be harmed. An accidental harm may be, but is not because it wasn't intended. A salesperson pressing a potential customer may be considered aggression, but isn't because it's not causing harm.

According to Glick and Fiske, what are the two types of sexism? Give an example of something each type of sexist would believe

Benevolent sexism and Hostile sexism. Benevolent sexists would believe that women are nicer but weaker and Hostile sexists would believe that men are the master gender and should continue to be that.

What is scapegoating? Who is typically the victim of scapegoating? When is it most likely to occur?

Blaming the innocent for something not their fault. Groups that aren't liked. Frustration from other groups typically leads to this

Describe gender differences in aggressive behavior, including both physical and relational aggression

Both males and females tend to be equally physically aggressive. Females tend to be more relationally aggressive, or more aggressive in social situations that is less physical

Describe Bandura's study and findings. What theory is this an example of?

Child watched adult playing with a bobo doll and either beat it or played with it. Children imitated the behavior. This is an example of social learning theory in which we imitate social behaviors.

Describe a study showing a relationship between viewing violence on TV and aggressive behavior

Children watched TV in a waiting room, which was either a violent TV show or a cartoon. Then studied the children in a help/hurt situation. Those who had watched violent TV hurt the child.

What is realistic conflict theory? Give an example of a research finding supporting it

Competition for limited resources leads to conflicts between groups, and results in prejudice

What is a connector? How do you know if someone is a connector?

Connectors are people who connect other people together. They write emails to hundreds of people at a time, they organize their friends into a large group of friends, they throw parties, they set people up on dates, etc

Describe two studies from lecture that demonstrate the continued existence of prejudice/stereotyping.

Craigslist roommate wanted ads, in favor of white sounding names. Friend request rejections from facebook. Those seen as more racially stereotypical more likely to be rejected from other group

According to Dollard, what causes aggression? How did Berkowitz expand on this? Give an example of something specific Berkowitz's theory predicts will lead to aggression

Dollard said that frustration leads to aggression, and Berkowitz expanded on this, saying anything that causes negative affect leads to aggression. Ex: loud noises, air pollution

What is the Culture of Honor? Describe the Cohen & Nisbett study demonstrating it

Emphasis of honor and status, particularly for males, and the role of aggression in protecting honor. Northern and southern men asked to walk down a corridor and drop a package off. They encounter a person working on a file cabinet. The filer grumpily walks past them and insults them. There were confederates in the corridor. How they step out of the way or react is measured.

Describe two types of relationships and how they are different

Exchange and communal. Exchange relationships are more focused on equity, reciprocity, and helping the person doesn't affect our mood. Communal relationships are more focused on responding to other's needs, no reciprocity is involved, and helping the other person makes us happy.

How has the idea of "racism" changed? Define the relevant terms.

Explicit attitudes towards many groups have become much more tolerant in the last 50 years. Stereotyping and prejudice still out there, but more subtle. old fashioned racism- openly admitting racist attitudes modern racism- expressing prejudice through unobtrusive or implicit measures

What is the relationship between alcohol and aggression? Give the two reasons why

-It lowers inhibitors against aggressing -Changes the way we process information

List 5 things that social psychologists have found cause aggression

-cutting in line -pain -heat -in the presence of an aggressive object -alcohol

Under what conditions does contact best reduce prejudice? List at least 5 of the 6

-equal status -friendly, informal settings -multiple members -social norms of equality -mutual interdependence

Why does media violence cause aggression? Give 3 explanations of how it works

-if they can do it, so can I -watching specific behaviors and getting ideas -Watching violence can lead people to believe violence is anger

What is catharsis? Present a study testing this theory and draw a conclusion

-letting out aggressive energy, venting, to lower aggression. -measured aggression in football players before and after the season. Higher after the season.

Describe 3 processes that contribute to the formation of stereotypes

-tendency to group people together -tendency to note similarities when grouped together -tendency to ignore differences

What are some features of the media itself that lead to a stronger media violence-aggression link? Provide 3

-violent person is attractive -violence is justified -violence is realistic

List 5 things you could do to reduce your own aggression from lecture

1. Avoid aggressive stimuli 2. Avoid aggressive media 3. Don't associate w aggressive people 4. Avoid aggressive cues 5. Limit alcohol intake

Describe 3 processes that contribute to the maintenance of stereotypes

1. Interpretation of Behavior-behavior that is ambiguous can be interpreted in many ways 2. Subtyping- tendency to view stereotype-inconsistent people as "exceptions to the rules" 3. Self-fulfilling prophecies- Stereotypes provide ready-made expectations which can contribute to self-fulfilling prophecies.

How can we reduce stereotype threat? Name two strategies, explain which you think is better and why

1. Self-affirmation 2. Education I think education would be helpful because it then makes us aware that we're doing it and I don't think a lot of people are aware of stereotypes.

Why do we like people who are similar to us? Give 3 reasons

1. We think that similar people will like us 2. They provide us with social validation 3. We make negative inferences about people who disagree with us

Describe 3 ways that video games are different from TV which could make them have a stronger influence on violent behavior

1. You are the person in the video game causing the aggression 2. You actively rehearse violence vs passively viewing it 3. Rewarded for affective aggression

What are the three possibilities for the relationship between viewing violence and aggressive behavior?

1. catharsis view-aggression is reduced when aggressive energy is released. 2. The media reflects and caters to our taste 3. TV models violent behavior and causes it to increase.

Name 2 different prejudice reduction techniques. For each, describe a study supporting that technique

1. stereotype replacement- changing automatic response into a controlled response. Prejudice related discrepancies activated towards gays to low prejudiced and high prejudiced individuals. If focused and highly motivated, would pay attention to prejudice 2. Counter-stereotype imaging- come up with someone that's not consistent w stereotype in head. Imagine "strong woman" rather than a woman on a beach. Implicit bias reduced.

What are the ABC's of Intergroup relations? Explain the relevant terminology.

Affect, Behavior, and Cognition. Affect-prejudice Behavior-discrimination Cognition-stereotyping

What is the jigsaw classroom? Describe it, and why it works

Having students work in diverse groups. Breaks down in group vs outgroup and lowers barriers between groups

How does heat relate to aggression? Briefly summarize one correlational and one experimental finding to support this

If you are more hot, you're more likely to be aggressive. Drivers without AC honk more.

What kind of models are we most likely to imitate (in person or in media)?

In-media aggression

What is gain-loss theory? For the relevant study, describe the four conditions participants were placed into, and which one led to the most liking of the confederate

Increases in positive, rewarding behavior from another person has more of an impact than constantly rewarding behavior. Losses in positive behavior have more of an impact than constant negative behavior from another person. Positive, negative, gain, and loss. Gain liked confederate most.

What is the pratfall effect? Describe the study

It has to do with liking people who are competent, and if they make a mistake, or a pratfall, we might like them even more. Participants listened to recordings of college bowl candidates. They were either average or outstanding, and had a "pratfall". Outstanding candidates were liked more when they had a pratfall and average candidates were liked less

Describe the strength of the media violence-agression link in comparison to another well-established link. Describe the strenth of the media violence-aggression link across different types of research studies.

It is strong because the same results tend to be the case every study. It's very broad too. It has also been repeated a lot with very similar dependent and independent variables. Meta analysis results across studies

What does the Baumeister et al. article teach us about the surprising emotional effects of exclusion?

It teaches us that we have a sort of numbing effect to exclusion, similar to how if we physically injure ourselves our bodies release numbing agents.

Describe Jane Elliot's classroom exercise, and what it demonstrated

Jane Elliot's famous blue eyes/brown eyes study demonstrated discrimination by saying that blue eyed kids were better than brown eyed kids, and vice versa, depending on the day. Kids exhibited discriminatory behavior towards the inferior group.

What are two ways researchers have created social exclusion in the laboratory?

Making participants believe people they just met rejected them Exclusion happens in the lab directly (having participants not talk to the subject)

List 5 features of males or females that are associated with physical attractiveness

Males: thick eyebrows high and wide eyes prominent cheekbones small nose high and wide smile

Describe Milgram's (1967) study and how it inspired the "Kevin Bacon" game

Milgram studied how many steps it took across the US to get a package to a stockbroker in Boston. It took an average of 6 steps with the package going off of one acquaintance to the next. Kevin bacon game is to trace back an actor to Kevin bacon in 6 steps or fewer.

Describe O'Brien & Crandall's study on stereotype threat and how it builds on social facilitation theory

Participants given a math test and told it either has gender differences or no gender differences. Mens score unaffected, womens score affected. Women did worse on the hard test in the gender diff. condition and better on the hard test in the no gender diff. condition. Obrien and Crandall say stereotypes happen because of arousal. and if the stereotype threat is simple or complex.

Describe Word, Zanna & Cooper's (1974) study. What process did it demonstrate?

Participants interviewed job candidates (confederates) who were white or black. They measured how close they sat to the interviewee, how fast the interview was, and how many speech errors. Whites had better interview, blacks had worse. Phase 2, confederates are now interviewers and treat the subjects as they did towards the black or white confederates had been treated. This demonstrates prejudice.

What are two different implicit theories of love? According to research, how do people with each implicit theory react when there is conflict in their relationship?

Passionate love- characterized by strong emotions, sexual desire, and preoccupation of partner. companionate love- more stable, mild experience marked by trust, dependability, and warmth. Passionate-lets work it out. companionate- expect partner to change over time and that they're to destined to be with them

What is one important benefit to exchange relationships?

People who are in exchange relationships are more likely to give the other person job opportunities.

Describe 3 ways to reduce aggression from Aronson

Punish aggression Punish aggressive models Rewarding alternatives to aggression

What is the mere exposure effect? Under what conditions does it work? Describe a study demonstrating it

Repeated exposure to something leads you to like that thing more. Only works if you initially like or feel neutral about something. Female confederates walked into a classroom 0,5,10,and 15 times throughout the semester. Rated as more attractive the more she walked in.

Describe how researchers have used photos to test whether symmetry and averageness are associated with higher levels of physical attractiveness

Researchers have morphed multiple faces into one and this was rated as more attractive than a face on its own.

In Rusbult's Investment Model, what three things predict satisfaction with a relationship? Give an example of each

Rewards, costs, and comparison level. Rewards-Support. Costs-Stress. Comparisons-May trust someone else more.

In Rusbult's Investment Model, what three things predict commitment to a relationship? Give an example of each

Satisfaction, level of investment, quality of alternatives. Satisfaction- communication, level of investment- moving in, alternatives- knowing you can get out of the relationship.

Describe the robber's cave study by Sherif et al. (1961). What theory of prejudice formation does it support? What theory of prejudice reduction does it support?

Scouts put in group randomly and when in competition, prejudice happened. Supports realistic conflict theory. Supports contact to reduce conflict theory.

Describe the three kinds of attachment styles

Secure attachment-rarely jealous of others, feel secure anxious attachment-always aggitated by relationship, want to be close, worried partner will leave them avoidant attachment-distrust of others, avoid becoming attached altogether.

How do the sexual scripts in our culture contribute to ambiguity around consent?

Sexual scripts tell people how to behave in situations when, in fact, no could mean a lot of things.

Name 3 things from lecture that make us like someone

Similarity, reciprocity, and competence

What does the Baumeister et al. article teach us about cognitive and self-regulatory effects of exclusion?

Social exclusion impairs self regulation

List 5 different prejudice reduction techniques

Stereotype replacement counter-stereotype individuation perspective taking situational attributions contact

Name an effect of being the target of stereotypes, and describe a study demonstrating this effect

Stereotype threat-Apprehension experienced by members of a group that their behavior might confirm a cultural stereotype.

What is the single best indicator of whether two people will get together? Describe a study supporting this

The proximity effect-we tend to get together with people whom we interact with and see regularly. Researchers examined friendship patterns in a housing unit at MIT. Neighbors tended to be closer friends.

What is subtyping and how does it work?

The tendency to view stereotype-inconsistent individuals as exceptions to the rules. It prevents your stereotype from being disconfirmed. You compare a behavior to a stereotype and if it doesn't match, you search for an explanation, to which you might blame the behavior on the situation or the person. If you blame it on the situation, your stereotype becomes unchanged. If you blame it on the person, they are an exception to the rules.

According to Shelton & Richeson (2005), how do Black and White people explain their own avoidance of interacting with the outgroup? How do they explain the outgroup's avoidance of them?

They are concerned of how they will be treated by interacting with the outgroup or how they will be viewed by outgroup members. Whites explain group avoidance by thinking Blacks will think Whites are prejudiced and Blacks explain group avoidance by thinking whites have negative stereotypes about them.

Summarize study 3 by Shelton & Richeson (2005) and explain how it supports their hypothesis

They had White and Black students imagine a scenario in which they go into the dining hall and see a group of students they don't know but don't have anyone else to sit with. Then they were asked a series of questions as to why they wouldn't sit with them because of their race. Supports pluralistic ignorance and the hypothesis because they are assuming what those people are thinking.

What is the halo effect? Describe a study demonstrating it

We attribute more positive behaviors to more attractive people. Before and after plastic surgery. Positive characteristics attributed after more than before

What is the paradox of choice? Describe how it works and how it could be applied to the dating world today

We have a lot of choices in our society. Eliminating choice could greatly reduce anxiety. Having a more open mind when dating

According to Benjmain Franklin, what should we do to get others to like us? Describe a study demonstrating this effect

We should make others do acts of kindness for us and then praise them for it. Students did study for money and told to give money back as a special favor, a donation to the psych department, or not at all. Those who returned money as special favor liked the person more.

We tend to like our mirror images better than our true images. Why? Explain using a social psychological concept from this lecture

We tend to like our mirror image because of the mere exposure effect. We are more exposed to this image in our lives, whereas everyone else is used to your true image so they prefer that image.

What is social identity theory? How does it relate to the minimal group paradigm?

We want our group to succeed because it make us feel good. This relates to minimal group paradigm because if we are assigned to a group based on meaningless info, we still will favor our group over the out group.

Define attributional ambiguity. Describe a novel example of a situation where this might occur

When members of a stigmatized group have difficulty in interpreting feedback on their work or actions. Grading essays for blacks and exaggerating how good they are to not seem racist.

According to Aronson, what kind of situations lead to the most pronounced experience of frustration?

When the goal is within reach when expectations are high When the rule of fairness has been violated When the goal is blocked without a compelling reason

Suppose you want to get your friend to like you more. Describe 3 things you could do

You can try to like things that your friend likes You can make yourself less available You can be more competent

Describe a study looking at prejudice in the field of medicine, and another study which helps us understand what may be causing the prejudice.

critically ill women >50 less likely to be admitted/get life saving interventions than men.

What two general physical characteristics make all people appear more physically attractive?

symmetry and averageness

Define "out-group homogeneity effect" and explain why it occurs.

the perception that members of the out group are more similar to each other than members of the in group.