Social Psychology

Out-group

"Them" - Those perceived as different or apart from one's in-group.

Outgroup

"Them" - those perceived as different or apart from our ingroup (p. 784)

Outgroup

"Them"—those perceived as different or apart from our ingroup.

In-group

"Us" - People with whom one shares a common identity.

ingroup

"Us" - people with whom one shares a common identity

Ingroup

"Us" - people with whom we share a common identity (p. 784)

Ingroup

"Us"—people with whom we share a common identity.

general affective aggression model

"We know all the individual variables that are tied to aggression." Systems approach: Input variables (personality/genetic predisp.), Situation variables (exclusion, intergroup..), and Internal States (Cognitive and Emotional). There can be 1) controlled appraisal (you are thinking it through) or 2) automatic appraisal (aggression as an automatic process) ????????

confederates

"fake subjects" that look & behave like real subjects in study.

rigidity

"mental set" -tendency to fall into established thought patterns (mental set)

outgroup

"them" - those perceived as different or apart from one's closest peers

outgroup

"them" - those perceived as different or apart from our ingroup

Outgroup

"them" those perceived as different or apart from our ingroup

outgroup

"them"—those perceived as different or apart from one's ingroup. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 746)

ingroup

"us" - people with whom one shares a common identity

Ingroup

"us" people with whom we share a common identity

ingroup

"us"—people with whom one shares a common identity.

ingroup

"us"—people with whom one shares a common identity. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 746)

Pre-existing schema

"warm"vs "cold" -ratings swayed by preconceptions -you see/interpret things to fit with your preconceptions

Cult

(Religious movement - A total way of life held in common by a group of people, including learned features such as language, ideology, behavior, technology, and government.p. 255 - 257

Discrimination

(Social) unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members.

door-in-the-face, Strategies of persuasion

(contrast effects) - an outrageous initial request is followed by a reasonable one

Propinquity. Why does it increase liking?

(n.) nearness in place or time; kinship. -lives run smoother if we like the people we interact with (too much stress to hate people you are near) -Allows people to properly form bonds with others -Allows us to anticipate interactions with the other person--which increases liking -mere exposure effect

Discrimination

(social behavior) - In social relations, taking action against a group of people because of stereotyped beliefs and feelings of prejudice.

The degree to which someone can be persuaded depends on:

*Central v peripheral* *Individual variables* ..Level of cognitive abilities ..Importance of message ..Mood *Situation variables* .. Perceived similarity between audience and speaker .. Salespeople & politicians try to emphasize ways that they are similar to you ..Rasputin DOB study (Finch & Cialdini, 1989) ..Hotels asking to re-use towels (2008) ..Perception that idea is approved or endorsed by a respected group *Heightened resistance* What if people know they are about to hear an opposing argument? Telling them will increase the likelihood that they'll reject the argument - Forewarning Effect. Inoculation effect - if people have heard a weak argument first, they'll be more likely to reject a stronger one

fear appeals (and persuasiveness of messages)

- an attempt to change attitudes or behavior through the use of threats or by highlighting negative consequences of noncompliance w/ the request. Only really works when paired with suggestions on avoiding the fate.

How does prejudice fit in the components of attitudes?

-Affect: prejudice I don't like them -Behavior: discrimination I don't let them work in my place -Cognition: stereotypes They are barbaric They can occur separately. Chinese landlord only calling Chinese repairmen is likely discrimination, but not stereotype nor prejudice--may be due to another factor

When is obedience the highest?

-Authority assumes responsibility (I will be responsible for the shocks/damage)...in the mind of the shocker, they now can say "I was just following orders" -Persons in authority often have visible signs of status and power (lab coat, jacket) -Commands gradually escalate (don't start with extreme actions) -The experiment occurs quickly (don't give time to person to think about their values)

Internal or dispositional attributions

-Based on an individual's perceived stable characteristics like attitudes, personality traits, or abilities. -We tend to use internal or dispositional attributions when someone's behavior surprises us ...Your brother walked to work because he likes exercise

According to equity theory, how are casual relationships different from intimate relationships

-In casual/new relationships, reciprocation is assumed to occur in the shorter term (keep score) (exchange relationships) -intimate, reciprocation is expected to even out in the long run, and score isn't kept (communal relationship)

How do people engage in terror management?

-More commitment to in-groups -more hostile to out-groups -increase hostility towards those who criticize your country -Reluctance to use cultural artifacts for mundane purposes (statue of liberty as letter opener) -More acceptance of positive feedback about the self -More punitive against those that threaten the person's values

How do we experience emotion? (Through what channels?)

-Psychological (subjective experience--the urge to hide, run, or fight) -Physiological (autonomic response) -Cognitive (How you cognitively label the physiological response, changes what we think the emotion is)

What attachment styles can be predicted from the patterns of behavior in strange situation (at reunion)

-Secure attachment style from being comforted by mother's presence, and felt comfortable exploring -Avoidant Style: comforted by mother (more difficultly), and wouldn't leave their side (clingy) -Anxious Style: not comforted by mother, and even rejected her attempts for comfort

When is a person most likely to use informational social influence?

-The information comes from an "Expert" -the task is difficult or ambiguous -the situation is unfamiliar

When is a person most likely to be normative-social-influenced?

-When their answers are non-anonymous -When accuracy isn't crucial -When the group is unanimous (everybody has already chosen the same answer) -the group is high in cohesiveness (groupthink) -we don't understand the reasons for the other people's behaviors (they are self-interested, or they are a minority)

What are the three main patterns of behavior in strange situation at first reunion

-comforted by mother's presence, and felt comfortable exploring -comforted by mother (more difficultly), and wouldn't leave their side (clingy) -not comforted by mother, and even rejected her attempts for comfort

Why does similarity promote liking?

-fluency in interactions (they understand me so well, also less conflict) -similar traits = traits that we like -social validation (if you think so, then I must not be so wrong either!)

Door-in-the-face

-if you ask for a large commitment, but they say no, they will most likely agree to a smaller commitment -want $20 from a friend, they say no, will most likely get $5 from them -easier to increase commitment

Foot-in-the-door

-if you can get someone to agree to a small level of commitment, they will want to agree to more, easier to increase commitment -want money from a friend, first ask for $5, then follow up asking for more

reasons for altruism

-inclusive fitness (promoting survival of one's genetic kin) -Following social norms (recieve benefits from group membership) -reciprocal altruism (i help u, u help me)x

Happier emotions, how do they affect life?

-more successful marriage -more creative and productive -longer lives -higher incomes -More likable

limits to mere exposure effect

-most effective if stimulus is initially viewed as positive or neutral -pre-existing conflicts intensify, not decrease -too much exposure can lead to boredom and satiation

Impressions online vs. in-person

-online, fewer things to base impressions on, no way to tell if the person is telling the truth, people open up, say things they wouldn't normally say

Factors that affect love and attraction?

-propinquity -similarity -reciprocal liking -desirable traits -physical attractiveness -"Forbidden fruit"

According to social exchange theory, a person's commitment depends on their ____

-relationship satisfaction -perceived level of alternatives >Man, I could get ANYONE I WANT -investment into relationship that would be lost if separated >damage to assets, children's welfare, emotional energy, perception by others

When do we fear similarity in another?

-similarity can be threatening when someone similar to us experiences an unfortunate fate

what correlates with increased aggression?

-temperature increases -frustration increase -aversive stimuli increases

Out-group homogeneity

-tendency to see members of the in-group as more diverse than members of the out-group ex. Baseball fans from Boston see themselves as passionate and respectful, for the most part, while fans not from boston see boston fans as drunk and rude.

Desirable personal attributes

-trustworthiness -warmth -competence (too a degree..if perfect, it is off-putting) all of which only works if the attributes are not too dissimilar to themselves.

Prisoner's dilemma

..., A game in which pursuing dominant strategies results in noncooperation that leaves everyone worse off.

Out-group

..., A group or category to which people feel they do not belong.

Self-concept

..., A sense of one's identity and personal worth

resource dilemma

..., A situation in which people must share a common resource, creating conflicts between the short-term interests of individuals and the long-term interests of the group.

In-group

..., Any group or category to which people feel they belong.

reference group

..., Any group that individuals use as a standard for evaluating themselves and their own behavior.

social comparison

..., Evaluating one's abilities and opinions by comparing oneself with others.

frustration-aggression hypothesis

..., The principle that frustration - the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal - creates anger, which can generate aggression

arousal: cost-reward theory

..., The proposition that people react to emergency situations by acting in the most cost-effective way to reduce the arousal of shock and alarm.

actor-observer bias

..., The tendency to overestimate situational influences on our own behavior.

zero-sum game

..., a situation in which one person's gain is another's loss

Door in the face

..., the tendency for an individual who denies an outrageous request to agree to a lesser one

GRIT

...Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension-Reduction - a strategy designed to decrease international tensions

equity

...a condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give it

stereotype

...a generalized belief about a group of people

outgroup

...a group of "them" that is perceived as different or apart from one's ingroup

ingroup

...a group of "us" that shares a common identity

social trap

...a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their own self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior

conformity

...adjusting one's thinking or behavior to coincide with a group standard

passionate love

...an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a love relationship

social-responsibility norm

...an expectation that people will help those who are dependent on them

reciprocity norm

...an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them

prejudice

...an unjustifiable attitude toward a group and its members

aggression

...any physical or verbal behavior meant to hurt or destroy

attitude

...feelings that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people and events

normative social influence

...influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval

informational social influence

...influence resulting from one's willingness to accept other's opinions about reality

scapegoat theory

...prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone or a group to blame

self-disclosure

...revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others

superordinate goals

...shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation

social facilitation

...stronger responses on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others

attribution theory

...suggests how we explain someone's behavior - by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition

companionate love

...the deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined

group polarization

...the enhancement of a group's prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group

deindividuation

...the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity

groupthink

...the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives

mere exposure effect

...the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them

frustration-aggression principle

...the principle that frustration creates anger and generates aggression

social psychology

...the scientific study of how we think about, influence and relate to one another

bystander effect

...the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present

social loafing

...the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts towards attaining a common goal than when individually accountable

just-world phenomenon

...the tendency for people to perceive the world as just and that people get what they deserve and deserve what they get

foot-in-the-door phenomenon

...the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request

fundamental attribution error

...the tendency to analyze another's behavior by underestimating the impact of the situation and overestimating the impact of personal disposition

ingroup bias

...the tendency to favor one's own group

social exchange theory

...the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs

discrimination

...unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group or its members

cognitive dissonance

...we act to reduce the discomfort we feel when two of our thoughts are inconsistent or when our actions and behavior do not match

altruism

..unselfish regard for the welfare of others

Sources of sterotyping and prejudice

1) Evolutionary/biological tendencies - humans categorize and overgeneralize--> stereotyping is the same thing, just with groups of people -We evolved to think/feel in terms of in-group vs. out-group 2) From the (social and cultural) environment - Social learning theory

Sherif's camp study

1) divided campers into 2 groups, had compete in series of activities. This created negative feelings between the groups 2) staged several camp emergencies requiring the groups to cooperate. The superordinate goal of solving of crises effectively improved relations between the groups

4 ingredients of persuasion

1- the communicator (who says it) 2 - the message (what is said) 3 - the channel )how the message is communicated) 4 - the audience (to whom it is said) In other words, who says what, by what method, to whom. p. 231

Coping with cognitive dissonance

1. Change behavior or cognition "I will not eat any more of this doughnut" "I don't really need to be on a diet" 2. Justify behavior or cognition by changing conflicting cognition "I'm allowed to cheat every once in a while" "Doughnuts aren't actually that bad for you" 3. Justify behavior or cognition by adding new cognitions "I'll spend 30 extra minutes at the gym this week to work it off" "I have no choice, my coworker bought them and she'll be upset if I don't eat one"

2 characteristics that make a communicator credible

1. Competence/expertise 2. Trustworthiness

Types of issues that people hold strong attitudes about

1. Directly affecting their own outcomes and self-interests 2. Related to strong political , philosophical and religious values 3. Issues of concern to close friends and family

Strength of an attitude affected by

1. How informed people are 2. How information is acquired 3. Attack against attitude by persuasive message 4. Speed and ease it comes to mind

Factors of Attraction

1. Proximity; 2. Physical Attractiveness; 3. Similarity

3 routes to self-persuasion

1. Self-Perception Theory 2. Impression-Management theory 3. Self-Esteem Theories

3 types of tasks

1. addititive --> product = sum of groups' contributions 2. conjunctive --> product determined by worst member 3. Disjunctive --> product determined by best member

4 steps in dissonance

1. attitude-discrepant behaviour must produce unwanted negative consequences 2. Feeling of personal responsibility for unpleasant outcomes in behaviour 3. Psychological arousal 4. Must make attributions for arousal to behaviour

2 things that make people effective communicators

1. credibility 2. likeability

2 (or 3) steps necessary for persuasion

1. reception --> learning a message 2. elaboration --> thinking about and scrutinizing the arguments contained in a persuasive communication 3. Acceptance

4 ways people rationalize/enhance their self-esteem

1. self-serving cognitions 2. self-handicapping 3. basking in the glory of others 4. downward social comparisons

Festinger

1956: Cognitive dissonance (mental stress or discomfort experienced by an individual who holds two or more contradictory beliefs, ideas, or values at the same time (one broad, one specific), or is confronted by new information that conflicts with existing actions)

Robber's Cave Study

22 boys split into two groups. One team vs the other in competitions to receive prize. Being in a competition with each other, both teams became more aggressive against the opposing team and developed prejudice. Then, when exposed to superordinate goals, they became a single group again.

Stimulus-value-role theory

3 steps in relationships; 1. stimulus stage: attraction is sparked 2. value stage: attachment formed based on values and beliefs 3. role stage: commitment with roles and titles

Central Route Persuasion

; involves calling on basic thinking and reasoning to convince people; attitude change path in which interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts

Conformity

A Yielding to perceive the group pressure by copying the behavior and beliefs of others

Attitude

A belief and feeling that predisposes one to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events.

Stereotype

A belief or association that links a whole group of people with certain traits or characteristics

Self-schema

A belief people hold about themselves that guides the processing of self-relevant information

Culture of honor

A belief system in which males are socialized to protect their reputation by resorting to violence

Obedience

A change in attitude or behavior brought about by social pressure to comply with people perceived to be authorities

insufficient-justification effect

A change in attitude that occurs because, without the change, a person can't justify his/her already-completed action This usually happens when: -there isn't a high incentive for performing the counter-attitudinal action -the action is perceived as stemming from own free choice -the action is expected to cause harm to others or oneself Internal motivation decreases when external reward increases

Halo Effect

A cognitive bias in which judgments of an individual's character can be affected by the overall impression of the individual. This is typically associated with physical attractiveness.

Group

A collection of people who have shared goals, a degree of interdependence , and some amount of communication

Attribution theory

A collection of principles based on our explanations of the causes of events, other people's behaviors, and dour own behaviors

Message

A communication containing some information, news, advice, request, or the like, sent by messenger, telephone, email, or other means

Implicit Association Test

A computer-driven assessment of implicit attitudes. The test uses reaction times to measure people's automatic associations between attitude objects and evaluative words. Easier pairings (and faster responses) are taken to indicate stronger unconscious associations.

Implicit Association test (IAT)

A computer-driven assessment of implicit attitudes. The test uses reaction times to measure people's automatic associations between attitude objects and evaluative words. Easier pairings (and faster responses) are taken to indicate stronger unconscious associations. p. 122

Equity

A condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it (p. 804)

Equity

A condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it.

Avoidance-avoidance conflict

A conflict between two dangers or threats

Approach-approach conflict

A conflict between two desired gratifications, as when a youth has to choose between two attractive and practicable careers, may lead to some vacillation but rarely to great distress

Implicit Association Test (IAT)

A covert measure of unconscious attitudes, it is derived from the speed at which people respond to pairings of concepts such as black or white with good or bad

Social inhibition

A decrease in performance in front of a crowd

Archival research

A descriptive scientific method in which already existing records are examined

Naturalistic observation

A descriptive scientific method that investigates behavior in its natural environment

Participant observation

A descriptive scientific method where a group is studied from within by a researcher who records behavior as it occurs in its usual natural environment

Groupthink

A deterioration of mental efficiency reality testing in moral judgment in a group that results from an excessive desire to reach consensus

altruism

A display of genuine and unselfish concern for the welfare of others

Elaboration Likelihood Method

A dual process theory describing the change of attitudes form

Obedience

A form of compliance that occurs when people follow direct commands, usually from someone in a position of authority. p. 188

syllogism

A form of deductive reasoning consisting of a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion.

Belief in a Just World

A form of defensive attribution wherein people assume that bad things happen to bad people and that good things happen to good people. Dissonance aroused by the possibility that bad things can happen to good people.

Indirect aggression

A form of of aggressive manipulation involving attempts to harm another person without a face-to-face encounter

Old-fashioned prejudice

A form of prejudice in which members of the majority group openly reject minority group members and their views towards the minority group are obvious and recognisable to others

Modern racism

A form of prejudice that surfaces in subtle ways when it is safe, socially acceptable and easy to rationalize

Modern prejudice

A form of prejudice which is more subtle, hidden and expressed in ways more likely to be accepted within the majority group

Self-serving attributions

A form of self-serving bias; the tendency to attribute positive outcomes to oneself and negative outcomes to other factors. p. 61

Ambivalent Sexism

A form of sexism characterized by either: hostile sexism: negative, resentful feelings about women's abilities Benevolent sexism: affectionate, chivalrous feelings founded on the believe that women need and deserve protection POSITIVE CORRELATION BETWEEN THE TWO

Stereotype

A generalization (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people.

Stereotypes

A generalized (sometimes accurate but often over generalized) belief about a group of people (p. 780)

Stereotype. What is it, and what is the problem with it?

A generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people. Specific schema. Stereotypes can make interactions more efficient, but can be overestimated in their accuracy of individuals

Zimbardo's Prison Experiment

A group of Stanford students were assigned to either play the role of prison guard or prisoner. All were dressed in uniforms, and the prisoners were assigned numbers. The prisoners were locked up in teh basement of the psychology building, and teh guards were put in charge of their treatment. The experiment ended early because of the cruel treatment the guards were inflicting on the prisoners.

Attribution Theory

A group of theories that describe how people explain the causes of behaviour Jones' Correspondent Inference Theory Kelley's Covariation Theory

reference group

A group that provides an individual with a model for appropriate actions, values, and worldviews. People, when forced to take on a new reference group, tend to conform to it

In group

A group to which we belong and that forms a part of our social identity

oxytocin

A hormone released by the posterior pituitary gland that stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth and milk ejection during breastfeeding.

persuasion

A kind of speaking or writing that is intended to influence people's actions, attitudes, or beliefs

fatal flaw

A mental or physical weakness that will ultimately lead to the unravelling of the tragic hero or the breakup of a couple

Reciprocity Norm

A method of gaining compliance which is creating the appearance that you are rewarding someone in order to make them comply.

Medium

A middle state or condition

elaboration likelihood model

A model explaining two ways in which persuasive communications can cause attitude change: centrally, when people are motivated and have the ability to pay attention to the arguments in the communication, and peripherally, when people do not pay attention to the arguments but are instead swayed by surface characteristics (e.g., who gave the speech)

Reactance

A motive to protect or restore one's sense of freedom. Reactance arises when someone threatens our freedom of action. p. 220

Superordinate goal

A mutually shared goal that can be achieved only through intergroup cooperation

Discrimination

A negative and or patronizing action towards members of a specific group

Implicit Egotism

A nonconscious form of self-enhancement

Ethnocentrism

A pattern of increased hostilitytowards out groups accompanied by increased loyalty to one's in group

Conflict

A perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas (p. 810)

Conflict

A perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas.

Social Phobia

A persistent, irrational fear that arises in anticipation of a public situation in which an individual can be observed by others.

Self-esteem

A person is a validation of his or her self concept

Scapegoat

A person or group made to bear the blame for others or to suffer in their place

Explicit self-esteem

A person's conscious and deliberate evaluation of his or her self-concept

Attitude

A person's consistently favorable or unfavorable evaluations, feelings, and tendencies toward an object or idea. p. 120

Self-Esteem

A person's overall self-evaluation or sense of self-worth. p. 50

Social Identity

A person's sense of who they are based on their group membership

Social Identity Theory

A person's sense of who they are based on their group membership(s)

Dispositional Attribution

A person's stable, enduring traits, personality, ability and emotions.

Implicit self-esteem

A person's unintentional and perhaps unconscious evaluation of his or her self concept

Authoritarian personality

A personality trait characterized by submissiveness to authority rigid adherence to conventional values and prejudice towards out groups

Dispositional (internal) attribution

A persons disposition/personality

Self-esteem

A persons of evaluation of his or her self-concept

deindividuation

A phenomenon that occurs when immersion in a group causes people to become less aware of their individual values

Perceptual Salience

A phenomenon that says that the person and their behavior are far more salient than their situation/environment.

Muzafer

A point of light that actually did not move. p. 207

Attitude

A positive, negative or mixed reaction to a person, object of idea

Self-fulfilling Prophecy

A prediction made about some future behavior or event that modifies interactions so as to produce what is expected.

Random selection

A procedure for selecting a sample of people to study in which everyone in the population has an equal chance of being chosen

Motivation

A psychological factor that provides a directional force or reason for behavior.

Mere Exposure Effect

A psychological phenomenon by which people tend to develop a preference for things merely because they are familiar with them

Self-awareness

A psychological state in which one takes oneself as an object of attention

Reciprocal Liking

A psychological term to describe the phenomenon of people tending to better like those people who like them

prejudice

A rigid attitude that is based on group membership and predisposes an individual to feel, think or act in a negative way toward another person or group.

Observational research

A scientific method involving systematic qualitative and quantitative descriptions of behavior

Self-efficacy

A sense that one is competent and effective, distinguished from self-esteem, which is one's sense of self-worth. A sharpshooter in the military might feel high self-effiecacy and lwo self-esteem. p. 56

Attitude

A set of beliefs and feelings, any belief or opinion that has an evaluative component (good/bad, moral/immoral, likeable/unlikeable, attractive/repulsive)

Role

A set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave (p. 503, 758)

Role

A set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave.

Roles

A set of expectations about the ways in which people are supposed to behave in different situations

Gender Role

A set of expected behaviors for males and females.

Social Role

A set of rights, duties, expectations, norms and behaviours that a person has to face and fulfill

superordinate goal

A shared goal that can be achieved only through cooperation among individuals or groups Eg. Robbers Cave, Camp study

heuristic

A simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms.

groupthink

A situation in which group members seek unanimous agreement despite their individual doubts

Social traps

A situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest rather than the good of the group, become caught in mutually destructive behavior (p. 810)

Social Trap

A situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior.

Realistic Conflict Theory

A social psychological model of intergroup conflict

Bystander Effect

A social psychological phenomenon that refers to cases in which individuals do not offer any means of help to a victim when other people are present

Social Catagorization

A social psychological theory that describes the circumstances under which a person will perceive collections of people (including themselves) as a group, as well as the consequences of perceiving people in group terms

intimacy

A state of being or feeling in which each person in a relationship is willing to self-disclose and to express important feelings and information to the other person.

cognitive dissonance

A state of mental discomfort arising from a discrepancy between two or more of a person's beliefs or between a person's beliefs and overt behavior.

Correlation coefficient

A statistical measure of the direction and strength of the linear relationship between two variables which can range from -1.00-+1.00

Bait and switch

A store advertises bargains that do not really exist to lure customers in, in hopes that they will buy more expensive merchandise. ; initial commitment, then not available and more costly option offered. EX: Black Friday--only a few TVs

conflict

A struggle between opposing forces.

Zimbardo Prison Experiment

A study of the psychological effects of becoming a prisoner or prison guard. The experiment was conducted at Stanford University on August 14-20, 1971, by a team of researchers led by psychology professor Philip Zimbardo using college students

Behavioural genetics

A subfield of psychology that examines the role of genetic factors in behaviour

social psychology

A subfield of psychology that studies the causes and consequences of interpersonal behavior.

Evolutionary Psychology

A subfield of psychology that uses the principles of evolution to understand human social behaviour

Festinger and Carlsmith experiment

A subject is given $1 to lie The people given $1 actually convince themselves that the "task was fun" because $1 is not enough to say its for the money -but if given $20, and lie for the money, you still know its boring, but says its fun bc getting lots of money $1 vs. $20, equivalent to $8 vs. $150 today

Heterosexism

A system of cultural beliefs values and customs that exalts heterosexuality and denies denigrates and stigmatizes any non-heterosexual form of behavior or identity

Culture

A system of enduring meanings, beliefs, values, assumptions, institutions, and practices shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

Jigsaw Classroom

A teaching method that focuses on fostering student cooperation rather than competition

deadline technique

A technique for increasing compliance in which target persons are told that they have only limited time to take advantage of some offer or to obtain some item

Self-fulfilling Prophecy

A tendency to let preconceived expectations influence one's beahvior, thus evoking those very expectations - Attributions

homeostasis

A tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of the physiological systems to a norm

Attitude

A tendency to respond positively or negatively toward a certain person, idea, or situation

Social dominance theory

A theory contending that societal groups can be organized in a power hierarchy in which the dominant groups enjoy a disproportionate share of the societies assets and the subordinate group receives the most of its liabilities

Control theory of self regulation

A theory contending that through self-awareness people compare their behavior to standard and if there is a discrepancy they work to reduce it

Cognitive Neo associationist model

A theory of impulsive aggression that aversive events produce negative affect which stimulates the inclination to aggress

Self-evaluation maintenance model

A theory predicting under what conditions people are likely to react to the success of others with either pride or jealousy

System justification theory

A theory proposing that members of disadvantaged groups often adopt beliefs endorsing the legitimacy in fairness of the unequal Group status hierarchy in society

Negative state relief

A theory suggesting that for those in a bad mood, helping others may be a way to lift their own spirits if the perceived benefits for helping are high and the costs are low. EX: better to ask for a donation before someone confesses their sins than afterward)

Social identity theory

A theory suggesting that people seek to enhance their self-esteem by identifying with specific social groups and perceiving these groups as being better than other groups

Multiple self aspects framework

A theory that describes self-concept as a collection of multiples of aspects that organize and guide a person's behavior when they are activated in specific situations

Triangular Theory of Love

A theory that describes various kinds of love in terms of three components: passion (erotic attraction), intimacy (sharing feelings and confidences), and commitment (dedication to putting this relationship first in one's life; devotion).

Social learning theory

A theory that social behavior is primarily learned by observing and imitating the actions of others and secondarily by being directly rewarded and punished for our own actions

Expectations states theory

A theory that states that the development of a group status is based on members expectations of others probable contributions to the achievement of group goals these expectations are not shaped not only by members task relevant characteristics but also by diffuse status characteristics such as race sex age and wealth

Heruistic

A thinking strategy that enables quick, efficient judgments. p. 92

Door in the face technique

A two-step compliance technique in which after having a large request refused the influencer counter offers with a much smaller request

That's not all technique

A two-step compliance technique in which the influencer makes a large request then immediately offers a discount or bonus before the initial request is refused

Foot in the door technique

A two-step compliance technique in which the influencer secures compliance to a small request and then later follows with this larger less desirable request

Lowball technique

A two-step compliant strategy in which the influencer secures agreement with a request by understating it's true cost

source amnesia

A type of amnesia that occurs when a person shows memory for information but cannot remember where he or she encountered the information; or it can be that the person mis-attributes the memory.

Pluralistic Ignorance

A type of misunderstanding that occurs when members of a group don't realize that the other members share their perception (often, their uncertainty about how to react to a situation). As a result, each member wrongly interprets the others' inaction as reflecting their better understanding of the situation. EX: nobody asks questions because they think that everyone else understands.; nobody running away during a fire alarm

Social desirability bias

A type of response bias in surveys in which people respond to a question by trying to portray themselves in a favorable light rather responding in an accurate and truthful manner

Independent self

A way of conceiving the self in terms of unique personal attributes and as a being that is separate and autonomous from the group

Interdependent self

A way of conceiving to self in terms of social roles and as a being that is embedded in and dependent on the group

Implicit Relational Assessment Procedure (IRAP)

A way of measuring unconscious attitudes similar to the IAT that focuses on cognition and specific relations rather than general associations

Attribution Theory

A way to understand how people explain others' behavior - Attribution

norms

Acceptable standards of behavior within a group that are shared by the group's members.

Informational Social Influence

Accepting others' opinions about reality, especially under conditions of uncertainty

Conformity

Acting in accord with group norms or customs

Self handicapping

Actions that people take to sabotage their performance and enhance their opportunity to excuse anticipated failure

Shalom Schwartz's value wheel

Adjacent segments on the wheel have a high correlation to believes, opposite values on opposite sides of wheel -east asian cultures- highest rankings of security, social order, and obedience -American, individualist cultures-highest rankings of openness to change, value more freedom

Conformity

Adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard.

conformity

Adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard.

conformity

Adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard. EX: fashion trends, peer pressure, getting a favor)

Conformity

Adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard (p. 763)

Conformity

Adjusting our behavior or thinking towards some group or standard.

Baby-face bias

Adults with rounder head, protruding forehead, large eyes, small jawbone perceived as more naive, honest, helpless, kind, and warm

Attitudes. What three components are they made of?

Affect: based on people's feelings and values about an attitude object Behavior: What one does affects attitude (I recycle, so I'm green) Cognition: Knowledge and understanding of attitude object Patterns of feelings and beliefs about other people, ideas, or objects that are based on a person's past experiences, shape his or her future behavior, and are evaluative in nature.

Hindsight Bias

After learning an outcome, the tendency to believe that we could have predicted it beforehand may contribute to blaming the victim and forming a prejudice against them; "I knew it all along" phenomenon.

sleeper effect

After previously rejecting a choice, delayed reaction of persuasion convinces an individual to change their mind.

People ask attributions questions (what caused this event) when ....

After unexpected events (wrong sports team won), and negative events (bad grade vs good grade). .. Nobody asks why they got a perfect score, but are more likely to ask why they failed.

instrumental aggression

Aggression as a means to some goal other than causing pain

hostile aggression

Aggression stemming from feelings of anger and aimed at inflicting pain

Instrumental Aggression

Aggression to achieve some goal

Hostile Aggression

Aggression to inflict pain upon someone else

Foot in the door

Agreement to smaller request leads to agreement to larger request later

strange situation

Ainsworth's method for assessing infant attachment to the mother, based on a series of brief separations and reunions with the mother in a playoom situation

Bandura

Albert Bandura was a professor he still lives today at the age of 90 He studied observational learning (Bobo doll experiment ) During the experiment the children saw what the adults where doing to the bobo doll and would express the same actions to the bobo doll. Proving the theory of the Observational Learning

population

All the members of an identifiable group from which a sample is drawn

Miller study

Americans made more attributions to personality and fewer to situation than hindu community in india

Dialecticism

An Eastern system of thought that accepts the existence of contradictory characteristics within a single person

Self-Esteem

An affective component of the self, consisting of a person's positive and negative self-evaluations

passionate love

An aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a love relationship

Passionate love

An aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a love relationship (p. 803)

Passionate Love

An aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a love relationship.

Dissonance

An aroused state of uncomfortable tension. p. 145

Secure attachment style

An attachment style characterized by trust, a lack of concern with being abandoned, and the view that one is worthy and well liked

Anxious attachment style

An attachment style that describes adults who demand closeness, are less trusting, and are more emotional, jealous, and possessive.

Utilitarian Function

An attitudinal function that serves to alert people to rewarding objects and situations they should approach or costly or punishing objects or situations they should avoid. We know our likes and dislikes

Spontaneous trait

An effotrless, automatic inference of a trait after exposure to someone's behavior. p. 102

Interactionist Perspective

An emphasis on how both an individual's personality and environmental characteristics influence behaviour

Priming

An enhanced ability to think of a stimulus, such as a word or object, as a result of a recent exposure to the stimulus. p 78

Conjunction Fallacy

An error that occurs when people estimate that the odds of two uncertain events happening together are greater than the odds of either event happening alone. Is Linda a Bank Teller?

In-Groups

An exclusive, typically small, group of people with a shared interest or identity

Social-responsibility norm

An expectation that people will help those needing their help (p. 810)

Reciprocity norm

An expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them (p. 809)

Social norm

An expected standard of behavior and belief established and enforced by a group

"Blue Eyes, Brown Eyes"

An experiment conducted by Jane Elliot, April 4, 1968. She convinced her class of third graders that those who have blue eyes are superior to those who have brown eyes. They we segregated and the blue eyed children became haughty, while the brown eyed students became timid. She created this simulation to show her students what segregation (Martin Luther King Jr. Had just died) felt like.)

Interaction effect

An experimental result that occurs when two independent variables in combination have different effects on the dependent variable then when alone

Diffusion of Responsibility

An explanation of the failure of bystander intervention stating that when several bystanders are present, no one person assumes responsibility - Group Dynamics

The Just World Phenomenon

An idea that good is rewarded and evil is punished so everyone gets what they deserve. It is a way to rationalize injustice.

self-handicapping

An impression management strategy where one creates obstacles to avoid self-blame when he or she does not meet expectations.

Social facilitation

An increase in performance in front of a crowd

Social Facilitation

An increase in performance on a task that occurs when it is performed in the presence of others, particularly with easy or well-practiced tasks.

Bystander effect

An individual does not take action because of the presence of others

Ethnic identity

An individual's sense of personal identification with a particular ethnic group

commitment

An intent to maintain a relationship in spite of the difficulties and costs that may arise

Social Neuroscience

An interdisciplinary field devoted to understanding how biological systems implement social processes and behavior, and to using biological concepts and methods to inform and refine theories of social processes and behavior

Muzafer Sherif

An optical illusion called autokinetic phenomenon. To answer questions about people's suggestibility. p. 190, 207 & 214

Norm

An understood rule for accepted and expected behavior. It prescribes "proper" behavior.

Norms

An understood rule for accepted and expected behavior. Norms prescribe "proper" behavior (p. 777)

Prejudice

An unjustifiable (and usually negative) attitude toward a group and its members. Generally involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, and a predisposition to discriminatory action.

Cognitive Dissonance

An unpleasant state that arises when a person recognizes the inconsistency of his or her actions, attitudes, or beliefs. Ex. dissonance may occur when we realise that we have with little effect acted contrary to our attitudes in decision making. p. 135

Cognitive Dissonance

An unpleasant state that arises when a person recognizes the inconsistency of his or her actions, attitudes, or beliefs. Usually followed by a change in belief/attitude to justify the action

Aggression/Genetic Influences

Animals have been bred for aggressiveness for sport and at times for research.

Aggression/Biochemical Influences

Animals with diminished amounts of testosterone (castration) become docile (tame), and if injected with testosterone aggression increases.

Intergroup anxiety

Anxiety due to anticipating negative consequences when interacting with an out group member

Prosocial Behavior

Any action intended to help other

Sexism

Any attitude action or institutional structure that subordinates a person because of his or her sex

Self-Fulfilling Procephy

Any expectation, positive or negative, about a situation or event that affects an individual behavior in such a manner that it causes that expectation to be fulfilled

Aggression

Any form of behavior that is intended to harm or injure some person oneself or an object

Outgroup

Any group which we do not share membership

Aggression

Any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy (p. 789)

Aggression

Any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy.

aggression

Any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy.

Social dilemma

Any situation in which the most rewarding short-term choice for an individual will ultimately cause negative consequences for the group as a whole

catch-22

Any situation where you lose no matter which decision you make.

peripheral route to persuasion (Heuristic persuasion)

Appeals to emotions, reflexive responses and conditioning.

Self-Perception Theory

Approach to attitude formation that assumes that people infer their attitudes and emotional states from their behavior. EX: I chose this CD because I like it, I kick over someone because I'm mad at them. Different from the theory of cognitive dissonance because this one says that attitude comes from behavior (no conflict), but dissonance says that because we find a difference between our attitude and behavior, we change our attitude to fit the behavior

Counterarguments

Arguments made in response to original argum. p258

How does culture affect cognitive dissonance?

Asked how they feel about a number of CDs. Researchers chose CD's for a particular participant that had similar ratings. They let the participants choose a CD, then had them re-rate the CD's chosen. Collectivist: Will like something that they chose for a friend more than they did before the second review. Individualist: Will like the thing they chose more the second rating than the first because of dissonance

Door-in-the-Face Technique

Asking for large commitment and being refused and then asking for a smaller commitment

Self-presumed expectations

Associated with one's gender "women are bad at math" or race "Blacks don't do so well on aptitude tests." Can create anziety that suppresses test scores. p. 111

boomerang effect

Attitude change in the opposite direction of what the message advocates; listeners driven away from rather than drawn to an idea.

self-perception theory

Attitudes can change as people consider their behavior in given situations, and from this deduce what their attitude must be. (high and low self monitors)

Aversive racism

Attitudes towards members of a racial group that incorporate both egalitarian social values and negative emotions causing one to avoid interactions with members of the group

Prejudice

Attitudes towards members of specific groups that directly or indirectly suggest they deserve an inferior social status

Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)

Attitudinal change through two routes: central or peripheral

beauty is best effect

Attractive people are better at most things. halo effect of beautiful people.

Scapegoat Theory

Attributes prejudice to frustration; when own self-worth is in doubt or in jeopardy, we find others to blame - Interpersonal Perception

Dispositional attribution

Attributing behavior to the environment. p. 101

Situational attribution

Attributing behavior to the environment. p. 101

Internal attribution

Attributing the cause of a person's behavior to an internal personality trait or disposition

Weiner

Attribution theory He studied in Chicago teaches at UCLA Locus: Controlling your own destiny External Locus : Belief that faith is planned out Authority and obedience: emotion of the behavior or success

Actor observer discrepancy (error)

Bad thing happens to you--> bias towards situation Bad things happen to other ppl--> assume they are just unfriendly, part of who they are -attribute things to the person, not event that cause person to behave that way

Basic vs. Applied Research

Basic Research: Research designed to increase the understanding of human behaviour, often by testing hypotheses based on a theory Applied Research: Research designed to increase our understanding of naturally occurring events and to find solutions to practical problems

Schema

Basic framework of how things work and are, including objects, machines, systems, social groups, and social situations. EX: Social groups work like this, so I should act like this. Influences behaviors and judgement.

principle of commitment

Because people are concerned with the impressions people make of them, they feel the need to behave consistently with prior commitments or impressions they have made.

Aggression

Behavior directed towards another with the intention of causing harm. It is sensitive to hormones (especially testosterone or steroids), and has a strong learned component (can be influenced by vicarious learning in children).

Aggression

Behavior intended to do physical or psychological harm to others

Antisocial Behavior

Behavior which is harmful to society or others.

Which gives a better prediction? Behaviors from attitudes, or attitudes from behavior. How can you get better predictions of behavior from attitude?

Behaviors are more likely to predict attitudes than the other way around. Attitudes are poor predictors of behavior (WOAH). Specific attitudes however will yield better predictions of specific behavior than general attitudes (EX: Save the environment? VS should bottles be recycled every time?)

Obedience

Behaviour change produced by commands from authority

Nonverbal behaviour

Behaviour that reveals a person's feelings without words - through facial expressions, body language, etc

Self-handicapping

Behaviours designed to sabotage one's own performance in order to provide an excuse for failure

Social Impairment

Being watched by others hurts performace when the tak being observed is a difficult one rather than a simple, well practiced one.

self-schema

Belief about self that organize and guide the processing of self-relevant information. p. 37

ethnocentrism

Belief in the superiority of one's nation or ethnic group.

Gambler's Fallacy

Belief that a particular chance affected by the occurrence of previous events. Bad streak in Russian Roulette means that one is due to win

Out Group Homogeneity

Belief that members of another group are more similar in their attitudes than they actually are - Interpersonal Perception

Magical Thinking

Belief that one's thoughts can control outside events. Can make sports teams win, or laser vision to make people look.

Ethnocentrism

Belief that our culture or social group is superior to others - Interpersonal Perception

stereotypes

Beliefs that associate groups of people with certain traits

Stereotype

Believes about the personalities abilities and motives of the social group that doesn't allow for individual variation

self-perception theory

Bem's ________ posits that we develop self-concept by observing our own behavior similar to how we observe others' behavior and inferring what we think or how we feel based on such observations.

Bias

Bias is the prejudice that is displayed in a given situation in favor or against a person, idea, group, or event. Forms of bias can include Hindsight Bias, Experimental Bias, Social Desirability Bias, etc.

hostility bias

Bias of some individuals to be perceived as intending hostility when doing neutral behaviors or bearing neutral facial expressions

Gender, culture, genes

Biological and cultural explanations need not contradictory. They interact, biological factors operate within a cultural context and culture builds on a biological foundation. p. 182

Milgrim

Born on august 23rd He was Jewish He was rejected from Harvard University but later on accepted he worked at Yale University Experiment: Was based on the Holocaust "Authority figure " obedience Authority: enforce obedience, give orders and make decisions

Consumer Psychology

Branch of psychology that studies the habits of consumers in the marketplace

Sympathetic nervous system

Branch of the autonomic nervous system that produces rapid physical arousal in response to perceived emergencies or threats.

Genovese Stabbing

Catherine Susan "Kitty" Genovese (July 7, 1935 – March 13, 1964) was an American woman who was stabbed to death outside her apartment building in Kew Gardens, a neighborhood in the New York City borough of Queens, on March 13, 1964

Dispositional Cause

Cause of behavior attributed to internal factors such as personality and character

Social Comparison

Centers on the belief that there is a drive within individuals to gain accurate self-evaluations

social facilitation

Change in behavior that occurs when people believe they are in the presence of other people.

Peripheral route to persuasion

Changing Attitudes through persuasion When people attend more to superficial aspects such as the speaker's appearance or amount of evidence (instead of quality) - Trivial/irrelevant decision -If you're tired or less educated

Central route to persuasion

Changing Attitudes through persuasion In serious decision-making, people invest time and effort evaluating the evidence and logic behind the message

Compliance

Changing one's behavior as a result of other people directing or asking for the change

Obidience

Changing one's behavior at the command of an authority figure

Conformity

Changing one's own behavior to match that of other people

idiosyncrasy

Characteristic or habit peculiar to an individual; peculiar quality, quirk

Festinger & Social Psychology

Cognitive Dissonance - Gave two different groups either $1 or $20 to lie about a boring task to future subjects - $1 goup changed their perception of the task from boring to interesting

Attitudes

Combinations of affective (emotional response aroused) and cognitive (perceptual; what we think about the stimuli) reactions to different stimuli. E.g. if we observe a person being bitten by a dog, we form an attitude: the affective component might be fear, and the cognitive component might be the understanding that the dog bites.

Situational (external) attribution

Combined people's personality/ performance

Interaction with Others

Communicating with other people

Prisonners' dilemma

Competitive choices are more beneficial to either side alone, but if both make competitive choices, they're ultimately both worse off

Implicit Process

Comprise our "unconscious" thought; intuitive, automatic, effortless, very fast, and operate largely outside or our intentional control

Schemas

Concepts or mental frameworks that organize and interpret information.

How does conflict between groups develop?

Conflict over physical, economic, or symbolic resources

approach-approach conflict

Conflict that results from having to choose between two attractive alternatives

avoidance-avoidance conflict

Conflict that results from having to choose between two distasteful alternatives

Approach-Approach Conflict

Conflict when a choice must be made between two desirable alternatives; Win-Win

Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict

Conflict when a choice must be made between two undesirable alternatives; Lose-Lose

Approach-Avoidance Conflict

Conflict when a goal is both desirable and undesirable; Win-lose

Compliance

Conforming to a request or demand

Normative influence

Conformity based on a desire to gain rewards or avoid punishments

Informational influence

Conformity based on the belief that others may have more accurate information

Asch's conformity experiments

Conformity occurs even when the correct choice is obvious

Acceptance

Conformity that involves both acting and believing in accord with social pressure. Example, A man is experiencing significant anxiety and depression regarding the impending death of his wife. However, the wife is trying to comfort her husband by telling him that she loves him and is prepared to die. What stage of the grieving process is the patient experiencing? p. 188

Asch & Social Psychology

Conformity, Normative Influence & Social Influence - Select the line in a triad that matches the stimulus line - Subjects conformed 1/3 fo the time when the confederated voted unanimously

Strategic self presentation

Conscious and deliberate efforts to shape other people's impressions in order to gain power influence sympathy or approval

Interdependent- Self

Construing one;s identity in relation to others. p. 40

Sherif & Social Psychology

Contact Theory, Superordinate Goal - Boys' camp study where an emergency situation required group cooperation - Two previously competitive groups worked together to solve problem

Explicit Process

Correspond roughly to "conscious" thought, or deliberate, effortful, relatively slow, and generally under our intentional control

Persuasion - Credible

Credible-Tend to be persuasive. An attractive comunicator is especially effective on matters of taste and personal values. p. 251 One-sided versus two-sided appeals 1. Discrepancy and credibility interact. 2. An appeal that acknowledged opposing arguments worked better with those who disagreed. 3. When two-sided appeal are given the primacy effet often makes the first message is more persuasive. If thime gap separates the presentations, the more likely result will be recency effet in which the second meessage prevails. p. 240-241

Social scripts

Culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations (p.792)

Principle of serviceable habits

Darwin: human emotions derive from motivations and displays that were evolutionary advantageous for our mammalian and primate ancestors

social loafing

Decrease in effort and productivity that occurs when an individual works in a group instead of alone.

Social Responsibility Norms

Defined: An expectation to help those who are dependent on us, even if the cost outweighs the benefit

Halo Effect

Defined: Attractive people are perceived to be more intelligent, happier, better adjusted, more socially competent, sexier, etc. Example: More likely to trust a good looking person than an unattractive one

Actor-Observer Bias

Defined: Attributing another person's behavior to internal factors but not doing the same for yourself or another. "Double Standard" Example: I failed because I didn't study but you failed because you're dumb

Obedience

Defined: Engaging in a particular behavior at another person's request

Groupthink

Defined: Tendency for members of a group to preserve the harmony of the group by failing to raise objects or voice dissenting opinions

Attribution Theory

Defined: process of inferring the cause of someone's behavior including your own

Self-Serving Bias

Defined: taking credit for success, and blaming others for your failure. Example: I succeeded in Mr. Casey's class 1st semester because I worked really hard but failed 2nd semester because he didn't know what he was doing.

Phil Zimbardo

Demonstrated dehumanization, where participants were split into two groups, prisoners and guards. The prisoners had numbers instead of names, and the guards wore uniforms and mirrored glasses. Very quickly, the two groups started to hate the other group--when stripped of individual identities and dehumanized, they turned to mob identity and violence and started to seriously identify with their roles.

Self-verification

Desire to have others perceive us as we perceive ourselves

Sherif

Did the Robber's Cave Experiment

According to the evolutionary perspective, why are the genders different in what they look for in love?

Difference in parental investment. Females have a complex, limited number of eggs while men have the simple, and indefinite number of sperm. i.e. females should be more selective than men (they are looking for social status, wealth, protection, etc.). Males have greater desire for short-term mating (less resources lost) and look for superficial traits (young and physically attractive) as signs for fertility

Latane & Darley & Social Psychology

Diffusion of Responsibility, Bystander Intervention - Emergency situation crated to test people's helping behavior - People help when they think they are along, but the larger the group present, the less likely anyone is to act

Irving Janis

Discovered the groupthink phenomenon when people are in groups.

Self discrepancies

Discrepancies between our self-concept and how we ideally like to be or believe others think we should be

Post-decision Dissonance

Dissonance aroused after making a decision, typically reduced by enhancing the attractiveness of the chosen alternative and devaluing the rejected alternatives. CSUSB is actually the best school, and UCLA is just way too big!

Self Esteem Theories

Dissonance leads to a threat to our self concepts People with high self esteem will change attitude & those with low self esteem won't 2 steps: 1. Dissonance causes people to seek reaffirmation 2. Revalidation can be achieved in many ways

Romantic Love

Distinguishes moments and situations within intimate relationships to an individual as contributing to a significant relationship connection

Impression Management Theory

Doesn't matter if you want to be consistent, just that you want to appear consistent Don't want to appear as a hypocrite

self-handicapping strategies

Doing things that contribute to you failing (knowingly or unknowingly) and then using these very things as excuses for failing.

Zimbardo's Prison Experiment

Done at Stanford; assigned a group of students to play either the role of prison guard or prisoner; prisoners were locked up in the basement of the psychology building, and the guards were put in charge of their treatment - students took their assigned roles perhaps too well, and the experiment had to be ended early because of the cruel treatment the guards were inflicting on the prisoners. The experiment showed how the individual personalities of people could be swamped when they were given positions of authority.

Overt

Done or shown openly

Norms

Either implicit or explicit rules that govern the behavior of group members - Group Dynamics

Compliance

Engaging in a particular behavior at another person's request

Darwin

English natural scientist who formulated a theory of evolution by natural selection (1809-1882)

Situational Factors

Environmental stimuli that affect a person's behavior - Attributions

Availability Heuristic

Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common. p. 93

availability heuristic

Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind, we presume such events are common. EX: Shark attacks more common than Coconut attacks, more tornadoes in Kansas than Oklahoma, words that start with r VS r as third letter

Credibility

Ethos, believability - A credible communicator is perceived as both expert trustworthy. p. 231 & 240

social comparison

Evaluating one's abilities and opinions by comparing oneself with others. p 38

Ethnocentrism

Evaluation of other cultures according to preconceptions originating in the standards and customs of one's own culture

Gender and Mating preferences

Evolutionary psychology predicts no sex differences in all those domains in which the sexes faced similar adaptive challenges. p. 171

Self-fulfilling prophecy

Expectations we have about others can influence how others behave - ex. You are repeatedly told someone (you've never met) is really funny. When you meet that person, you treat them in ways to elicit the humorous behavior you expect

Independent variable

Experimental variable that the researcher manipulates

Jigsaw Classroom

Expert groups with diverse backgrounds learn one part of a less and share information i jigsaw groups. Students are dependent upon others - self-esteem and achievement of "poorer" students improves - former stereotypes are diminished - friendships are based on proximity, similarity, reciprocal liking, and utilitarian value - Interpersonal Perception

Group serving bias

Explaining away outgroup members' positive behaviors; also attributing negative behaviors to their dispositions (while excusing such behavior by one's own group) p. 69

Dissonance Theory

Explains this atitude change by assuming that we feel tension after acting ontrary to our attitudes or making difficult decisions. To reduce that arousal, we internally justify our behavior. p.147

Dispositional Attributions

Explanations of a person's behavior is based on internal characteristics.

Controlled processing

Explicit thinking that is deliberate, reflective, and conscious. p. 86

Attitude incolation

Exposing people to weak attacks upon their attitudes so that when stronger attacks come, they will have refutations available. p. 258

stereotype activation

Extent to which associated stereotypes are prompted (primed) in a given situation, ready to be used

stereotype application

Extent to which stereotypical knowledge is applied to a target. Always preceded by stereotype activation

Snap judgement

Faced with a decision but lacking the expertise to make an informed snap judgment, our unconscious thinking may guide us toward a satisfying choice. p. 87

Situational Attribution

Factors outside the person doing the action, such as peer pressure

In-Group Bias

Favoring one's own group's members over the outgroup members.

Affective Component

Feelings and emotions towards the attitude subject

Attitude

Feelings formed from beliefs that predispose our reactions to objects, people, and events.

Attitudes

Feelings often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events (p.756)

Triplett

First social psych experiment on facilitation (cyclists pedal faster when paired)

Two step model of the attribution process

First we make a personal attribution (less cognitive effort) Then we try to adjust this attribution by considering the situation

Social cognition

Focuses on how we perceive, store, and retrieve information about social interactions

Priming Culture

For people who are connected to both individualistic and collectivist cultures, attribution styles may change depending on the cultural context or priming with eastern or western images(Hong Kong)

Covariation Theory

For something to be the cause of behaviour, it must be present when the behaviour occurs and absent when it does not 3 pieces of information help: 1. Consensus 2. Distinctiveness 3. Consistency

Acquaintance rape

Forced sexual intercourse that occurs either on a date between people who are acquainted or romantically involved also known as date rape

Theories for what causes aggression

Freud: Thantos, the death instinct (all humans possess the unconscious drive from birth) -Biological causes- everyone predisposed to be aggressive

Androgynous

From andro (man) + gyn (woman) - thus mixing both masculine and feminine characteristics. 175

Proximity/Attractiveness

Geographic nearness is a powerful predictor of friendship & liking.

Knuckles vs. clap hands

German clap by rapping their knuckles on the table and Americans clap. p 213

Lowball Technique

Getting a commitment from a person and then raising the cost of the commitment

Direct Instruction

Given what you're suppose to do directly and from the source of the project

Individualism

Giving priority to one's own goals over group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications

Individualism

Giving priority to one's own goals over group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications. p. 40

Stanford Prison Experiment

Goal to investigate how readily people would conform to the roles of guard and prisoner in a role-playing exercise that simulated prison life; realized Power of the Situation

Normative Social Influence

Going along with the decisions of a group in order to gain its social approval

GRIT

Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension-Reduction. A strategy designed to decrease international tensions.

GRIT

Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension-Reduction; a strategy designed to decrease international tensions

Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension Reduction (GRIT)

Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension-Reduction—a strategy designed to decrease international tensions.

GRIT

Graduated and reciprocated initiatives in tension-reduction; strategy designed to decrease international tensions

Social loafing

Group induced reduction in individual output when performers efforts are pooled and thus cannot be individually judged

Solomon Asch's

Group of people purposefully state wrong answer to see if the subject will comply. Published a series of books. p. 194

Group polarization

Group produced enhancement or exaggeration of members initial attitudes through discussion

In Groups

Groups to which we belong and tend to favor - Group Dynamics

Out Group

Groups to which we do not belong, we tend to attribute negative qualities to out groups - Group Dynamics

Aggressive Scripts

Guides for behavior in problem-solving that are developed and stored in memory and are characterized by aggression

Stanley MIlgram

Guy who performed the twisted studies of obedience involving giving participants the task of "shocking" other "participants." Overall, his study concluded that people tend to obedient to a figure of authority, but only if certain criteria were met. It also showed that people are much less likely to obey if they feel they have an ally in standing up to the pressure.

Bystander Effect

Happens as a result of diffusion of responsibility, where people tend to assume that someone else will help in a situation.

Attractiveness

Having qualities that appeal to an audience. An appealing communicator (often someone similar to the audience) is most persuasive on matters of subjective preference. p.. 233

Self

He simply using social being reflect on his or her own behavior

Triplett

He studied at Indiana university , He published the first social psychology book in 1898, At the unv. of Indiana an experiment took place to see how bicyclist effect each others while riding in a group or alone , The study showed that bicyclist would petal faster (what caused this was encouragement to be better) Conformity: Behaviors that matches what people say you should do Obedience: Doing what some one tells you

Schater

He went to the University of North Carolina and became the professor at Harvard University Schacter's research explores the relation between conscious and unconscious forms of memory, the nature of memory distortions, how individuals use memory to imagine possible future events, enhancement of online learning, as well as the effects of aging on memory. lived from 1982-1997

Dutton & Aron

Heightened sexual attraction under conditions of high anxiety (wavering, suspension bridge) vs low anxiety (stable ground). Shows that physiological response occurs first, then the cognitive label, then the psychological subjective response

Altruism

Helping other, often at a cost or risk, for reasons other than rewards

negative state relief model

Helping others aids in eliminating negative moods and unpleasant feelings.

Aggression

Hostile or violent behavior or attitudes toward another

Attribution

How people assign responsibility for certain outcomes.

study of Social Cognition

How people make sense of the social world and how they understand themselves and others

Self Presentation

How you present yourself to others 2 types: strategic self-presentation and self-verification

Empathy

Identification with and understanding of another's situation, feelings, and motives. 165

Rosenthal/Jacobson "Pygmalion in the classroom" experiment

If a teacher thought a student would blossom over the year, the student did; teachers created warmer, positive climate, give kids more chances to respond to the questions

Contact Theory

If members of two opposing groups are brought together in an emergency situation, group cooperation will reduce prejudicial thinking - Interpersonal Perception

public commitments and persuasion

If we announce an opinion (or just make it public), we become more resistant to change because we want to keep a consistent self-concept

Counterfactual thinking

Imagining alternative scenarios and outcomes that might have happened, but didn't. p.95

Automatic processing

Implicit thinking that is effortless, familiar or routine tasks, permits brain to focus on other tasks with divided attention

Social Facilitation

Imporved performance of well learned tasks in front of others - Group Dynamics

Social Facilitation

Improved performance of tasks in the presence of others; occurs with simple or well-learned tasks but not with tasks that are difficult or not yet mastered.

Social facilitation

Improved performance on simple or well learned tasks in the presence of others (p. 771)

Aggression - Arrest Record

In Canada, the male-to-female arrest ratio is 8 to 1. In the U.S. where 92 percent of prisoners are male by 9 to 1. p. 168

Diffusion of Responsibility

In emergency situations, the larger the number of bystanders, the less responsibility any one bystander feels to help.

catharsis hypothesis

In psychology, this hypothesis maintains that "releasing" aggressive energy (through action or fantasy) relieves aggressive urges.

Groupthink

In pursuit of social harmony groups will make decisions without an open exchange of ideas. Example: Bay of Pigs invasion.

Discrimination

In social psychology, unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members (p. 780)

self-affirmation

In the context of dissonance theory, a way of reducing dissonance by reminding oneself of one or more of one's positive attributes. The affirmations don't even have to be related to the items that are causing the dissonance

prejudiced scapegoating

In times of difficulty, many members may blame outgroups that are disliked, visible, and relatively powerless for their issues--despite their actual influence

Fundamental attribution error

Inclination to over attribute other's behavior to internal causes and discount the situational factors contributing to their behavior

Misinformation effect

Incorporating misinformation into one's memory of the event, after witnessing an event and recieving misleading information about it. p. 84

Mere Exposure Effect

Increased liking for a person or another stimulus resulting from repeated presentation (exposure)

Independent vs. Interdependent view of the self

Independent: Self is distinct, autonomous, self-contained, and endowed with unique dispositions Interdependent: Self is part of a larger social network that includes one's family, co-workers and others with whom one is socially connected

Dispositional Factors

Individual personality characteristics that affect a person's behavior - Attribution

Principle of liking

Individuals are more likely to buy/believe a product/idea from someone they like.

principle of authority

Individuals are more likely to comply if an "authority" endorses the product/action

Deindividuation

Individuals behave irrationally when there is less chance of being personally identified

stereotype lift

Individuals perform better when they are reminded or made aware of positive stereotypes. EX: Asians are good at math

Groupthink

Individuals self-censor beliefs to preserve harmony in the group - Group Dynamics

Locus of control

Individuals who accept personal responsibility for their life experiences have an internal locus of control. Individuals who believe that most situations are governed by chance have an external locus of control. p 57

secure attachment

Infants use the mother as a home base from which to explore when all is well, but seek physical comfort and consolation from her if frightened or threatened

Self- perception theory

Inferring how your beliefs, attitudes, motives, feeling, etc. are/should be, by the way you act or have acted. Example our behavior - that they do it becuse they like it. By Mark Lepper & David Greene p. 140 -143

normative social influence

Influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval

Normative social influence

Influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval (p. 764)

Normative Social Influence

Influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval.

Informational Social Influence

Influence resulting from one's willingness to accept other's opinions about reality.

Informational social influence

Influence resulting from one's willingness to accept others' opinions about reality (p. 764)

informational social influence

Influence resulting from one's willingness to accept others' opinions about reality.

Normative influence

Influence that produces conformity when a person fears the negative social consequences of appearing deviant

Cognitive Heuristics

Information-processing rules of thumb that allow us to process information quickly

Dispositions

Internal factors such as beliefs, values, personality traits, or abilities that guide a person's behavior.

Internal validity vs. External validity

Internal validity: the degree to which there can be reasonable certainty that the independent variables in an experiment caused the effects obtained on the dependent variables External validity: the degree to which there can be reasonable confidence that the results of a study would be obtained for other people and in other situations

Foot-in-the-door Phenomenon

Involves making requests in small steps at first (to gain compliance) in order to work up to big requests, often used by sales people.

self-fulfilling prophecy

Is a prediction that directly or indirectly causes itself to become true, by the very terms of the prophecy itself, due to positive feedback between belief and behavior.

how does negative political ads affect voting?

It actually decreases voter turnout

Blue Eye/Brown Eye Experiment

Jane Elliott's experiment that was done to teach her class what it felt like to be victims of discrimination

Aronson & Gonzales & Social Psychology

Jigsaw Classroom - Devised a teaching strategy making Anglo and Hispanic kids interdependent upon each other - Teacher expectations did come true - bloomers did prove more successful than nonbloomers

Attribution

Judgments about the causes of outcomes.

Group Think

Kind of thinking that occurs when people place more importance on maintaining group cohesiveness than on assessing the facts of the problem with which the group is concerned

Tajfel

Known for pioneering theory with cognitive and social prejeduce theory . He was the founder of European association of experimental psychology

Lewin

Kurt Zadek Lewin was a German-American psychologist, known as one of the modern pioneers of social, organizational, and applied psychology in the United States. Kurt Lewin, exiled from the land of his birth, made a new life for himself. Birthday: 1890 Death: 1947

What do people look for in people when they are on look out for love, and when they want friendship?

LOVE -reciprocal liking, attractiveness are very important -similarity, propinquity were low to moderate importance FRIENDSHIP -reciprocal liking, attractiveness, similarity, and propinquity roughly all equally important

Transformational leaders

Leaders who change the outlook and behavior of followers so that they move beyond their self interest for the good of the group or society

Attitudes

Learned predisposition to respond favorably or unfavorably to certain people, objects, or events

Festinger

Leon Festinger was an American social psychologist, perhaps best known for cognitive dissonance and social comparison theory. He was one of the 10 youngest scientist of his time.

Group Polarization

Like-minded people share ideas resulting in a more extreme position for every individual -Group Dynamics

Deindividuation

Loss of self awareness and self restraint in situations that promote high arousal and anonymity in groups - Group Dynamics

Conformity

Maintaining or changing one's behavior to match that of others.

How does our mind choose what is to be encoded into our memory?

Many things, including emotional state, but a big one is what we are paying attention to

argument-attitude match

Match between argument and attitude type: in general, persuasive communications work best if they are tailored to the kind of attitude they are trying to change. -The central route to persuasion works well for cognitively based attitudes but not for affectively based ones. If an attitude is cognitively based, it is best to use rational arguments to change it. -Affectively based attitudes can be changed using persuasive communications that are emotional.

ingroup differentiation

Members of own group are thought to be more heterogeneous(different) from each other than out group

In conversation

Men's style reflects their concern for independence, women's for connectedness. Men are likely to act as powerful people often do - talking assertively, interrupting, touching with the hand, staring more smiling less. p. 167

Social Cognition

Mental processes associated with people's perceptions of, and reactions to, other people.

hot cognition

Mental processes that are influenced by desires and feelings (System 1 process influences decisions)

Group Schema

Mental representation (concept, schema) for group of ppl (men, women, asian-americans, californians, etc. ) -generalization, asssociation w a group of people

self-schemas

Mental representations that people form of themselves.

Primacy/recency's effect on persuasion

Message 1, small break, message 2: best to use primacy effect and go first mess1, long break, mess2: best to recency effect and go second

Milgram's study

Milgram had participants administer shocks to a patient although he cried out in pain. Demonstrated that average people will obey inappropriate orders given by an authority figure

Milgrim's Obedience Study

Milgram's Obedience study was an experiment conducted by Yale Professor Stanley Milgram in 1961. The study revolved around Milgram testing how willing people were to obey him. Milgram has a confederate answer questions the participant gave incorrectly. After each incorrect answer, the participant was told to shock the confederate as a punishment (The deceptive purpose of the study presented to the participant). No real shock was delivered, but the Confederate pretended to feel more and more pain as the voltage approached a "XXX" level. Milgram almost forced the participant to comply with the order to electrocute the victim. The experiment violated several ethical guidelines as Milgram only told 25% of the participants that they had not killed the confederate, which occurred in 65% of the trials when a 450 volt shock was delivered. While the experiment did reveal the likelihood of obedience, it was discounted because of the several ethical guidelines..

Misattribution

Mistakenly attributing a behavior to the wrong source.Is particularly likely when men are in positions of power. A manager may misinterpret a subordinate woman's friendly and see her in sexual terms. p. 100

Conformity

Modification of behavior to make it agree with that of a group.

Mere exposure; Contact Hypothesis

More likely to be attracted to people that you are regularly exposed to.

Direct Contact

Mutual touching of two individuals or organisms

Mirror-image perceptions

Mutual views often held by conflicting people, as when each side sees itself as ethical and peaceful and views the other side as evil and aggressive (p. 812)

The Robbers Cave Experiment

Muzafer Sherif, Social Psychology experiment,focused heavily on the concept of a 'group' and what a perception of belonging to a group can actually do to the relationships of members within it and their relationships with people outside their group; also tried to observe conflicts or 'friction' between two groups and the process of cooperation or 'integration' of two previously conflicting groups.

Chameleon Effect

Natural (unconscious) tendency to imitate other peoples speech, inflections & physical movements

chameleon effect

Natural (unconscious) tendency to imitate other peoples speech, inflections & physical movements

Proximity

Nearness in space, time, or relationship

Biological and cultural explanations

Need not be contradictory. Indeed, they intr

Prejudice

Negative attitude towards members of a particular group without much reason.

Sexual prejudice

Negative attitudes based on sexual orientation whether the target is homosexual bisexual or heterosexual

Discrimination

Negative behaviour directed against persons because of their membership in a particular group

What is universally seen as attractive in a face?

No abnormalities, and symmetrical faces

injunctive norms

Norms that define what behaviors are typically approved or disapproved.

Insufficient justification

Not being able to justify the behaviour based on the reward

Independence

Not being subject to control by others

Actions Can Affect Attitudes

Not only do people stand (behavior) for what they believe in (attitude), they start believing in what they stand for; Cooperative actions (behavior) of sports team members on the field/court, lead to a mutual liking (attitude); This positive feeling (attitude) towards team members can then promote positive future interactions (behavior) amongst members of the team

Stanley

Obedience Experiments - Shocks - Form of compliance, remote victim and no one else to exemplify disobedience 65% of his adult males obeyed instructions to deliver what were supposedly traumatizing electric shocks to screaming innocent victims in an adjacent room. p 198 - 207

Millgem Obedience Experiments - comparsion

Obedience rates were similar or even higher - 85% in Munich. However, French students were less. p. 217

Milgram & Social Psychology

Obedience to Authority - Teacher to apply electric shocks when learner does not answer questions correctly - 66% of subject delivered what they thought to be a maximum of 450 volts

Milgram study

Obedience, shocking, Responsibility passed on

Cognitive Dissonance

Occurs when attitudes and behaviors contradict each other. Such tension is not pleasant, and people tend to change in order to achieve cognitive consistency.

Central route persuasion

Occurs when interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts (p. 756)

Peripheral route persuasion

Occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker's attractiveness (p.756)

peripheral route to persuasion

Occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker's attractiveness, emotional music or images.

Observer bias

Occurs when preconceived ideas held by the researcher affect the nature of the observations made

hostile environment harassment

Occurs when sexual or other discriminatory conduct is so severe and pervasive that it interferes with an individual's performance; creates an intimidating, threatening, or humiliating work environment; or perpetuates a situation that affects the employee's psychological well-being.`

Door-In-The-Face Phenomenon

Occurs when someone makes a very large request we are almost certain to refuse and follows up with a smaller one later on, which we are more likely to comply with because of a feeling of guilt

Gender and Genes

Of the 46 chromosomes in the human genome, 45 are "unisex," noted Judith Rich Harris. p. 163

Friendship

On the phone, women's conversations last longer, and girls send more than twice as many text messages as do boys. p. 164

Physical Attractiveness

Once proximity affords contact, the next most important thing in attraction is physical appearance.

Self-Fulfilling Prophecies

One's beliefs about other people determine how one acts towards them, and thus play a role in determining the behavior that results

Gender Identity

One's sense of being male or female.

When is it best for the persuader to present one-sided vs two-sided arguments?

One-sided if they can't refute the other side, and two-sided if they can (and have the motivation to)

Limited number technique

Only a limited number of these products will be available. under principle scarcity

Krull experiment

Only get dispositional bias when 1) rater is kept busy 2) goal is to asses the person if not kept busy, you don't get bias If the goal= assess topic, you get situational bias

Anti-conformity

Opposition to social influence on all occasions often caused by psychological reactance

Primacy effect

Other things being equal, the information presented first usually has the most influence. When information is given (read/presented close together people will remember the first data the most). p. 242

Attitudes Can Affect Actions

Our attitudes predict our behaviors imperfectly because other factors, including the external situation, also influence behavior; EX: We may think speeding is wrong, but multiple cars passing us by or friends in our car may pressure us to go faster than we feel comfortable with

Self-Discrepancy Theory

Our self-esteem is defined by the mismatch between how we see ourselves and how we want to see ourselves

Out-Group Bias

Out-Group Bias is a pattern of favoring members of one's in-group over out-group memebers. This can be expressed in evaluation of others, in allocation of resources.

Fundamental Attribution Error

Overestimating personal attributes and underestimating situational attributes when assessing behaviour

Impact bias

Overestimating the enduring impact of emotion-causing events. p. 48

Fundamental attribution error or person bias

Overestimating the role of disposition/internal/personality, underestimating the role situational/external factors ex. rob at a party being unfriendly--> concluding he's unfriendly, but you don't know what could have influenced that

How do you get fear appeals to work?

Pair it with suggestions to avoiding the problem. EX: Show pictures of lung cancer, then detail how to stop smoking.

Peripheral Route of Persuasion

Pairs superficial positive factors (supermodels and celebrities) with an argument leading to less stable change in attitudes

Amygdala

Part of the limbic system, responsible for the emotional reactions of fear and anger. p. 123

descriptive norms

People adjust their behavior to match the rest of the group.

peripheral persuasion

People are persuaded on the basis of superficial, peripheral cues (such as attractiveness). the process by which attitudes or beliefs are changed by appeals to habit or emotion, or are changed by using the power of heuristics. EX: having lots of shallow arguments makes people remember your arguments more because there are more of them. Those influenced by peripheral persuasion are influenced for a shorter time, less predictive of behavior, and less resistant to change

Predicts

People confirm most when three or more people or groups model the behavior of belief. p. 212

Enemy Perceptions

People in conflict form similarly diabolical images of one another; See the worse in them and they see the worse in us.

Sweet lemons Rationalization

People may think "it's not so bad after all" to justify costly and unpleasant effort ; ` Convincing yourself that you are just as well off without whatever you failed to achieve; being "glad" you lost or failed.

Normative Social Influence

People respond in a way that is socially acceptable in order to avoid rejection or gain social acceptance. They reply with answers that are said to be the social norm and set up rules for accepted and expected behavior.

Confederate

People trained to aid in an experiment. Chapter 5

Correspondent Inference Theory

People try to infer from an action whether the act itself corresponds to an enduring personal characteristic of the actor 3 factors: 1. Choice 2. Expectedness 3. Consequences

Zimbardo

People volunteered ti take part of being a prisoner or guard in an experiment . They wanted to know if the environment effected the behavior of aggression or the authority effected the aggressive behavior towards prisoners . *the experiment was conducted to see the behaviors of a prisoner and a guard*

Need - Peripheral cues

People who like to conserve their mental resources - that need low need for cognition - are quicker to respond to such peripheral cues as the communicator's attractiveness and the pleasantness of the surroundings. p. 250

commons dilemma

People who share a common resource tend to overuse it and therefore make it unavailable in the long run.

Attractiveness bias

People with above-average physcial attractiveness perceived as brighter, more successful, less to blame for misbehavior -more attractive=healthier, brighter, more successful, more trustworthy

Self-Serving Bias

People's tendency to ascribe their positive behaviors to their own internal traits, but their failures and shortcomings to external, situational factors.

Self-serving bias

People's tendency to ascribe their positive behaviors to their own internal traits, but their failures and shortcomings to external, situational factors.

Illusory correlation

Perception of a relationship where none exists or perception of a stronger relationship than actually exits. p. 96

Our group homogeneity effect

Perception of outgroup members as being more similar to one another than members of ones ingroup

Illusion of control

Perception of uncontrollable events as subject to one's control or as more controllable than they are. P. 96

Solomon Asch

Performed the study where small groups of people sitting together were shown lines of differing lengths. Each group member was to report which of the lines matched a standard line in length. All but one participant are actors who deliberately all choose the wrong answer. He found that in general, the participant would agree with the others, even if the answer was obviously incorrect. He also showed that they knew the answer was wrong, but said them anyway.

Evolutionary Psychology

Perspective that seeks to explain and predict behaviors by analyzing how the human brain developed over time, how it functions, and how input from the environment affects human behaviors. the study of the roots of behavior and mental processes using the principles of natural selection. (p. 153)

reason-based persuasion

Persuasion that uses logic

Aggression

Physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt someone.

Attractiveness comes in forms

Physical- attraction and emotional - arguments often more influential when they come from an attractive person. p. 233

Random assignment

Placement of research participants into experimental conditions in a manner that guarantees all have equal chance of being exposed to each level of the independent variable

Groupthink

Poor group decision making that occurs as a result of a group emphasizing unity over critical thinking

Prejudice

Preconceived opinion that is not based on reason or actual experience

Implicit attitudes

Prejudice - an irrationally unfavorable attitude toward a group of people (can be implicit or explicit) -Implicit Associations Task (IAT) Congruent= faster RT Incongruent= slower RT

Racism

Prejudice and discrimination based on a person's racial background or institutional/cultural practices that promote the domination of one racial group over another

scapegoat theory

Prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame.

Explicit prejudice

Prejudicial attitudes that are consciously held even if they are not publicly expressed

List Technique

Presenting a list of donors/supporters to a prospect to induce compliance with a cause (ex. door-to-door solicitors.)

Persuasion - Primacy effect

Primacy effect-Other things being equal, the information presented first usually has the most influence. When information is given (read/presented close together people will remember the first data the most). p. 242

Peripheral route to persuasion

Process by which a person does not think critically about a communication and is influenced by superficial cues instead

Natural selection

Process by which individuals that are better suited to their environment survive and reproduce most successfully; also called survival of the fittest. Enables evolution. p. 153

self-fullfilling prohecy

Process in which initial impression of someone or ourselves leads that person or ourselves to behave in accordance with that impression.

Self-handicapping

Protecting one's self-image with behaviors that create a handy excuse for later failure. p. 71

Stereotypes

Prototypes of people. Although they can be useful for categorization, they can lead us to incorrect conclusions.

Cognitive Dissonance

Psychologist: Leon Festinger Defined: Changes in attitudes can be motivated by an unpleasant state of tension caused by a disparity between a person's beliefs/attitudes and his or her behavior Example: Festinger's Study -Students who did a boring task were paid a token amount of money or a good amount of money to tell others the task was interesting -Students who were paid the token amount changed their perception of the task from boring to interesting

Line Experiment

Psychologist: Soloman Asch Conducted: Used confederates and deception in a lab experiment to determine if naive participants would conform with group WRONG decisions about length of lines Significant Findings: -people will conform to the wrong answer under real or imagined pressure -Statistics: 1/3 of the naïve subjects conformed to the wrong answer & 76% of the naïve subjects conformed at least once to the wrong answer

Milgram Obedience to Authority Study

Psychologist: Stanley Milgram Conducted: SUbject/"teacher" was to apply electric shocks when confederate "learner" did not answer questions correctly; 66% gave what they thought was a lethal 450 volts Findings: Showed even when ordinary people can hurt or kill others when ordered to commit acts by an authority figure

Social Psychologists

Psychologists who study the social influences that explain why the same person acts differently in different situations (p.754)

Compliance

Publicly acting in accord with a direct request

Persuasion - Recency effect

Recency effect -When information is given over a span of time the last sometimes has more influence. Recency effects are less common than primacy effects. p. 242

diffusion of responsibility

Reduction in sense of responsibility often felt by individuals in a group; may be responsible for the bystander effect

Insufficient Justification

Reduction of dissonance by internally justifying one's behavior when external justification is "insufficient." p. 137

Status Contact

Refers to a contact on an equal basis

Contact Theory

Refers to the belief that prejudices can be lessened or eliminated by direct contact between groups

Actor-Observer Bias

Refers to the tendency of an individual to regard situations in which he or she is involved as caused by external factors, and to regard situations he or she observes as caused by the actions of those involved.

Central Route of Persuasion

Relatively stable change by carefully scrutinizing facts, statistics, and other information

Catharsis

Releasing anger or aggression by letting out powerful negative emotions

Replication

Repeating a studies scientific procedures using different participants in an attempt to duplicate the findings

Cross-Cultural research

Research designed to compare and contrast people of different cultures

Multicultural research

Research designed to examine racial and ethnic groups within cultures

Correlational research

Research designed to examine the nature of the relationship between two or more naturally occurring variables

Correlational research

Research designed to measure the association between variables that are not manipulated by the researcher

Experimental method

Research designed to test cause and effect relationships between variables

Self-disclosure

Revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others (p. 804)

Self-disclosure

Revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others.

Foot-in-the phenomenon

Reveals that committing a small act makes people more willing to do a larger one later. p. 134

Group Norms

Rules about how group members should act. For example, businesses may have rules governing appropriate work dress.

Contact Hypothesis

Says that groups with stereotypes of each other would lose them if they were exposed to each other. However, contact can also reinforce stereotypes.

Likert scale

Scale that primarily measures attitudes by asking respondents their degree of agreement or disagreement to a number of statements. 1-7 is common

Two-factor theory of emotion

Schachter and Singer's theory (1962) that emotion is the interaction of physiological arousal and the cognitive label that we apply to explain the arousal. 1) Some people given epinepherine, some given saline 2) Some told their physiological response would be effected 3) Some interacted with a confederate who was annoying, or a confederate who is euphoric 4) The result was that those who got epinepherine but were not told about the physiological response that would occur were likely to label their emotion in correspondence to how the confederate was acting. They created a reason for their response 5) But, those who got epinepherine AND were told about the response did not have an emotional impact by the confederates because they already had an explanation for their physiological response

Stereotype

Scheme used to quickly judge others - Can be an overgeneralized belief about the characteristics of members of a particular group - Interpersonal perception

Social psychology

Seeks to explain how our thoughts, feeling, perceptions, and behaviors are influenced by interactions with others

attention

Selects sensory information for perceptual processing.

Autokinetic Phenomenon

Self (auto) motion (kinetic). The apparent movement of a stationary point of light in the dark. p. 190

autokinetic phenomenon

Self motion. The apparent movement of a stationary point of light in the dark. Was used to show conformity of people--they agree with others in a group, but will be absolutely sure it moved before

Terror Management Theory

Self-esteem gives meaning to people's lives. In this way, self-esteem protects people from the horror associated with knowing they eventually will die. Peoplevsometimes exaggerate their personal importance in attempts to buffer anxiety about inevitable death. p. 52

Rosenthal & Jacobsen & Social Psychology

Self-fulfilly Prophecy - Teachers were told prior to school year to expect certain kids to "bloom" academically during the year - Teacher expectations did come true - bloomers did prove more successful than nonbloomers

Memes

Self-replicating ideas, fashions, and innovations passed from person to person.

Altruism

Selfless sacrifice, an empathic response to the plight of others. People place themselves in the position of others in distress and so act toward them as they would wish others to act toward themselves. It can help to reduce the bystander effect.

Implicit Personality Theory

Sets of assumptions about how different types of people, personality traits, and actions are related to each other

Group

Several interdependent people who have emotional ties and interact on a regular basis

Ambivalent sexism

Sexism directed against women based on both positive and negative attitudes rather than uniform dislike

Superordinate Goals

Shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation.

Superordinate Goals

Shared goals that override differences in order to force cooperation between opposing groups.

Norms

Shared standards of behavior accepted by and expected from group members

robber cave sherrif

Sherif's study at a summer camp, 2 groups were pitted against one another. They grew to despise the other group. Sherif then intermixed groups. When presented with goals in which they had to work together the new groups then worked together.

Similarity/Attractiveness

Similar views among individuals causes the bond of attraction to strengthen; Doesn't mean you are EXACTLY the SAME, but SIMILAR in the BIG ways...

Ambivalent prejudice

Simultaneous positive and negative opinions about a minority group. These conflicted attitudes result in inconsistent behavior toward them. Includes hostile and benevolent prejudice

social dilemmas

Situations in which actions that produce rewards for one individual will produce negative consequences if adopted by everyone.

attitude inoculation

Small attacks on people's beliefs that engage their attitudes, prior commitments, and knowledge structures, enabling them to counteract a subsequent larger attack and be resistant to persuasion

Social role theory

Small gender differences are magnified in perception by the contrasting social roles occupied by men and women

Reciprocity

Small gift makes others feel obligation to agree to later request

Triplett & Social Psychology

Social Faciliation & Social Impairment - looked at the effect of an audience when learners had learned task well or were just beginning to learn it - Well learned tasks were enhanced by audience and newly learned tasks were impaired when audience was present

Philip Zimbardo

Social Psychologist that conducted Stanford Prison Experiment

Alice Eagly

Social Role Theory. First thought that despite negative cultural stereotypes about women, the behavior of women and men is substantially equivalent. p. 182

Zimbardo & Social Psychology

Social Roles - Simulate a prison setting at Stanford U and assign roles of "prisoners" and "guards" to students - Simulation cutt of in 6 days because of sadistic guards and ethical violations

Situational Attributions

Social attributions is the inference that some behavior an individual exhibits is the cause of the situational factors.

Allport

Social norms: Group norms are established by standards of behavior established by levels of opinions Studied @ Harvard university and taught there Social Facilitation: Social improvement on presence of others ex: Running , and or tossing a pancake (coation effect and audience)

Sherif

Social norms: Group norms are established by standards of behavior established by levels of opinions He helped develop social judgment theory and realistic conflict theory. Birthday: July 29, 1906. Died : July 29, 1906 (Died from a heart attack) He was a professor of psychology

Roles

Social positions and defined behavior expectations in groups - Group Dynamics

equity theory

Social psychological theory that states that people attempt to maintain stable, consistent interpersonal relationships in which the ratio of member's contributions is balanced.

Attraction Research

Social psychologists study what factors increase teh chane that people will like one another: - Similarity - we are drawn to people who are similar to us. - Proximity - the greater you exposure to another person, the more you will generally come to like that person. - Reciprocal liking - the more someon like you, the more you will probably like that person.

Sociology

Social science that studies human society and social behavior, and does not focus on individuals at all

Asch and Milgram

Sociology experiments involving people causing physically and mental pain through obedience and acceptances. Like the Nazis. p. 202

Aggression/Neural Influences

Some centers in the brain, especially the limbic system (amygdala) and the frontal lobe, are intimately involved with aggression.

Private vs Public self-consciousness

Some individuals are more self focused than others Private: people who are introspective, often attending to their own inner states Public: people who focus on themselves as social objects, as seen by others

personality of receiver (and persuasiveness of message)

Some people, based on some personality dimensions, are just more likely to be persuaded EX: Need for cognition; these people are more persuaded by central route messages than by peripheral messages

Confederate

Someone who pretends to be participating in a study, but is actually an actor

quid pro quo

Something given with the expectation of receiving something in return.

Insufficient justification effect

Something most effectively gets them to like it and keep on doing it. Cognitive dissonance theory explains. p. 143

Belief Perserverance p. 82

Sometimes the basis for one's belief is discredited but an explanation of why the belief might be true survives. Social psychologists refer to this as

what are the components of persuasive messages?

Source (who said it), message (what is said), and receiver (to whom the message is sent)

Spin framing

Special framing where more than just the order of things is rearranged, but also gets biased wording (using victim vs casualty, or defendant vs perpetrator

Facial Feedback Hypothesis

States that facial movement could influence emotional experience.

Mere Exposure Effect

States that people tend to prefer people and experiences that are familiar. E.g. people tend to have friends who are on the same floor in an apartment building than on different floors.

Positive/Compensatory Stereotypes

Stereotype of a group that is supposedly positive. Helps people believe in system justification since everyone has their "strengths" and "weaknesses" EX: Asians are smart, Women are more well-liked, African Americans are good at Basketball

Chameleon Effect

Strange phenomenon in which we tend to unconsciously mimic the speech pattern, tone of voice, and mood of someone we have spent a lot of time with.

Strength of argument

Strong arguments influence inductive reasoning and make it more likely something will be judged as valid. Strength is determined by number, representativeness, and quality of observations. What makes an argument strong depends on whether they are going for central or peripheral route of persuasion

Social Facilitation

Stronger facilitation in others because of another's presence

Surveys

Structured sets of questions or statements given to a group of people to measure their attitudes beliefs values or behavioral tendencies

Darley and Latane's "Siezure" Experiment

Students were in a booth alone with a pair of microphones and headphones. They were having a discussion that took place over an intercom. A confederate staged a seizure. The experiment was to investigate if the number of witnesses of an emergency influences people's helping in an emergency situation. RESULT: Of the participants in the alone condition, 85% went out and reported the seizure. Only 31% reported the seizure when they believed that there were four bystanders. The gender of the bystander did not make a difference.

Leon Festinger

Studied cognitive dissonance, found that people are more likely to alter their attitude to fit behavior instead of vice versa.

Obedience Studies

Studies that foucs on participants' willingness to do what another asks them to do. Milgram (1974) found that over 60% of the participants obey experimenters' orders to hurt someone. Participants' compliance is decreased when they are in close contact with those peopel whom they are being ordered to harm. When the experiementer left in the middle of the experment and was replaced by an assistant, obedience also decreased. When other people were present in the room and they objected to the orders, the % of participants who quit in the middle of the experiment skyrocketed.

Social Psychology

Study of how groups influence individuals's attitudes and behavior

Social cognition

Study of how people think about themselves and others

Solomon

Study that had people listen to others' judgments of which of three comparison lines was equal to a standard line and then make the same judgment. p. 206

Obedience

Submissive compliance is the act of following orders from others.

Evolutionary psychology

Suggests, physically dominant males excelled in gaining access to females, whichover generations enhanced male aggression and dominance as the less-aggressive males had fewer chances to reproduce. p. 171

Self-serving cognitions

Taking credit for success and distancing themselves from failure Overly-optimistic bias about future Over-estimate amount of control they have in their own life

"How are you feeling?" technique

Telemarketers call and ask how you are; once you have publicly stated that all is well, it becomes much easier for the solicitor to corner you into aiding those for whom all is not well

Credible

Tend to be persuasive. An attractive communicator is especially effective on matters of taste and personal values. p. 251 One-sided versus two-sided appeals 1. Discrepancy and credibility interact. 2. An appeal that acknowledged opposing arguments worked better with those who disagreed. 3. When two-sided appeal are given the primacy effect often makes the first message is more persuasive. If time gap separates the presentations, the more likely result will be recency effect in which the second message prevails. p. 240-241

Door-in-the-face Phenomenon

Tendency for people who have first refused a large request to comply later with a smaller request.

Actor-observer bias

Tendency to attribute one's own behavior to outside causes but attribute the behavior of others to internal causes

Actor-Observer Bias

Tendency to attribute out behaviors to situational factors and others' behaviors to dispositional factors - Attributions

Just-world Phenomenon

Tendency to believe in fairness, that people get what they deserve and deserve what they get - Interpesonal Perception

Coformity

Tendency to change our perceptions, opinions or behaviour in ways that are consistent with group norms

Self-serving bias

Tendency to claim success is due to our efforts, while failure is due to circumstances beyond our control

reciprocity norm

Tendency to respond to others as they have acted towards you

Fundamental Attribution Error

Tendency to underestimate the impact of situational factors and overestimate the impact of dispositional (personal) factors when assessing why other people acted the way they did

Fundamental Attribution Error

Tendency when judging others' behaviors to overestimate the role of personal factors and underestimate situational factors - Attributions

Stanley Milgram's Obedience Experiments

Tested what happens when the demands of authority clash with the demands of conscienc. Why do people obey authority? (Shock's) p. 196 - 198

social identity

The "we" aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to "Who am I?" that comes from our group memberships

naturalistic fallacy

The (mistaken) idea that anything "natural" must be "good."

Milgram's study of obedience

The Milgram experiment on obedience to authority figures was a series of social psychology experiments conducted by Yale University psychologist Stanley Milgram. They measured the willingness of study participants, men from a diverse range of occupations with varying levels of education, to obey an authority figure who instructed them to perform acts conflicting with their personal conscience; the experiment found, unexpectedly, that a very high proportion of people were prepared to obey, albeit unwillingly, even if apparently causing serious injury and distress. 62.5% complied

Homogenity Bias

The Outgroup Homogeneity Effect is the tendency to view an outgroup as homogenous, or as “all the same,” whereas the ingroup is seen as more heterogeneous or varied.

Utility value

The ability of a person to help another achieve his or her goals

Stimulation value

The ability of a person to interest you in or to expose you to new ideas and experiences

Ego-support value

The ability of a person to provide another person with sympathy, encouragement, and approval

Norms

The accepted standards of behavior for any given group

Persuasion

The action or fact of persuading someone or of being persuaded to do or believe something

priming

The activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response. EX: Community game vs Wall Street game. Priming advertisement experts to recreate a preconceived ad that was heavily primed

Bystander Intervention

The active involvement of a person ina situation that appears to require his or her aid - Group Dynamics

Conformity

The adoption of attitudes and behaviors shared by a particular group of people

stereotype threat

The anxiety experienced, and resulting worse performance by members of a group when reminded of their negative stereotypes. EX: Women suck at math

Stereotype threat

The apprehension people feel when performing a task in which their group is stereotyped to lack ability

third-person effect

The assumption by most people that "other people" are more prone to being influenced by persuasive messages (such as those in media campaigns) than they themselves are.

Interpersonal Attraction

The attraction between people which leads to friendships and romantic relationships

Complementarity

The attraction that often develops between opposite types of people because of the ability of one to supply what the other lacks

Target Audience

The audience you are trying to reach

Discrimination

The behavioral manifestation of prejudice, when people act on the attitude and actively treat members of the group differently.

Altruism

The belief in or practice of disinterested and selfless concern for the well-being of others

Ethnocentrism

The belief that one's group is of central importance, tendency to judge the practices of other groups by one's own cultural standards.

Bad-news bias

The belief that people are more at risk of victimization that they really are

Diffusion of responsibility

The belief that the presence of other people in a situation makes one less person responsible for the events that occur in the situation

Just world phenonenom

The belief that the world is right and the that people get what they deserve. People will often blame the victims of various circumstances.

Illusory correlation

The belief that two variables are associated with each other when in fact there is little or no actual association

Personal Space

The buffer zone we like to maintain around our bodies.

Social categorization

The classification of persons into groups on the basis of common attributes

Pornography

The combination of sexual material with abuse or degradation in a manner that appears to endorse condone or encourage such behavior

What are the consequences to resistance to conformity

The conformers will try to convince the deviant to conform. If they fail to conform for too long, the deviant will be rejected

Communication - Audience

The crucial aspect of central route persuasion is not the message but the responses it evokes in a person's mind. Our minds are not sponges that soak up everything. If a message gives favorable thoughts, it persuades us. p. 249

Companionate love

The deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined (p. 803)

Companionate Love

The deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined.

Downward social comparison

The defensive tendency to compare ourselves with others who are worse off than we are

Interrater Reliability

The degree to which different observers agree on their observations

Experimental realism

The degree to which experimental procedures are involving to participants and lead them to behave naturally and spontaneously

Mundane realism

The degree to which the experimental situation resembles places and events in the real world

Attitude Formation

The different ways an attitude is formed; it can vary from person to person

Physical proximity

The distance of one person to another

Order Effects

The effect that the order of things has on the memory of the whole. The most recent thing and the things that are presented first are most easily remembered (leaving the middle not well remembered). Primacy and recency effect

Culture

The enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.

Culture

The enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.

balanced relationship

The enemy of my enemy is my friend. Two people dislike a teacher, so their relationship to each other is balanced

Group Polarization

The enhancement of a group's prevailing attitudes through discussion within the group.

group polarization

The enhancement of a group's prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group

Group polarization

The enhancement of a group's prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group (p. 774)

Social facilitation

The enhancement of dominant responses due to the presence of others

Group Polarization

The enhancements of groups prevailing tendencies which occur when the people within a group discuses an idea which most of group either favors or opposes

Group Polarization

The exaggeration of our initial attitudes after being in groups, occurring when a judgment or decision of a group is more extreme than what individual members would have reached on their own.

Social influence

The exercise of social power by a person or group to change the attitudes or behavior others in a particular direction

Social Norms

The expectation a group has for its members regarding acceptable and appropriate attitudes and behaviors.

Reciprocity norm

The expectation that one should return a favor or good deed

Asch's Line Comparison

The experiment we did in class with lines A, B, and C and we had to say which one was the same length as X. To see if individuals yielded to or defied a majority group. Experiment failed in class thanks to Paolo.

Dependent variable

The experimental variable that is measured because it is believed to depend on the manipulated changes in the independent variable

External validity

The extent to which a study's findings can be generalized to people beyond those in the study itself

Construct Validity

The extent to which an experiment measures the variables they were meant to measure and manipulates the variables it was meant to manipulate

Internal validity

The extent to which cause and effect conclusions can validly be made in the study

Self-monitoring

The extent to which people are able to observe their own behavior and adapt it to external social situations. p. 73

Rape myth

The false belief that deep down women enjoy forcible sex and find it sexually exciting

Compliance

The following of the requests of others, even at the expense of your own interests.

Social power

The force available to the influencer to motivate attitude or behavior change

Counterfactual Thinking

The form of thinking to evaluate events by imagining alternative versions or outcomes to what actually happened

Impression Formation

The forming of the first knowledge that a person has concerning another person

Social Perception

The general term for the processes by which people come to understand one another

Self-consciousness

The habitual tendency to engage in self awareness

Learned helplessness

The hopelessness and resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated bad events. p. 58

Facial Feedback Hypothesis

The hypothesis that changes in facial expression can lead to corresponding changes in emotions

Facial Feedback Hypothesis

The hypothesis that emotional expressions can cause the emotional experiences they signify

matching hypothesis

The idea that males and females of approximately equal physical attractiveness are likely to select each other as partners.

contact hypothesis

The idea that stereotypes and prejudice toward a group will diminish as contact with the group increases. The groups must have: -equal status -social norms promote equality -common and superordinate goals exist -cooperation and mutual interdependence is important -Interaction is based at individual level

Gender identity

The identification of oneself as male or female

Aggression

The intention to do hard to others - Types include Instrumental & Hostile - Freud & Lorenz believed that it is innate - the fact that different cultures display differing levels of aggression supports the belief that aggression is learned

Instrumental aggression

The intentional use of harmful behavior so that one can achieve some other goal

Augmenting principle

The judgmental rule that states that if an event occurs despite the presence of strong opposing forces, we should give more weight to those possible causes that lead toward the event. Feeling better than before about your 93% after learning the class average was 50%

Vicarious Conditioning

The learning of various attitudes, feelings, beliefs and emotions, not through direct exposure to a stimulus, but through observing how others react to it

Deindividuation

The lessening of personal identity, self-restraint, and the sense of personal responsibility that can occur within a group

Deindividuation

The loss of a sense of individual identity and a loosening of normal inhibitions against engaging in behavior that is inconsistent with internal standards

Deindividuation

The loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity (p. 773)

Deindividuation

The loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity.

deindividuation

The loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity.

Social Cognition

The mental processes that people use to make sense of the social world around them

Groupthink

The mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives (p. 775)

Groupthink

The mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives.

how does attractiveness affect persuasion?

The more attractive the source or message, the more persuasive

how does credibility affect persuasion?

The more credible the source, the more persuasive--uncredible sources can still persuade via the sleeper effect.

Mere exposure effect

The more you are exposed to something the more you will come to like it ex. you will more likely buy a brand of chips you have seen advertised many times rather than ones you've never heard of before

Need for cognition

The motivation to think and analyze. Assessed by agreement with items such as "The notion of thinking abstractly is appealing to me" and disagreement with items such as "I only think as hard as I have to." p. 250

Embodied cognitiion

The mutual influence of bodily sensations a cognitive preferences and social judgments. p.79

Darley & Batson's Good Samaritan study

The parable of the Good Samaritan is an interesting example. What possessed the priest and the Levite to pass by the injured man by the side of the road? Possibly they were in a hurry and were filled with busy, important thoughts. Maybe the Samaritan was in less of a hurry. Or maybe the virtues that the religious leaders espoused were not something they followed themselves (unlike the Samaritan). The researchers had three hypotheses: 1. People thinking religious, "helping" thoughts would still be no more likely than others to offer assistance. 2. People in a hurry will be less likely to offer aid than others. 3. People who are religious in a Samaritan fashion will be more likely to help than those of a priest or Levite fashion. In other words, people who are religious for what it will gain them will be less likely than those who value religion for it's own value or are searching for meaning in life. 90% of students didn't help when in rush, and over 60% did help when not in rush

Autonomic Nervous System

The part of the nervous system responsible for control of the bodily functions that are not consciously directed, such as breathing, the heartbeat, and digestive processes. Controls calmness or fight-or-flight response

shooter bias

The participants were especially likely to pull the trigger when the people in the pictures were black, whether or not they were holding a gun. This "shooter bias" meant that people made relatively few errors when a black person was in fact holding a gun; it also meant that they made the most errors when a black person was not holding a gun.

perceived intent; how it influences persuasion.

The perceived reason that a source is communicating a message (is it to persuade me, or is it just informative?) If the person believes they are being persuaded, the person becomes more resistant. If the person thinks it is not persuasive, they are more likely to believe it

Obedience

The performance of an action in response to a direct order

Communicator (Source)

The person who is telling you what to do

Legitimization-of-paltry-favors

The persuasive technique that tries to convince people that even super small favors are beneficial to a cause (EX: I just need 1 second of your time!, Even a penny can help!)

Groupthink

The phenomenon that occurs when members of a group are so driven to reach unanimous decisions that they no longer truly evaluate the implications or consequences of their decisions.

Groupthink

The phenomenon that occurs when the desire for social acceptance overcomes the ability to view realistic alternatives. It usually prompts people to ignore alternatives to a solution and focus on the easiest or most accepted alternative.

Proximity

The phenomenon that people feel more attracted to others who are closer in space and similarities.

Mere-exposure effect

The phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them (p. 798)

Mere Exposure Effect

The phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them.

Diffusion of responsibility

The presence of others lessens an individual's feeling of responsibility for his or her actions or failure to act

Frustration-aggression principle

The principle that frustration - the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal - created anger, which can generate agression (p. 791)

Frustration-Aggression Principle

The principle that frustration -the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal- creates anger, which can generate aggression.

Central route to persuasion

The process by which a person thinks carefully about a communication and is influenced by the strength of its arguments

Persuasion

The process by which attitudes are changed

Culture frame switching

The process by which biculturalists switch between different culturally appropriate behaviors depending on the context

Minority influence

The process by which dissenters produce change within a group

Communication - Two-step flow of communication

The process by which media influence often occurs through opinion leaders, who in turn influence others. Example politicians seek to woo our opinion. p. 246

Mind perception

The process by which people attribute humanlike mental states to various animate and inanimate objects, including other people

Delegitimization

The process of cognitively placing in out group into an extremely negative social category that excuses them from acceptable norms values thereby eliminating Inhibitions Against them

Nonverbal

The process of communication through the use of space, body language, and facial expression

Attribution

The process of explaining one's own behavior and the behavior of others

Affective Forecasting

The process of predicting how one would feel in response to future emotional events Impact bias = people overestimate strength and duration of their emotional reactions

Self enhancement

The process of seeking out and interpreting situations so as to attain a positive view of oneself

Self verification

The process of seeking out and interpreting situations so as to confirm ones self-concept

Social Influence

The process through which the real or implied presence of others can directly or indirectly influence the thoughts, feelings, and behavior of an individual

Gender-typing

The process where the child becomes aware of their gender and begins to behave accordingly to the traditional female/male roles set by society.

Misattribution of Arousal

The process whereby people make mistaken inferences about what is causing their arousal or physiological response by what they cognitively think it is

encoding

The processing of information into the memory system.

Social Loafing

The reduced effort that group members often put into a task as a result of the size of the group. People are prone to this when they believe their performance is not being assessed or monitored.

Catharsis

The reduction in the aggressive drive following an aggressive act

Over justification Effect

The result of bribing people to do what they already like doing; they may then see their actions as externally controlled rather than intrinsically appealing. p.144

Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic

The rule of thumb that contends that individuals make estimates or choices based on a certain starting point. EX: Is Mississippi 2000 miles long or more? Is "" 200 miles long or more?

Social Psychology

The scientific field that seeks to understand the nature and causes of individual behavior and thought in(real or imagined) social situations. study of Social Behavior + Social Cognition

Social Psychology

The scientific study of how a person's thoughts, feelings, and behavior influence and are influenced by social groups; area of psychology in which psychologists focus on how human behavior is affected by the presence of other people

Social Psychology

The scientific study of how individuals think, feel and behave in a social context

Social Psychology

The scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another.

Rosenthal Effect

The self-fulfilling prophecy evident in education, which is when teachers are told that certain children are expected to achieve, those children tend to do better than others even if there is no difference in ability levels.

Cognitive Dissonance

The state of having inconsistent thoughts, beliefs, or attitudes, especially as relating to behavioral decisions and attitude change

Cognitive Dissonance

The state of having inconsistent thoughts, beliefs, or attitudes, especially as relating to behavioral decisions and attitude change. Someone who's actions conflict with their beliefs is likely to experience cognitive dissonance.

Regression toward the average

The statistical tendency for extreme scores or extreme behavior to return toward one's average. p. 97

Social Psychology

The study of how people are affect by other people ¤ Social Psychologists attempt to understand, explain, and predict how people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the actual, imagine, or implied presence of others

Social cognition

The study of how people perceive, remember and interpret information about themselves and others

Social Psychology

The study of people in interaction with each other

Social neuroscience

The study of the relationship between neural and social processes

Self-concept

The sum total of a person's thoughts and feelings that defined the self as an object

Self-Concept

The sum total of an individual's beliefs about his or her own personal attributes

Bystander effect

The tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present (p. 808)

Bystander Effect

The tendency for any given person to be less likely to give aid if other persons are present.

Courtesy Stigma

The tendency for individuals who are associated with stigmatized people to face negative evaluations from others

Overjustification effect

The tendency for intrinsic motivation to diminish for activities that have become associated with reward or other extrinsic factors

Group Polarization

The tendency for members involved in a group discussion to take somewhat more extreme positions and suggests riskier actions when compared to individuals who have not participated in a group discussion

Personal group discrimination discrepancy

The tendency for members of disadvantaged groups to minimize personal discrimination in their own lives

Fundamental attribution error

The tendency for observers to underestimate situational influences and overestimate dispositional influences upon others' behavior. AKA correspondence bias - we often see behavior as corresponding to a disposition. p. 103

Fundamental Attribution Error

The tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition

fundamental attribution theory

The tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition

Fundamental Attribution Error

The tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition.

Fundamental Attribution Error. Who is most prone?

The tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition. Those in individualistic cultures are most likely to commit the FAE, as opposed to collectivistic cultures

Fundamental attribution error

The tendency for observers, when analyzing others' behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and overestimate the impact of the personal disposition (p.754)

halo effect

The tendency for one characteristic of an individual to influence a tester's evaluation of other characteristics. Good looks, must mean good at everything

Social loafing

The tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable (p. 773)

Social Loafing

The tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable.

Just-world phenomenon

The tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get (p. 784)

Social Loafing

The tendency for people to put less effort into a simple task when working with others on that task

Foot-in-the-door phenomenon

The tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request (p. 757)

Foot-in-the-door Phenomenon

The tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request.

Social Facilitation

The tendency for the presence of other people to have a positive impact on the performance of an easy task

Social Impairment

The tendency for the presence of other people to have negative impact on the performance of a difficult task

False consensus effect

The tendency of a person to overestimate the number/proportion of people who agree -Sean loves horror movies, likely to overestimate the # of ppl who share the passion -notice and hang out w people who think similarly

Social Loafing

The tendency of individuals to put less effort into group projects than when they are individually accountable - Group Dynamics

Groupthink

The tendency of people in a group to seek concurrence with one another when reaching a decision, rather than effectively evaluating options.

Just-world phenomenon

The tendency of people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get

Just-World Phenomenon

The tendency of people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get.

Minority slowness effect

The tendency of those who hold a minority opinion to express that opinion less quickly than people who hold the majority opinion

Situational Cause

The tendency to analyze a person's actions according to the situation that they are in

Actor-Observer Bias

The tendency to attribute one's own biases to external causes while attributing other people's behavior to internal causes

Self-Serving Bias

The tendency to attribute successes/positive events to one's own internal factors/character while attributing failures/negative events to external factors/environment in order to protect one's self-esteem.

Stereotype Vulnerability

The tendency to expect, perceive, and be influenced by negative stereotypes about one's social category

In-group Bias

The tendency to favor one's own group.

Ingroup bias

The tendency to favor our own group (p. 784)

Primacy effect

The tendency to form opinions on others based on first impressions

In group bias

The tendency to give more favorable evaluations and greater rewards to in group members than to outgroup members

Ultimate Attribution Error

The tendency to make dispositional attributions about an entire group of people.

Social loafing

The tendency to no work as hard when sharing the workload with others

False consensus effect

The tendency to overestimate the commonality of one's opinions and one's undesirable or unsuccessful behaviors. p.66

Fundamental Attribution Error

The tendency to overestimate the influence of internal factors in determining behavior while understanding situational factors

Self-serving bias

The tendency to perceive oneself favorably. p. 61

Social Inhibition

The tendency to perform complex or difficult tasks more poorly in the presence of others

Other-race effect

The tendency to recall faces of one's own race more accurately than faces of other races (p. 786)

Self-Serving Bias

The tendency to see causes of results to be dispositional when they are positive, and situational when they are negative.

Illusory Correlation

The tendency to see relationships, or correlations, between events that are actually unrelated. EX: African American & crime

Selective expourse

The tendency to seek information and media that agree with one's views and to avoid dissonant information. p. 135

Pluralistic ignorance

The tendency to think that everyone else is interpreting a situation in a certain way when in fact they are not

Planning Fallacy

The tendency to under-estimate how long it will take to complete a task. p. 46

planning fallacy

The tendency to underestimate how long it will take to complete a task

False uniqueness effect

The tendency to underestimate the commonality of one's abilities and one's desirable or successful behaviors. p. 67

Self monitoring

The tendency to use cues from other peoples self presentations and controlling one's own self presentation

Attribution theory

The theory of how people explain others' behavior - for ex. by attributing it either to internal dispositions (enduring traits, motives, and attitudes) or to external situations. p. 101

Attribution Theory

The theory of how people make attributions

Social exchange theory

The theory our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs (p. 809)

Realistic group conflict theory

The theory that Intergroup conflict develops from competition for limited resources

Theory of planned behaviour

The theory that attitudes toward a specific behaviour combine with subjective norms and perceived control to influence a person's actions 1. Attitudes towards specific behaviour influence behaviour more than general attitudes 2. Behaviour is influenced by subjective norms 3. Attitudes only influence behaviour if behaviour is in our control 4. People do/cannot follow through with intentions

Gender Schema Theory

The theory that children learn from their cultures a concept of what it means to be a male and female and that they adjust their behavior accordingly.

Frustration aggression hypothesis

The theory that frustration causes aggression

Self-Perception Theory

The theory that internal cues are hard to interpret, people gain self-insight by looking at their own behaviour

Social Exchange Theory

The theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs.

Theory of psychological reactance

The theory that people believe they possess specific behavioral freedoms and that they will react against and resist attempts to limit this sense of freedom

Social comparison Theory

The theory that people evaluate their own abilities and opinions by comparing themselves to others

scapegoat theory

The theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame

Scapegoat theory

The theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame (p. 785)

Scapegoat Theory

The theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame.

Self-Awareness Theory

The theory that self-focused attention leads people to notice self-discrepancies, thereby motivating either an escape from self-awareness or a change in behaviour People only change behaviour if they believe they will be able to and if they believe it will reduce their self discrepancies OTHERWISE escape from self awareness (drugs, food, sex, etc.)

Social impact theory

The theory that the amount of social influence others have depends on their number strength in immediacy to those they are trying to influence

Two-factor theory of emotion

The theory that the experience of emotion is based on two factors: physiological arousal and a cognitive interpretation of that arousal

Cognitive dissonance theory

The theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent. For example, when we become aware that our attitudes and our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes (p. 759)

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

The theory that we act to reduce the discomfort we feel when two of our thoughts are inconsistent.

cognitive dissonance

The theory that we act to reduce the discomfort we feel when two of our thoughts are inconsistent. For example, when our awareness of our attitudes and our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes, often in a self-justifying way.

Attribution theory

The theory that we explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition (p.754)

Social Learning Theory

The theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished.

Attribution Theory

The theory that we tend to give a causal explanation for someone's behavior, often by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition.

idiosyncrasy credits

The tolerance a person earns, over time, by conforming to group norms; if enough idiosyncrasy credits are earned, the person can, on occasion, behave deviantly without retribution from the group

Altruism

The unselfish convern of one individual for the welfare of another - Group Dynamics

Altruism

The unselfish desire to help others without wanting to be compensated for it.

Meta-analysis

The use of statistical techniques to summarize the results from similar studies on a specific topic to estimate the reliability and overall size of the effect

Social Cognitive Theory

The view that people learn by watching others

Social Cognition

The way people gather, use, and interpret information about their social world - Attribution

Behavior Component

The way the attitude we have influences how we act or behave

Self-regulation

The ways in which people control and direct their own actions

Sternberg's Triangular Theory of Leve

Theory stating love consists of 3 components (intimacy, passion, and commitment), and the amount of love depends on the strength of these components

Elaboration Likelihood Model

Theory suggesting that there are two routes to attitude change: the central route, which focuses on thoughtful consideration of an argument for change, and the peripheral route, which focuses on less careful, more emotional, and even superficial evaluation. we are more likely to use central route when there is higher motivation to process message (interested, relevant, or high stakes), the higher the personal accountability, the more likely we will use central route, need for cognition also increases use of central route. Ability can influence whether you use central route as well (lawyers are more likely to read fine print than non-lawyers)

Group polarization

Theory that group discussion reinforces the majority's point of view and shifts group members' opinions to a more extreme position

Reward Theory of Attraction

Theory that we will like those whose behavior is rewarding to us and that we will continue relationshps that offer more rewards than costs.

In general, other people influence us in two major ways:

They give us (information) about situations They set the (norms) - the rules about expected behaviors

According to evolutionary perspective, how does ovulation change female sexual preference?

They look for a more masculine mate for the short term

Which is correct, cognitive dissonance theory vs self-perception theory?

They very well may both be correct in different circumstances

spot delivery

This is when all phases of the purchase and delivery are completed the same day. This may be with or without any kind of credit check or approval be made on it. A spot delivery for a salesman is like a badge of talent.

Cognitive Dissonance

This produces a feeling of discomfort leading to an alteration in one of the attitudes, beliefs or behaviors to reduce the discomfort and restore balance etc. For example, when people smoke (behavior) and they know that smoking causes cancer (cognition).

(Philip) Zimbardo

This psychologist conducted the Stanford Prison Experiment in which some participants were "prisoners" and some were "prison guards". The prison guards ended up being hardcore and the prisoners either tried to rebel or had mental breakdowns. The experiment lasted 6 days.

(Solomon) Asch

This psychologist did an experiment in which he showed participants a "standard line" and then three others; the participants had to identify which line was closest standard line. The confederates participating in the experiment purposely said the wrong answer to see if the blind participant would conform.

(Stanley) Milgram

This psychologist is best known for his Yale experiment on obedience. The confederate played the role of the "learner" where they would try (and often fail) to learn a set of words, and the "teacher" (the blind participant) would shock them when they failed. His experiment was shocking.

Door-in-the-face

This strategy argues that after people refuse a large request, they will look more favorably upon a follow-up request that seems, in comparison, much more reasonable. After flat-out refusing to lend you $100, your friend might feel bad and let you borrow $20.

Out Groups

Those people who do not belong to a specific in-group

Social Cognition: Attributions

Thought processes used to explain behavior.

Basking in the glory of others / Basking in reflected glory (BIRG)

To increase self-esteem by associating with successful others

Self-Serving Bias

To take personal credit for our own achievements and blame our failures on situational factors - Attributions

Discrimination

Treating people differently because of prejudice toward the social group to which they belong

Independent v. Interdependent self systems

Two opposing mentalities (appearing in different cultures), one where people see themselves as individuals and one where people see themselves as part of a larger whole.

Social Group

Two or more people sharing common goals and interests interact and influence the behavior of the other - Group Dynamics

Communication - Influences

Two-step flow of information influences the drugs doctors describes. Messages are best comprehended and recalled when written. p. 247

Peripheral-Route Processing

Type of information processing that involves attending to factors not involved in the message, such as the appearance of source of the message, length of the message and other noncontent factors

Central-Route Processing

Type of information processing that involves attending to the content of the message itself

Implicit prejudice

Unconsciously held pre-judicial attitudes

Discrimination

Unjustified action against an individual or group based on prejudice - Interpersonal Perception

Prejudice

Unjustified attitudes we hold about others - Interpersonal Perception

empathy-altruism model

Unselfish behavior can occur as a result of empathy with another person.

Altruism

Unselfish regard for the welfare to others (p. 807)

Why do we use schemas rather than consciously think through each situation?

Using schemas is intuitive and is so learned that there is no mental effort necessary/very little. In quick decision moments (is he pulling a gun out of his pocket or not), it can be extremely beneficial to stick with the schema and assume that this is a gun.

How do schemas affect memory?

WE are more likely to retrieve and remember memories that are more consistent with our schemas than inconsistent

Actor-Observer Effect

We attribute our own behaviour to situational factors and others' behaviour to personal behaviour

Automatic Believing

We believe what we see, hear, only to have the possibility to disbelieve it if we give the though enough cognitive effort. IT is easiest to convince people when they are distracted

Social learning theory

We learn stereotyped through modeling - ex. children raised by parents who express prejudices may be more likely to embrace such prejudices themselves -it can be unlearned by exposure to different models

Fundamental Attribution Error

We make dispositional attributions for a person's behavior despite the presence of external influences. -Americans, because we emphasize individual responsibility and accomplishment, are prone to this error.

The actor-observer effect

We make situational attributions for our own behaviors and dispositional ones for others'. -We have greater awareness of our own behavior varying across situations. -We don't consider that others' behavior varies similarly (someone cuts us off they are a bitch, we cut them off and it was an accident)

Social influences

We measure expressed attitudes like others behaviors, for example, we say wha we think others want to hear. Can be enormous enough to induce to people to violate their convictions. p. 121

In-group bias

We tend to see members of our own group (the in-group) as more diverse than members of another group (the out-group)

principle of scarcity

We want things more the more difficult it is to get. EX: giving the buyer a timer to call before it is too late, or wanting to buy rare items (even if it is just a belief)

Self-concept

What we know and believe about ourselves. p. 37

Public level

What we say to others about the group

Compliance strategies: Low-ball

When a product is offered at a lower price than its intended to be charged at, and then raised at the last min -hard to say no to it when you have already picked it out

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

When attributions actually affect the outcome. E.g. When you expect someone to achieve or fail, that person is likely to do just that.

Recency effect

When information is given over a span of time the last sometimes has more influence. RecencPrimacy effect-Other things being equal, the information presented first usually has the most influence. When information is given (read/presented close together people will remember the first data the most). p. 242y effects are less common than primacy effects. p. 242

Affective-Cognitive Disparity

When one person has conflicting attitudes and beliefs about one attitude object. Not liking Kanye (affect), but believing he is talented (cognitive).

Fundamental Attribution Error

When people are more likely to overestimate the role of dispositional attributes and underestimate the role of the situation when judging others.

Situational/external Attribution

When people assign the cause of a behavior or outcome to environmental or external conditions.

Dispositional/internal Attribution

When people assume that the cause of a behavior or outcome is internal.

Central route to persuasion

When people make decisions based upon factual information, logical arguments, and a thoughtful analysis of pertinent details.

Group Polarization

When people of similar views form a group together, discussions within the group makes their views more extreme.

Sharpening and Leveling

When telling stories, more important and interesting elements get emphasized, and more neutral or mundane pieces get de-emphasized or eliminated

Social Impairment/inhibition

When the presence of others makes performance worse, particularly with difficult tasks.

Compassionate Love

When two people first fall in love, they often have an intense passion for each other; they want to touch all the time, kiss all the time, and have very absorbing feelings, like "floating on a cloud"

Psychological immune system

When we experience events that send us into an emotional tailspin it kicks in to try and protect us from the worst of it. This means that bad events are not as bad as we think. (Wilson & Gilbert) p. 48

Superordinate Goals

Where two or more people or groups must work cooperatively together to achieve a specific goal, which usually results in rewards to the groups

Independence versus connectedness

Women are more likely than men to give priority to close, intimate relationships. (2)Compared with boys, girls talk more intimately and play less aggressively.Noted Elenor Maccoby. p. 163

Attraction

You are attracted to someone due to: similarity proximity physical attractiveness

Self-serving bias

You don't do Fundamental attribution error with yourself -tendency to take more credit for good outcomes than bad ones - ex. do well on math test, your awesome - do bad, blame it on excuses for not performing well Leads to actor observer discrepancy

Door-in-face

You first make a large request that you know will be refused and then follow it with a more moderate request increasing the liklihood of this second request being accepted than if it were presented alone. It works because: I compromised with you, so you should compromise with me.

How Stable are our attitudes really?

Your attitudes can be influenced by your own behavior - Janis and King (1954; 1956) - People asked to improvise a speech supporting a point of view with which they disagreed. After, their private opinion moved toward the position they advocated in the speech. -Attitude change was not as great for individuals who only listened to the speech

Self Fulfilling Prophecy

a belief that leads to its own fulfillment

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

a belief that leads to its own fulfillment

Self-fulfilling prohpecy

a belief that leads to its own fulfillment

self-fulfilling prophecy

a belief that leads to its own fulfillment (p. 812)

self-fulfilling prophecy

a belief that leads to its own fulfillment. EX: If you think someone like you, you will act more likable, IF you think you are hated, you will act in a way that makes you more hated.

Self-fulfilling prophecy

a belief that leads to its own fulfillment. p. 109

Self-Handicapping

a cognitive strategy by which people avoid effort in the hopes of keeping potential failure from hurting self-esteem.

Attribution Theory

a collection of principles based on our explanations of the causes of events, other people's behaviors, and our own behaviors

schema

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

equity

a condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it

Equity

a condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it.

equity

a condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 764)

culture of honor

a culture that is defined by its members' strong concerns about their own and others' reputations, leading to sensitivity to slights and insults and a willingness to use violence to avenge any perceived wrong or insult

Sleeper effect

a delayed increase in the persuasive impact of a noncredible source

Social dominance orientation

a desire to see one's ingroups as dominant over other groups and a willingness to adopt cultural values that facilitate oppression over other groups People may not always be willing to challenge the system even if it does not favour them

Bogus pipeline

a fake lie-detector device that is sometimes used to get respondents to give truthful answers to sensitive questions

bait-and-switch, Strategies of persuasion

a favorable deal is followed by additional demands after a commitment has been made

obedience

a form of compliance that occurs when people follow direct commands, usually from someone in a position of authority

major premis

a general statement that is the first element of a syllogism

Stereotype

a generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people

stereotype

a generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people

Stereotype

a generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people.

stereotype

a generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 743)

Groupthink

a group decision making style characterized by an excessive tendency among member to seek concurrence

sample

a group of people who are selected to participate in a study

Stereotype

a group schema that is especially rigid and resistant to change - public, private, implicit levels

just-world phenomenon

a manifestation of the commonly held belief that good is rewarded and evil is punished

Public Service Announcement and its persuasion.

a message created to educate people about an issue or induce a beneficial social practice. PSAs tend to have poor success, or even a boomerang effect

deception

a methodological technique in which the researcher misinforms participants about the true nature of what they are experiencing in a study

social identity of deindividuation effects (SIDE)

a model of group behaviour that explains deindividuation effects as the result of a shift from personal identity to group identity (positive or negative)

Heuristic-Systematic Model

a model of persuasion that maintains that there are two different routes of persuasion: the systematic route and the heuristic route

foot-in-the-door, Strategies of persuasion

a modest request is followed by a larger one

Attitude scale

a multiple-item questionnaire designed to measure a person's attitude toward some object

Implicit personality theory

a network of assumptions people make about the relationships among traits and behaviours

action

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

aggression replacement program

a parenting system in which harsh discipline is replaced with kinder, more gentle discipline or communication

conflict

a perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas

conflict

a perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas between individuals or groups

Conflict

a perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas.

Collectivist Cultures

a person's link to various groups such as family or company is stressed; importance is stressed on the whole

Need for cognition

a personality variable that distinguishes people on the basis of how much they enjoy effortful cognitive activities increase NC = Increase central persuasion

social exchange theory

a perspective that views people as motivate to maximize benefits and minimize costs in their relationships with others

perceptual confirmation

a phenomenon that occurs when observers perceive what they expect to perceive. contributes cleanly to confirmation bias

pratfall effect

a phenomenon whereby some evidence of fallibility increases the attractiveness of a nearly perfect person. I.E. we dislike a 'perfect' person less than someone who makes mistakes/is clumsy every-so-once-in-a-while

collectivism

a philosophy of life stressing the priority of group needs over individual needs, a preference for tightly knit social relationships and a willingness to submit to the influence of one's group

individualism

a philosophy of life stressing the priority of individual needs over group needs, a preference for loosely knit social relationships, and a desire to be relatively autonomous of others influence

debriefing

a procedure at the end of a research session when participants are given the full information about this study

informed consent

a procedure by which people freely choose to participate in a study only after they are told about the activities they will perform

Milgram Experiment

a psychologist at Yale University, conducted an experiment focusing on the conflict between obedience to authority and personal conscience.

Emotional Amplification

a ratcheting up of an emotional reaction to an event that is proportional to how easy it is to imagine the event not happening. People feel more emotional and sad about someone who died because they weren't wearing their seatbelt, than dying in an explosion of their car from the parts being cumulatively so old

communal relationships

a relationship in which the participants expect and desire mutual responsiveness to each other's needs. Although they don't keep score, the partners expect to be treated fairly or sincerely. High responsiveness to the other's needs

exchange relationships

a relationship in which the participants expect and desire strict reciprocity in their interactions. High equity concerns.

attitude

a relatively enduring evaluation of a person or thing; doesn't always match one's behavior

phantom other

a research procedure in which participants are asked to make judgments about a person believed to be real but is in fact a fiction constructed by the researchers; what makes similarity attractive is the expectation that people who are like us will respond well to us

algorithm

a rule that guarantees the correct solution by using a formula or other foolproof method

Stereotype

a set of assumptions about people in a given category often based o half-truths and nontruths

Role

a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave.

Social Role

a set of norms ascribed to a person's social position Affect how people think about us Stepping outside of social role often met with negative reactions and evaluations ¤ And how we think about ourselves ¨ Stanford Prison Experiment (Zimbardo)

scientific method

a set of procedures used to gather, analyze and interpret information in a way that reduces error and leads to dependable generalizations

social trap

a situation in which conflicting parties become caught up in mutually harmful behavior as they pursue their perceived best interests

Social Trap

a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior

Social trap

a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior

social trap

a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior

Social Trap

a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior.

social trap

a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 756)

Social Trap

a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior. https://o.quizlet.com/aslJyWUX6ayCc-90YAlgOg_m.jpg

social trap

a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior; for example, the 5 vs. 15 extra credit points experiment we did

minor premis

a statement about a specific case related to the general characteristics of the major premise

GRIT(Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension-Reduction)

a strategy of conflict resolution based on the defusing effect that conciliatory gestures can have on parties in conflict

public conformity

a superficial change in overt behavior, without a corresponding change of opinion, produced by pressure

Public conformity

a superficial change in overt behaviour (but no change in opinion) produced by real or imagined group pressure

Benevolent prejudice

a superficially positive type of prejudice that is expressed in terms of apparently positive beliefs and emotional responses. Though this type of prejudice associates supposedly good things with certain groups, it still has the result of keeping the group members in inferior positions in society. Benevolent prejudices can help justify any hostile prejudices a person has toward a particular group.

self

a symbol using social being who can reflect on his or her own social behavior

Self-Serving Bias

a tendency to claim success is due to our efforts, while failure is due to circumstances beyond our control

Confirmation Bias

a tendency to search for information that confirms one's preconceptions

Confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence. p. 91

Confirmation Bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or downplay contradictory evidence. Hugely varying beliefs backed up by the same Bible

Balance Theory

a theory holding that people try to maintain balance among their beliefs, cognitions, and sentiments

social exchange theory

a theory predicting that people seek to form and maintain relationships in which the benefits outweigh the costs

empathy-altruism theory

a theory suggesting that people help others because of empathy with their needs

Self-affirmation theory

a theory that (a) people often experience a self-image threat after engaging in an undesirable behavior; and (b) they can compensate by affirming another aspect of the self. threaten people's self-concept in one domain, and they will compensate either by refocusing or by doing good deeds in some other domain. p. 146

confederate

a trained member of the research who follows a script designed to create a specific impression on the research participants

Semantic Differential Scale

a type of a rating scale designed to measure the connotative meaning of objects, events, and concepts. The connotations are used to derive the attitude towards the given object, event or concept. Good - - - - - - - - Bad

Subject variable

a variable that characterizes pre-existing differences among the participants in a study

operational definition

a very clear description of how a variable in a study has been measured

Asch Conformity studies

about 1/3 of people will agree with obvious mistruths to go along with the group.

Prosocial behaviour

actions intended to benefit others

copycat violence

acts of violence imitated from media portrayals

self-concept chart

actual self is the overlap of one's ideal and feared self

incongruent self

actual self moves closer to feared self; result = higher anxiety/stress and lower self-esteem

congruent self

actual self moves closer to ideal self; result = higher self-esteem and lower anxiety/stress

compliance

adjusting behavior because of a request.

Conformity

adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard

conformity

adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard

Conformity

adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard.

conformity

adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 732)

Conformity

adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard. Mostly when their responses are public. p. 212

Informational social influence

adjusting your behavior because you believe other people know something that you do not

Normative social influence

adjusting your behavior simply to fit in

displacement

aggressing against a substitute target because aggressive acts toward the source of frustration are inhibited by fear or lack of access

instrumental aggression

aggression as a means to some goal other than causing pain

defensive attribution

also called blaming the victim - blaming victim for their misfortune so one feels less likely to be victimized in a similar way

evolutionary psychology

an approach in psychology based on the principle of natural selection

positive psychology

an approach to psychology that studies ways to enrich human experience and maximize human functioning

Passionate love

an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a love relationship

passionate love

an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a love relationship

Passionate Love

an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a love relationship.

passionate love

an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a love relationship. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 763)

implicit attitude

an attitude - such as prejudice - that one is not aware of having

Sleeper effect

an attitude change that occurs over time when we forget the source of information. p. 232

ego-defensive function

an attitudinal function that enables people to maintain cherished beliefs about themselves and their world by protecting them from contradictory information

Knowledge Function

an attitudinal function whereby attitudes help organize people's understanding of the world, guiding how they attend to, store, and retrieve information. EX: Preexisting political attitudes may predict who people think won a political debate better than the actual debate performance

Value-expressive function

an attitudinal function whereby attitudes help people express their most cherished values - usually in groups in which these values can be supported and reinforced

hypothesis

an educated guess or prediction about the nature of things based upon a theory

sleeper effect

an effect that occurs when messages from unreliable sources initially exert little influence but later cause individuals' attitudes to shift due to availability heuristic + source amnesia

Facial electromyograph (EMG)

an electronic instrument that records facial muscle activity associated with emotions and attitudes

The Illusion of Control

an expectancy of a personal success probability inappropriately higher than the objective probability would warrant.

self-fulfilling prophecy

an expectation (about another person) that causes you to act in ways that make that expectation (of the other person) come true.

social responsibility norm

an expectation that people will help those dependent upon them

social responsibility norm

an expectation that people will help those dependent upon them (especially those who cannot help themselves)

Social-Responsibility Norm

an expectation that people will help those dependent upon them.

social-responsibility norm

an expectation that people will help those dependent upon them.

social-responsibility norm

an expectation that people will help those dependent upon them. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 767)

Reciprocity norm

an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them

reciprocity norm

an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them

Reciprocity Norm

an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them.

reciprocity norm

an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them.

reciprocity norm

an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 766)

interactionism

an important perspective in social psychology that emphasizes the combined effects of both the person and the situation on human behavior

Fundamental Attribution Error

an inclination to over attribute others' behavior to internal causes and discount the situational factors contributing to their behavior

judgement

an opinion about what is (or will be)

theory

an organized system of ideas that seeks to explain why two or more events are related

Norm

an understood rule for accepted and expected behavior. They prescribe "proper" behavior.

Norm

an understood rule for accepted and expected behavior. They prescribe "proper" behavior. p. 156

Prejudice

an unjustifiable (and usually negative) attitude toward a group and its members

Prejudice

an unjustifiable (and usually negative) attitude toward a group and its members. It generally involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, and a predisposition to discriminatory action.

Prejudice

an unjustifiable (and usually negative) attitude toward a group and its members. Prejudice generally involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, and a predisposition to discriminatory action.

prejudice

an unjustifiable (and usually negative) attitude toward a group and its members. Prejudice generally involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, and a predisposition to discriminatory action. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 743)

prejudice

an unjustifiable (and usually negative) attitude towards a group and its members; typically involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, and a predisposition to discriminatory action

prejudice

an unjustifiable (usually negative) attitude toward a group and its members

prejudice

an unjustifiable and usually negative attitude toward a group and its members

helping behavior

any act that is intended to benefit another person

Attribution

any claim about the cause of someone's behavior (why people behave the way they do)

bystander effect

any particular witness is less likely to get involved if more witnesses are present

aggression

any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy

aggression

any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy whether done reactively out of hostility or proactively as a calculated means to an end

aggression

any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 749)

Attitude object

anything toward which one has an attitude

yerkes-dodson law

arousal improves performance of simple tasks, decreases performance of difficult tasks

Door-in-the-face technique

asks unreasonably large request first, then asks real one

Use of classical conditioning

associating a product w pleasant and positive scenes and emotions - works even when unconditioned stimulus is presented too quickly found conscious detection -why beautiful, happy people are associated with a product in commercials

spotlight effect

assumption that others pay more attention to our behavior & appearance than they actually do

Avoidant attachment style

attachment style characterized by a suppression of attachment needs because attempts to be intimate have been rebuffed; people with this style find it difficult to develop intimate relationships

Prejudice

attitude (towards a group of people) -usually undeserved and negative -from applying stereotype uncritically - Ethnocentrism

Central Route Persuasion

attitude change path in which interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts.

Peripheral route of persuasion

attitude change path in which people are influenced by incidental cues (everything but the argument)

Peripheral Route Persuasion

attitude change path in which people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker's attractiveness.

Central route of persuasion

attitude change path in which the focus is on arguments

external attribution

attributing an action to the person's situation (ex. Caleb has a stressful job)

situational attribution

attributing one's behavior to an outside factor; for example, attributing a child's hostility to stress or abuse

dispositional attribution

attributing one's behavior to his or her personality; for example, attributing a child's hostility to their aggressive personality

External or situational attributions

based on the current situation and events, including events that would influence almost anyone. ...Your brother walked to work because his car wouldn't start

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

based on the idea that people are motivated to have consistent attitudes and behaviors; when they do not, they experience unpleasent mental tension or dissonance

Discrimination

behavior (action based on prejudice)

hostile aggression

behavior intended to harm another, either physically or psychologically, and motivated by feelings of anger and hostility

low self-monitors

behavior stays the same regardless of who they are with and what is happening - respond best to central routes of persuasion

Aggression

behaviour intended to harm another individual

social learning theory

behaviour is learned through observation of others as well as through the direct experience of rewards and punishments

dispositional or internal attribution

belief that an individual's behavior is based on long-lasting personality characteristics.

Belief in a just world

belief that individuals get what they deserve in life, an orientation that leads people to disparage victims

just-world bias

belief that life is fair (bc to believe otherwise would induce too much anxiety) -adaptive bc you want the world to be fair, but can leave to "blame the victim" mentality ex. Blame poor for being lazy

situational or external attribution

belief that one's behavior is due to events in the current environment or events that cannot be controlled by the individual.

diffusion of responsibility

belief that others will or should take responsibility for helping a person in need

What-is-beautiful-is-good stereotype

belief that physically attractive people also possess desirable personality characteristics

emotion

brief conscious evaluative reaction to some specific event

Kitty Genovese

brutally murdered while dozens of New Yorkers watched from their apartments but failed to help; led to concept of bystander effect

Channel Factors

certain situation circumstances that appear unimportant on the surface but that can have great consequences for behavior, either facilitating or blocking it or guiding behavior in a particular direction. Calling a game "Wall Street Game" or "Community Game" makes people play more aggressively, or communally respectively

high self-monitors

change behavior to match the group and gain approval - respond best to peripheral routes of persuasion

Compliance

changes in behaviour that are elicited by direct requests

obedience

changing behavior in response to a demand from an authority figure

conformity

changing behavior or beliefs to match other members of group.

Self-monitoring

changing behaviour in response to self-presentation concerns of situation

Approach-avoidance conflict

choices regarding something positive, such as going out to a party, that has a negative valence (avoidance), such as getting grounded for being at the party. These decisions and the emotional state of ambivalence cause stress

intimate relationship

close relationship between two adults involving emotional attachment, fulfillment of psychological needs or interdependence

Leon Festinare

cognitive dissonance

schema

cognitive structures that guides information processing.

Sternberg's Love Theory

combinations of passion, intimacy, and committment result if various types of love

valid argument

conclusion follows logically from premises

Sherif's studies of Norm formation

conducted a study to observe the emergence of a social norm in the laboratory- dark room with a moving light asked men to tell how much the point of light moved responses change but the light never moved - used autokinetic phenomenon. p. 189

Solomon Asch

conducted an experiment where participants' estimates of line length were influenced by the presence of others giving incorrect answers

Festinger & Carlsmith

conducted experiment about cognitive dissonance in late 1950's; concluded that to reduce cognitive dissonance, participants changed their attitudes and said that they actually did enjoy the experiment

Stanley Milgram

conducted experiments where "teachers" were made to shock "learners" under direction from an authority figure

Philip Zimbardo

conducted the famous Stanford Prison Experiment; illustrated the powerful impact of role-playing

Asch Line Study

confederates and one real participant were asked to compare lines on two separate cards and select the line that was the same length as test line around the table out loud. the stimulus was non-ambiguous, yet the confederates purposely chose same wrong answers. 3/4 of participants gave at least 1 wrong answer. 1/3 gave wrong answer on more than 1/2 the trials. both yielding and not yielding produced distress in participants. social deviance is costly

approach-avoidance conflict

conflict occurring when a person must choose or not choose a goal that has both positive and negative aspects

private acceptance

conforming to other people's behavior out of a genuine belief that what they are doing or saying is right. Intermediate step for informational social influence ; EX:

public compliance

conforming to other people's behavior publicly without necessarily believing in what the other people are doing or saying. Intermediate step for normative social influence EX: Doing a favor, giving to charity, buying a product

Solomon Asch

conformity; showed that social pressure can make a person say something that is obviously incorrect; in a famous study in which participants were shown cards with lines of different lengths and were asked to say which line matched the line on the first card in length

Independent Self

construing one's identity as an autonomous self. p. 40

Contact theory

contact between hostile groups will reduce animosity, but only if the groups are made to work toward a superordinate goal that benefits all and necessitates the cooperative participation of all

jigsaw classroom

cooperative learning method used to reduce racial prejudice through interaction in group efforts

collectivist culture

cultural perspective which places interdependence, cooperation and social harmony take precedence over personal goals.

individualist culture

cultural perspective which places the individual, independence and autonomy over the group.

social scripts

culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations

Cultural Specificity of Emotion

culture determines much of what is relevant in a persons life and thus what a person is likely to remember and emote

Parasympathetic nervous system

deactivates or slows down activities of muscles and glands (rest-and-digest response); slowing down of heart rates, pupillary constriction. No urgent matters to attend to.

Companionate love

deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined

Emotional disorder

deep, enduring states that disrupt functioning

explicit cognition

deliberate judgments or decisions of which we are consciously aware.

cognitive miser

describes people's reluctance to do much thinking--would rather use heuristics

Need for affiliation

desire to establish and maintain many rewarding interpersonal relationships

multiple advocacy

devils advocate to go against leader

Altruism

devotion to the intrest of others -selflessness

Dual attitude system

differing implicit (automatic) and explicit (consciously controlled) attitudes toward the same object. Verbalized explicit attitudes may change with education and persuasion; implicit attitudes change slowly, with practice that forms new habits. p 49

deductive reasoning

drawing conclusions logically from premises - applying generalized rules to specific instances general-->specific one type=syllogism

chameleon effect

effect in which we unconsciously mimc others' expressions, postures, and voice

agenda control

efforts of the media to select certain events and topics to emphasize, thereby shaping which issues and events people think are important

empathy-altruism model

empathic concern for a person in need produces an altruistic motive for helping

Availability heuristic

estimating the likelihood that an event will occur by how easily instances of it come to mind

Ethnocentricism

evaluation of other cultures according to the standards and customs of one's own culture

electronic brainstorming

even more effective, combines best of both methods

evolutionary perspective on love

evolutionary psychologists examine human thoughts and actions in terms of natural selection. Natural selection in this context refers to the idea that some traits might be advantageous for survival and that these traits would benefit the possible offspring (genetically and in wellbeing).

Group polarization

exaggeration through group discussion of initial tendencies in the thinking of group members

Prisoner's Dilema

example of a game analyzed in game theory that shows why two individuals might not cooperate, even if it appears that it is in their best interests to do so

romantic ideals

expect partner to fit ideals about loyalty, status, attractiveness, humor, etc. and the closer they match these the more attractive they are

Asch Line Experiment

experiment designed to test how peer pressure to conform would influence the judgment and individuality of a test subject; found people were willing to ignore reality and give an incorrect answer in order to conform to the rest of the group.

Asch experiment

experimented how people would rather conform than state their own individual answer even though they know the group's answer is wrong

Festinger

experimenter famous for $1 or $20 experiment on cognitive dissonance

Zimbardo

experimentor famous for research on how roles influence behavior and the power of the situation in a mock prison

Attribution Theory

explains how people determine the cause of what they observe

Social learning theory

exposure to aggressive models makes poeople more aggressive -social scripts (people learn from their environment)

variables

factors in scientific research that can be measured and that are capable of changing

loneliness

feeling of deprivation about existing social relations

mood

feeling state not clearly linked to some event. Temporary

attitude

feelings often based on our beliefs, which predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 726)

Attitudes

feelings that predispose us to respond in a particular way

attitudes

feelings, often based on our beliefs, that cause us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events

Attitude

feelings, often influenced by our beliefs that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events.

attitude

feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events

Attitude

feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events.

Foot-in-the-door technique

first ask small request, then ask the real one

Social Cognition

focuses on how we percieve, store, and retrieve information about social interactions

avoidance coping

form of emotion-focused coping, that involves denying or IGNORING the problem (may be effective short-term); Folkman and Lazarus. EX: Ignoring the health effects of smoking

Why is second hand information usually biased and manipulated?

framing effect. The speaker's desire to influence the listener

frustration-aggression hypothesis

frustration always elicits aggression and aggression is always caused by frustration

Frustration-aggression principle

frustration leads to anger which leads to aggression

social norm

general rule of conduct reflecting standards of social approval and disapproval

stereotype

generalized (often over generalized) belief about a group of people

outgroup

generally, any group that one does not belong to

low-balling

getting a commitment from a person and then raising the cost of that commitment (perceived by buyer to be outside of anyone's control). ex: thanks for volunteering, see you at 7:30am, pre-approved for a car, then called back in where the "financing" fell through

Lowball technique

getting a commitment from a person and then raising the cost of that commitment. p. 130

Collectivism

giving priority to the goals of one's group (often one's extended family or work group) and defining one's identity accordingly. p. 40

Collectivism

giving priority to the goals of one’s group (often one’s extended family or work group) and defining one’s identity accordingly

reciprocation, Strategies of persuasion

giving something for free and expecting something in return

good mood effect

good mood increases helping behaviour

social loafting

group-produced reduction in individual output on easy tasks where contributions are pooled

Prosocial behavior

helping other people

Cognitive dissonance theory

holding inconsistent cognitions arouses psychological tension that people become motivated to reduce

Realistic conflict theory

hostility between groups is caused by direct competition for limited resources 1. competition for resources may be imagined 2. relative deprivation = feeling like you have less that someone else

Three sources of information for attributions: Consensus information

how a individual's behavior compares with others -You'll make an external attribution if someone behaves the way you think others would. (the situation) -Everybody in the audience is laughing. Consensus is high. If only Tom is laughing consensus is low.

Descriptive

how people actually make judgement and decisions

Normative

how people should make judgements and decisions

framing

how problem is presented/phrased

Three sources of information for attributions: Distinctiveness

how the person's behavior varies between situations. -If your friend is nice to all people but one, you assume there is an external reason -Tom only laughs at this comedian. Distinctiveness is high. If Tom laughs at everything distinctiveness is low.

Three sources of information for attributions: Consistency information

how the person's behavior varies over time. -If they are always the same, you make an internal attribution -"a nice person" -Tom always laughs at this comedian. Consistency is high. Tom rarely laughs at this comedian consistency is low.

negative state relief model

idea that people help others in order to enhance their moods

contact theory

idea that prejudice can be reduced by increasing contact with those that are different

belief-bias effect

if a conclusion is apparently true, we are more likely to judge a conclusion as valid, even if its not

Elaboration likelihood model

if message is personally relevant, you are more likely to analyze it using the central route (deep processing)

attitudes vs. behaviors

if you remind people when they are about to act about what their attitude is, then they will stick to their beliefs -ex. put a mirror in a room, you will more likely stick to your beliefs bc you can see yourself and what you are saying

Possible Selves

images of what we dream of or dread becoming in the future. p. 37

Individualistic Cultures

importance and uniqueness of the individual is stressed

social facilitation

improved performance of tasks in the presence of others; occurs with simple or well-learned tasks but not with tasks that are difficult or not yet mastered

Informational influence

in an ambiguous situation, others' reactions provide clues about the situation -(conformity occurring when people accept evidence about reality provided by other people)

Misconception of Chance

inappropriate belief that random and non-random events balance out. Good luck streaks and bad luck will balance. Gambler's Fallacy

psychological aggression

includes expressive aggression (such as name calling, insulting or humiliating an intimate partner) and coercive control, which includes behaviors that are intended to non-physically harm EX: cyber bullying

Romeo and Juliet Effect

increased feelings of love when an individual faces opposition to the relationship. EX: Parents disapproving of GF makes you like them even more

collective effort model

individuals will exert effort on a collective task to the degree that they think their individual efforts will be important, meaningful and relevant for achieving outcomes that they value

social loafing

individuals, acting as part of a group, do not put in as much effort as when acting alone -many have less motivation to put in an impressive performance -more in men than women

inductive reasoning

inferring general truths from specific instances specific--> general

emotional aggression

inflicting harm for its own sake

instrumental aggression

inflicting harm in order to obtain something of value

normative social influence

influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval

normative social influence

influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval (to fit in)

Normative Social Influence

influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval.

normative social influence

influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 733)

normative social influence

influence resulting from a person's desire to gain social approval or avoid social disapproval

informational social influence

influence resulting from one's willingness to accept others' opinions about reality

informational social influence

influence resulting from one's willingness to accept others' opinions about reality (to be correct)

Informational Social Influence

influence resulting from one's willingness to accept others' opinions about reality.

informational social influence

influence resulting from one's willingness to accept others' opinions about reality.

informational social influence

influence resulting from one's willingness to accept others' opinions about reality. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 733)

Informational Social Influences

influence resulting from one’swillingness to accept others’ opinions about reality

Informational influence

influence that produces conformity when a person believe others are correct in their judgments

Peripheral Route Persuasion

influences people by way of incidental cues, like a speaker's physical attractiveness or personal reliability.

mitigating information

information about a person's situation indicating that he or she should not be held fully responsible for aggressive actions

elements of a problem

initial state, goal state, operations

cognitive dissonance

inner tension that a consumer experiences after recognizing an inconsistency between behavior and values or opinions

Snap Judgements

instantaneous judgments about others with shallow or limited information

instrumental aggression

intended to secure a particular end ex. Bobby wants to hold a toy, so kicks carol for the toy

compassionate love

intimate, non-passionate love, which includes committment

Central route

involves deeply processing the content of a message -what about a particular brand is better than others

peripheral route

involves peripheral aspects of message, including the person imparting the message (the communicator) ex. Attractive people endorsing a brand -one-sided message is more persuasive -two-sided message is most persuasive (communication that acknowledges and then refutes opposing arguments) -more educated people less likely to be persuaded by advertisements

Social Thinking

involves thinking about others, especially when they engage in doing things that are unexpected.

Implicit Association Test

is a measure within social psychology designed to detect the strength of a person's automatic association between mental representations of objects (concepts) in memory.

roleplaying

is better than experts for forecasting conflict resolution

Salience

is the state or condition of being prominent. The Oxford English Dictionary defines salience as "most noticeable or important." The concept is discussed in communication, semiotics, linguistics, sociology, psychology, and political science.

altruism

is unselfish regard for the welfare of others

sound argument

is valid and its premises are true

availability heuristic

judge likelihood based on ease of bringing examples to mind.

deterministic

judgements are stated without statements of probabilities "it will rain tomorrow"

likelihood

judgements involve stated uncertainty/probability "70% chance of rain tomorrow"

Representatives heuristic

judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototype; may lead us to ignore other relevant information. p. 92

Representative Heuristic

judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead one to ignore other relevant information. Rock musician upset about small amount of liquor, and nun is upset about large amount of liquor served`

implicit cognition

judgments or decisions that are under the control of automatically activated evaluations occurring without our awareness

effects of attitude on action

keenly aware of our attitude; outside influences are minimal; attitude is relevant to the behavior

Elliott's experiment

kids with blue eyes told they are superior, within 15 mins they turned into "little nazis" -people are tribal, make generalizations about other ppl

secondhand knowledge

knowledge gained from any source other than the self. From the media, friends, family, blogs, etc.

firsthand knowledge

knowledge gained from personal experience

deindividuation

loss of self-restraint when group members feel anonymous and aroused (People lose awareness of their individuality and instead immerse themselves in the mood or activity of the crowd.)

Botox studies

lower brain activity in emotional centers of botoxed individuals than non-botoxed due to the inhibited ability to make the facial expressions associated with the emotions

social impairment

lowering of performance on a given task in the pressence of others - usually a task that is not well reshearsed

devil's advocate

main tool in preventing groupthink - designate 1 person to take unpopular role of constantly challenging groups emerging consensus & offer additional alternatives - forces group to see other ways and face reality

decision

making a choice

Implicit Measures

measures used in studies that evaluate unconscious or automatic thoughts, beliefs, evaluations, or mental states in order to avoid the issue of people lying in their study responses

social scripts

mental tapes for how to act, provided by our culture or various aspects of media

Social Script

mental tapes on how to act - in the minds of the viewers; when confronted with new situations we rely on these to understand what to do.

Mere presence theory

mere presence of others is sufficient to produce social facilitation

Mood of receiver (and persuasiveness of message)

messages are more persuasive if the receiver is in a similar state as the source. (EX: optimistic source works best on happy people)

Insufficient deterrence

mild punishments convince someone to dislike the act more than severe punishments

affect

mood or feeling

norm of social responsibility

moral standard emphasizing that people should help those in need

Nominal group brainstorming

more options are generated with a "nominal group" (individual lists) than when people brainstorm together as a group

altruistic

motivated by the desire to help others

egoistic

motivated by the desire to improve one's own welfare

Extrinsic motivation

motivation that originates from factors outside the person

Intrinsic motivation

motivation that originates from within someone

reciprocity

mutual exchange between what we give and receive --> we like those who like us

super ordinate goals

mutual goals that require the cooperation of individuals or groups otherwise in conflict

mirror image perceptions

mutual views often held by conflicting people, as when each side sees itself as ethical and peaceful and views the other side as evil and aggressive

Mirror-Image Perceptions

mutual views often held by conflicting people, as when each side sees itself as ethical and peaceful and views the other side as evil and aggressive.

Prejudice

negative feelings toward persons based on their membership in certain groups

Integrative agreemeng

negotiated resolution to a conflict in which all parties obtain outcomes that are superior to what they would have obtained from equal division of the contested resources

hostile aggression

no clear purpose ex. bobby is just angry so kicks carol

injunctive norms

norms that define what behaviors are typically approved or disapproved.

descriptive norms

norms that indicate what most other people typically do and thereby provide pressure or permission to do the same.

Stanley Milgram

obedience to authority; had participants administer what they believed were dangerous electrical shocks to other participants; wanted to see if Germans were an aberration or if all people were capable of committing evil actions

Central route to persuasion

occurs when interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts. p. 229

self-fulfilling prophecy

occurs when our expectations of how people will behave cause us to treat them in ways that elicit such behaviors

Peripheral route to persuasion

occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker's attractiveness. 228

central route to persuasion

occurs when people think carefully about the message and are influenced because they find the arguments compelling.

Norms of Reciprocity compliance strategy

one compliance strategy used to get others to comply; people think they ought to do something nice to someone who has done something nice for them

Door-in-the-Face compliance strategy

one compliance strategy used to get others to comply; sugges that after people refuse a large request they will look more favorably upon a follow-up reques that seems much more reasonable

Central Route to Persuasion

one way a persuasive message can be processed; involves going directly through the rational mind, influencing attitudes with evidence and logic.

Peripheral Route to Persuasion

one way a persuasive message can be processed; involves other aspects of the message (i.e. characteristics of people imparting the message). Appealing to fears, desires and associations.

someone we don't know

one will be more likely to rely on attribution theory and look for observable external factors to make an assessment

Yerkes-Dodson Law

optimal performance requires high arousal for simple tasks and lower arousal for complex tasks

Self-serving biases

optimize our self-perception You won in tennis because of your skill (internal). You failed math because of "unfair tests" (external) illusory superiority

social schema

organized cluster of ideas about categories of social events and people.

Strategic self presentation

our efforts to shape others' impressions in specific ways in order to gain influence, power, sympathy or approval Ingratiation: acts that are motivated by desire to get along and be liked self-promotion: acts that are motivated by desire to get ahead

fundamental attribution error

our tendency to underestimate the impact of situations and to overestimate the impact of personal dispositions upon the behavior of others

Spotlight effect

overestimating others' noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, and blunders (as if we presume a spotlight shines on us). p34

False-consensus effect

overestimating the extent to which others share their opinions, attributes and behaviours

communal relationship

participants expect and desire mutual responsiveness to each other's needs

exchange relationship

participants expect and desire strict reciprocity in their interactions

principle of consensus

people are more likely to believe/buy something when others also like/buy something

equity theory

people are most satisfied in their relationships when the ratio between benefits and contributions is similar

normative influence

people desire to be part of a group or to be approved by others

Social identity theory

people favour ingroups over outgroups in order to enhance their self-esteem. 2 predictions: 1. Threats to one's self esteem heighten ingroup favouritism 2. expressions of ingroup favouritism heighten self esteem

Norms of reciprocity

people feel like if something nice is done for them, they need to do something nice in return

Situational Attribution

people infer that a person's behavior is due to situational factors.

Dispositional Attribution

people infer that an event or a person's behavior is due to personal factors such as traits, abilities, or feelings

pluralistic ignorance

people mistakenly believe that their own thoughts and feelings are different from those of others, even when everyone's behaviour is the same

confirmation bias and persuasion

people prefer to listen to arguments supporting their own beliefs, as well as listening to easy-to-refute counterarguments

Arousal: cost-reward model

people react to emergency situations by acting in the most cost-effective way to reduce the arousal of shock and alarm

pluralistic ignorance

people seem to decide what constitutes appropriate behavior in a situation by looking to others, a form of conformity

Collective

people who engage in common activities but who have little to no direct contact

Linguistic relativity hypothesis

people who speak different languages think differently -not different perceptions, but different higher-order thinking

Attributions

people's explanations/causes for why events or actions occur

Construal

people's subjective interpretation and inference about the stimuli or situations they confront

feel-good, do-good phenomenon

people's tendency to be helpful when already in a good mood

matching principle

people, when looking for a romantic partner, are actively trying to match others with ourselves across a large variety of traits

attitudes

personal beliefs and feelings that may predispose a person to respond in particular ways to objects, people, and events

peripheral route to persuasion

persuasion method that focuses on individuals that need to make a decision take into account random and inconsequential factors in order to arrive at a decision. usually, topic is of little importance to them

central route to persuasion

persuasion method that focuses on individuals who have to make a decision take time and effort necessary to gather all info & and make well determined choice.

effects of actions on attitudes

persuasion: foot-in-the door phenomenon, door-in-the-face phenomenon, and fear-then-relief; role playing; cognitive Dissonance "Mental discomfort"

social facilitation

phenomenon in which stronger responses on simple or well-learned tasks are present in the presence of others

aggression

physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy

Aggression

physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt someone.

Kin selection

preferential helping of genetic relatives so that genes held in common will survive

Sexism

prejudice and discrimination based on a person's gender, or institutional and cultural practices that promote the domination of one gender over another

Scapegoat theory

prejudice offers and outlet for anger by providing someone to blame

Social facilitation

presence of others enhances performance on easy tasks but impairs it on difficult tasks

social impairment "interference"

presence of others hurts task performance -occurs in difficult or novel tasks

Social facilitation

presence of others improves task performance -tends to occur for easy, practiced tasks

bystander effect

presence of others inhibits helping

evaluation apprehension theory

presence of others will produce social facilitation effects only when those others are in a position to evaluate us

distraction-conflict theory

presence of others will produce social facilitation effects only when those others distract from the task and create attentional conflict

Power of the Situation, and experiments that show it

primary determinant of behavior is the nature of the social situation in which that behavior occurs. Milgram's and Darley & Batson's experiments demonstrate the power of the situation

cultivation

process by which mass media construct a version of social reality for the public

self-fulfilling prophecy

process by which one's expectations about a person eventually lead that person to behave in ways that confirm those expectations

reasoning

process of organizing facts in your mind to accomplish some desired end

excitation transfer

process whereby arousal caused by one stimulus is added to arousal from a second stimulus and the combined arousal is attributed to the second stimulus

Impression formation

processing integrating information about a person to form a coherent impression

terror management

proposes that faith in one's worldview and the pursuit of self-esteem or symbolic immortality provide protection against a deeply rooted fear of death (termination of existence, beliefs, and legacy)

scapegoat theory

proposes that prejudice provides an outlet for anger by finding someone to blame

Matching hypothesis

proposition that people are attracted to others who are similar in physical attractiveness

Self-handicapping strategies

protect our self-image. We intentionally create a disadvantage, providing an excuse for expected failure. Staying out late the night before a big exam that you fear you are going to fail People with unsolvable problems more likely to choose performance-impairing drug (Begals & Jones, 1978)

Zimbardo Prison Experiment

proved our attitudes and behaviors can be heavily shaped by our social roles and social context. Prison guards, who were normal, agreeable people outside of their job, would punished prisoners for minor disobedience by not allowing them to wear clothing, go to the bathroom, clean themselves, or eat nutritious food.

Implicit racism

racism that operates unconsciously and unintentionally

threat-to-self-esteem model

reactions to receiving assistance depend on whether help is perceived as supportive or threatening

desensitization

reduction in emotion-related physiology reactivity in response to a stimulus

Diffusion of Responsibility

reduction in feelings of personal burden in the presence of others

diffusion of responsibility

reduction in sense of responsibility often felt by individuals in a group; may be responsible for the bystander effect, social loafing, and related phenomena

catharsis

reduction of the motive to aggress resulting from any imagined, observed or actual act of violence

Insufficient Justification

reductions of dissonance by internally justifying one's behavior when external justification is 'insufficient' .Changing feeling when one can't find something to blame it on

companionate love

refers to a deep, enduring, affectionate attachment

self-disclosure

refers to a person's sharing intimate feelings with another

passionate love

refers to an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another persons, especially at the beginning of a relationship

functional distance

refers to certain aspects of architectural design that make it more likely that some people will come into contact with each other more often than with others. Those who have shorter functional distance (near an elevator) will develop more social relationships

equity

refers to the condition in which there is mutual giving and receiving between the partners in a relationship

group polarization

refers to the enhancement of a group's prevailing tendencies through discussion, which often has the effect of accentuating the group's differences from other groups

mere exposure effect

refers to the fact that repeated exposure to an unfamiliar stimulus increases our liking of it

deindividuation

refers to the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint that sometimes occurs in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity

out-group

refers to the people and groups that are excluded from our in-group

in-group

refers to the people and groups with whom we share a common identity

normative social influence

refers to the pressure on individuals to conform in order to avoid rejection or gain social approval

Actor-Observer Bias

refers to the tendency of an individual to regard situations in which he or she is involved as caused by external factors, and to regard situations he or she observes as caused by the actions of those involved.

cognitive dissonance theory

refers to the theory that we act to reduce the psychological discomfort we experience when our behavior conflicts with what we think and feel, or more generally, when two of our thoughts conflict

groupthink

refers to the unrealistic thought processes and decision making that occur within groups when the desire for group harmony becomes paramount

Stereotype content model

relative status and competition between groups influence group stereotypes along the dimensions of competence and warmth increase competence = increase status increase competence = decrease warmth

cold cognition

relatively intellectual, information-driven processes (thinking deliberately and attending to/taking into account the information that is in front of you)

Attitudes

relatively stable and enduring evaluations of things and people

audience inhibition

reluctance to help for fear of making bad impression on observers

Mere exposure effect

repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them

functional fixedness

representing an object according to its conventional functions and failing to represent or consider its novel function

basic research

research designed to increase knowledge about social behavior

applied research

research designed to increase the understanding of and solutions to real world problems by using current social psychological knowledge

Asch

researcher famous for line study of conformity

Milgram

researcher famous for teacher-learner study on obedience to authority

informational social influence

results when one goes along with a group when one is unsure or lacks information

self disclosure

revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others

self-disclosure

revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others

Self-Disclosure

revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others.

self-disclosure

revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 764)

self-disclosure

revelations about the self that a person makes to others

passionate love

romantic love characterized by high arousal and intense attraction and fear of rejection

group norms

rules about how group members should act -cultures have norms

norms

rules within a group indicating how members should or should not behave

low-balling technique

secures request, then reveals hidden costs

Social Psychology

seeks to explain how our thoughts, feelings, perceptions, and behaviors are influenced by interactions with others

Social Identity

self-descriptions of self as a member of a group -When personal identity predominates, the success of our group-mates diminishes ourselves -When social identity predominates, we experience the success of our group-mates as our own

Personal identity

self-descriptions of self as a separate individual

Gender role

set of behavior expectations (normal for males and females. p. 177

Implicit level

set of learned associations, maybe unconscious - Priming experiments--> see face of an Black person, respond more quickly, on avg to questions about concepts like "lazy" an "athletic"

Superordinate goals

shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation

superordinate goal

shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation

superordinate goals

shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation

superordinate goals

shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation (p. 813)

Superordinate Goals

shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation.

superordinate goals

shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 767)

Superordinate Goals

shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation; (BIG PICTURE IDEA - SHARED GOALS that override conflict.)

Transactive memory

shared system of remembering information that enables multiple people to remember information together and more efficiently than they could alone

heuristic

shortcut, "rule of thumb" -not guaranteed to find a correct solution in all cases

What makes a person likeable?

similarity

Phillip Zimbardo

simulated Prison Study that showed the power of roles in people's behaviors. When one takes on a role, they will often change their behavior in order to fit the perceived set of expectations for that role.

prisoner's dilemma

situation in which an individual must choose between a cooperative act and an act that will help them but hurt others.

Social dilemma

situation in which self-interested choices made by everyone creates the worst outcome overall

Group polarization

small initial differences between groups tend to grow when each group discusses the idea among themselves

Social exchange theory

social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs

Resource dilemma

social dilemmas concerning how two or more people share a limited resource 1. commons dilemma 2. public goods dilemma

Philip Zimbardo

social psychology; proved that peoples behavior depends to a large extent on the roles they are asked to play; Stanford Prison Study: studied power of social roles to influence people's behavior

aggression priming

some aggression stimulus increases the tendency for an individual to act with aggression when angered. EX: Gun vs tennis racquet on wall

inner disposition

someone we don't like does something bad

situation

someone we don't like does something good

situation

someone we like does something bad

inner disposition

someone we like does something good

group roles

specified positions/functions within a group, with sets of expected behaviors

Weiner's attribution model

stability of a given action (stable/unstable) often leads to explaining it in terms of an internal or external attribution.

That's not all folks

starts with inflated request, then decreases apparent size by offering discount/bonus

frustration-aggression principle

states that aggression is triggered when people become angry because their efforts to achieve a goal have been blocked

social exchange theory

states that our social behavior revolves around exchanges, in which we try to minimize our costs and maximize our benefits

Compliance Strategies

strategies used to get others to comply; i.e. foot in the door phenomenon, door in the face strategy, norms of reciprocity

Social facilitation

stronger responses on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others

social facilitation

stronger responses on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others

Social Facilitation

stronger responses on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others.

social facilitation

stronger responses on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 738)

Rosenthal & Jacobsen study

study in self-fulfilling prophesy. Told teachers that five (random) students were late bloomers but had high ability, 1 year later researchers found that the teacher's expectations for the late bloomers were reflected in students' performance. The academic performance was better than the rest of the class

study of Social Behavior

study of how people act in differing social situations

attribution theory

suggests how we explain someone's behavior—by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 724)

Attribution Theory

suggests how we explain someone’s behavior by crediting either the situation or the person’s disposition

brainstorming

technique that attempts to increase the production of creative ideas by encouraging group members to speak freely without criticizing their own or others' contributions

door-in-face strategy

tendency for an individual who denies an outrageous request to agree to a lesser one.

Bystander effect

tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present

Primacy effects

tendency for information presented early on in a list to be remembered

group think

tendency for members of a group to think alike and suppress dissent (own opinion)

fear-then-relief phenomenon

tendency for people to agree to help someone when another tells said people of something bad that happens, but then softens it up with relieving information

Illusory correlation

tendency for people to overestimate the link between variables that are only slightly or not at all correlated 2 reasons: 1. overestimate association between variables that are distinctive (stick in your head) 2. overestimate association between variables you expect to go together

False-Consensus Effect

tendency for people to overestimate the number of people who agree with them

door-in-the-face phenomenon

tendency for people who won't agree to a large task, but then agree when a smaller request is made

priming

tendency for recently used or perceived words or ideas to come to mind easily and influence the interpretation of new information

group polarization

tendency of a group to make more extreme decisions than the group members would make individually ex. juries

Conformity

tendency of people to go along with the views or actions of others; Asch performed conformity experiment; more likely to occure when a group's opinion is unanimous

weapons effect

tendency of weapons to increase the likelihood of aggression by their mere presence

self-serving bias

tendency often in individualistic cultures to attribute our own successes to dispositional factors and our own failures to situational factors

Actor-Observer Bias

tendency to attribute one's own behavior to outside causes but attribute the behavior of others to internal causes

actor-observor bias

tendency to attribute the behavior of others to dispositional factors and our own behavior to situational ones in a comparison

hindsight bias

tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it.

ingroup favouritism

tendency to discriminate in favour of ingroups over outgroups

Ingroup bias

tendency to favor our own gruop

conformity

tendency to go along with the views or actions of others

belief perserverance

tendency to maintain beliefs even after they have been discredited

false consensus effect

tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors

hostile attribution bias

tendency to perceive hostile intent in others

hard-to-get effect

tendency to prefer people who are highly selective in their social choices over those who are more readily available

Other-race effect

tendency to recall faces of one's own race more accurately than faces of other races

confirmation bias

tendency to search for information that confirms one's preconceptions.

confirmation bias

tendency to seek, interpret, and create information that verifies existing beliefs

halo effect

term for how we think beautiful people are more vivacious, socially skilled, intelligent, & well adjusted

Utility Value

the ability of a person to help another achieve his or her goals

Stimulation Value

the ability of a person to interest you in or to expose you to new ideas and experiences

Self-presentation

the act of expressing oneself and behaving in ways designed to create a favorable impression or an impression that corresponds to one's ideals. p. 72

Persuasion

the action or fact of persuading someone or of being persuaded to do or believe something.. 228

Causal attribution

the activity of inferring causes for observed behavior

Defensive pessimism

the approach of anticipating a poorer outcome, thus reducing anxiety and actually improving performance in a risky situation

outgroup homogeneity

the assumption that outgroup members are more similar to one another than ingroup members are to one another

Complementarity

the attraction that often develops between opposte types of people because of the ability of one to supply what the other lacks

Ethnocentrism

the belief that one's culture (ethnic group, racial group, etc) is superior to others

Weapons bias

the bias that says subjects are more likely to falsely see a gun after being primed with a dark-skinned face (i.e. seeing a water bottle as a gun) than a white face

genes

the biochemical units of inheritance for all living organisms

sex

the biological status of being female or male

social psychology

the branch of psychology that studies persons and their relationships with others and with groups and with society as a whole

Personal Space

the buffer zone we like to maintain around our bodies.

Personal Space

the buffer zone we like to maintain around our bodies. p. 157

minority influence

the case where a minority of group members influences the behavior or beliefs of the majority

Private conformity

the change of beliefs that occurs when a person privately accepts the position taken by others

private conformity

the change of beliefs that occurs when a person privately accepts the position taken by others

Escalation effect

the condition in which commitments to a failing course of action are increased to justify investments already made

Introspection

the contemplation of your own thoughts, desires, and conduct

companionate love

the deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined

Companionate Love

the deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined.

companionate love

the deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 763)

need for closure

the desire to reduce cognitive uncertainty, which heightens the importance of first impressions

Physical Proximity

the distance of one person to another person

social influence

the effect that the words, actions, or mere presence of other people have on our thoughts, feelings, attitudes, or behavior. Causes conformity and obedience

Culture

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

group polarization

the enhancement of a group's prevailing attitudes through discussion within the group

group polarization

the enhancement of a group's prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group

Group Polarization

the enhancement of a group's prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group.

group polarization

the enhancement of a group's prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 740)

group polarization

the enhancement of a group's prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group; for example, if a racist person (*cough* Mason according to his IAT) talks to other racist people, they will become more racist

norm of reciprocity

the expectation that people will respond favorably to each other by returning benefits for benefits, and responding with either indifference or hostility to harms

Stereotype threat

the experience of concern about being evaluated based on a negative stereotype about one's group

Group cohesiveness

the extent to which forces exerted on a group push its members closer together

Cohesiveness

the extent to which team members are attracted to a team and motivated to remain in it. p. 210

Frustration-aggression theory

the feeling of frustration makes aggression more likely ex. sporting crowds get aggressive when frustrated about the score of the game

evolution

the genetic changes that occur in a species over generations due to natural selection

Refrence group

the group against whom the comparison is made -A person's self concept varies upon this ex. Children's self-descriptions are focused on what traits distinguish themselves from others in the classroom

thought polarization hypothesis

the hypothesis that more extended thought about a particular issue tends to produce more extreme, entrenched attitudes. Reduces cognitive dissonance EX: people rated an opinion more stronger when asked to re-evaluate an opinion

Inoculation Hypothesis

the idea that exposure to weak versions of a persuasive argument increases later resistance to that argument

Discounting Principle

the idea that people should assign reduced weight to a particular cause of behavior if other plausible causes might have produced it. Your 93% may not be as good as you thought if the class average was 90%

rape myth

the idea that some women invite or enjoy rape

blame the victim dynamic

the idea that the victim of discrimination is partially responsible for that discrimination

catharsis hypothesis

the idea that we feel better if we "blow off steam" by venting our emotions

illusion of transparency

the illusion that our concealed emotions leak out and can be easily read by others. p34

social facilitation

the improvement in performance of simple or well-learned tasks that occurs when other people are present

Framing effect

the influence on judgment resulting from the way information is presented, such as the order of presentation or how it is worded.

Interaction

the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity). p. 183

Diffusion of responisibility

the larger number of people who witness an emergency situation, the less likely anyone is to intervene

deindividuation

the loss of a person's sense of individuality and the reduction in normal constraints against deviant behaviour

Deindividuation

the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity

deindividuation

the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity

Deindividuation

the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity.

deindividuation

the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 739)

deindividuation

the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity; basically, you do something with a group of people that you would not do alone

gender

the meanings that societies and individuals attach to being female and male

cognitive processes

the mental processes involved in acquiring, organizing, using, and constructing knowledge

groupthink

the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives

Groupthink

the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives.

groupthink

the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 740)

groupthink

the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives; if everybody agrees on something and you're like, "Eh..." you're still going to agree because you don't want to be THAT guy that disagrees

Primacy Effect

the more accurate recall of items presented at the beginning of a series

Recency Effect

the more accurate recall of items presented at the end of a series. Things presented first can effect how the listener perceived the following (this works for surveys and speeches). Higher correlation between life and romantic satisfaction when romantic satisfaction question is asked first.

Attraction

the natural feeling of being drawn to other individuals and desiring their company. This is usually (but not necessarily) due to having a personal liking for them.

fight or flight reaction

the natural response within humans in a high stress situation in which you confront the situation or distance yourself from it

diffusion of responsibility

the occurrence in which more people share responsibility and are therefore less likely to help others

That's-not-all, Strategies of persuasion

the offer is improved before any reply is given

hostile prejudice

the outward expression of hate for people of a different race, religion, ideology, country, sex, sexual orientation, or gender identity. old-fashioned prejudice

stereotype threat

the phenomenon in which a person's concern that he or she will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype is actually followed by lower performance

mere exposure effect

the phenomenon that repeated exposure to new stimuli increases liking of them

mere exposure effect

the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them

Mere Exposure Effect

the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them.

mere exposure effect

the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 759)

mere exposure effect

the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them. We like our mirror-image better than true-image, but others like it the other way

Ideomotor action

the phenomenon whereby merely thinking about a behavior makes its actual performance more likely

Mere exposure effect

the phenomenon whereby the more often people are exposed to a stimulus, the more positively evaluate that stimulus

minority influence

the power of one or two individuals to sway majorities

personal control

the power of the individual in regards to social influence

social control

the power of the situation in regards to social influence

Discrimination

the prejudicial treatment of an individual based on their membership in a certain group or category

frustration-aggression principle

the principle that frustration- the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal- creates anger which can generate aggression

frustration aggression principle

the principle that frustration- the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal- creates anger, which can generate aggression

Frustration-Aggression Principle

the principle that frustration—the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal—creates anger, which can generate aggression.

frustration-aggression principle

the principle that frustration—the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal—creates anger, which can generate aggression. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 751)

Yerkes-Dodson Law

the principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases.

Persuasion

the process by which a message induces a change in beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors

systematic/central persuasion

the process by which attitudes or beliefs are changed by appeals to reason. Persuasion that insists people to weigh their arguments consider facts, and think systematically. Those influenced by central persuasion are influenced for a longer time, more predictive of behavior, and more resistant to change

Minority influence

the process by which dissenters produce change within a group

self fulfilling prophecy

the process by which someone's expectations about a person or group leads to the fulfillment of those expectations.

Social comparison

the process of comparing ourselves with others to identify our unique characteristics and evaluate our abilities

Nonverbal Communication

the process through which messages are conveyed using space, body language, and facial expression

process loss

the reduction in group performance due to reduction in group dynamics

frontal lobe

the region of the cerebral cortex situated just behind the forehead that is involved in the coordination of movement and higher mental processes such as planning, social skills and abstract thinking. this is the area of the brain that is the originator of self processes

social psychology

the scientific discipline that attempts to understand and explain the thoughts, feelings and behavior of individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined or implied presence of others

Social Psychology

the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another

social psychology

the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another

Social Psychology

the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another.

social psychology

the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 723)

social psychology

the scientific study of how we think about, relate to, and influence others

principle of reciprocity

the social principle that giving a gift creates social ties with the person receiving it, who is obliged to eventually reciprocate. EX: But wait, there's more, I'll throw in a free toothbrush

Biological Preparedness

the species-specific predisposition to learn in certain ways but not in others

Personality Psychology

the study of an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting. I.E. how do individuals differ and why despite being in identical social situations do people behave differently

Personal space/proxemics

the study of one's personal space and personal space issues

social neuroscience

the study of the relationship between neural processes of the brain and social processes

bystander effect

the tendency effect for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present

Bystander Effect

the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present

bystander effect

the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present

Bystander Effect

the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present.

bystander effect

the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 766)

social loafing

the tendency for individual effort to be diminished when one is part of a group working toward common goals

Justification of Effort

the tendency for individuals to increase their liking for something they have worked hard to attain. EX: Worked hard on a project, but then didn't get intended result is more likely to say they inherently liked/valued the goal, despite objective value. The harder you worked on something, the more committed you will be, and the more you value what it stands for.

Better-than-average phenomenon

the tendency for nearly everyone to rate themselves "above average" on a skill - we are too incompetant to asses our own incompetance - if ur so bad at something, you're probs not gunna notice it

Fundamental attribution error (FAE)

the tendency for observer's, when explaining another's behavior, to overestimate the impact of the person's disposition and underestimate the person's situation

fundamental attribution error

the tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition

Fundamental Attribution Error

the tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition.

fundamental attribution error

the tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 724)

Social loafing

the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable

social loafing

the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable

Social Loafing

the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable.

social loafing

the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 739)

social loafing

the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts towards attaining a common goal than when individually accountable

Door-in-the-face

the tendency for people to agree to a smaller request after first refusing a larger request

Just-World Phenomenon

the tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get.

foot-in-the-door phenomenon

the tendency for people who agree to a small request to comply later with a larger request

Foot-in-the-door

the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request

foot in the door

the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request

foot in the door phenomenon

the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request

foot-in-the-door phenomenon

the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request

Foot-in-the-Door Phenomenon

the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request.

foot-in-the-door phenomenon

the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 727)

foot in the door phenomenon

the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to later comply with a larger request

Biased sampling

the tendency of a group to spend more time focussing on information that is already known to all/most group members than unshared information

bystander effect

the tendency of a person to be less likely to offer help to someone if there are other people present

Facial feedback

the tendency of facial muscle states to trigger corresponding feelings such as fear, anger, or happiness. p. 141

just world phenomenon

the tendency of people to believe the world is fair and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get

just world phenomenon

the tendency of people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get

just-world phenomenon

the tendency of people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get

just-world phenomenon

the tendency of people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 748)

self-serving bias

the tendency to assign oneself credit for successes but to blame failures on external forces

Actor-Observer (tendency). Def, explanation

the tendency to attribute one's own behavior to situational factors but to attribute the behavior of others to dispositional factors. This is due to the difference of information available to the actor, or to the observer

fundamental attribution error

the tendency to attribute the behavior of others to internal disposition rather than to the situation

Overconfidence phenomenon

the tendency to be more confident than correct--to overestimate the accuracy of one's beliefs. p. 88

identifiable victim effect

the tendency to be more moved by the plight of a single, vivid individual than by a more abstract number of individuals

Hindsight Bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it

Hindsight bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. (Also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon.

blaming the victim

the tendency to blame an innocent victim of the misfortune for having somehow caused the problem or for not having taken steps to avoid or prevent it

Defensive attribution (just-world phenomenon)

the tendency to blame the victim when bad things happen to them

conformity

the tendency to change one's thinking or behavior to coincide with a group standard

in-group bias

the tendency to favor one's own group

ingroup bias

the tendency to favor one's own group

in-group and out-group

the tendency to favor one's own group and not others

ingroup bias

the tendency to favor one's own group. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 746)

Ingroup Bias

the tendency to favor our own group.

Primacy Effect

the tendency to form opinions on others based on first impressions

actor-observer effect

the tendency to make situational attributions for our own behaviors while making dispositional attributions for the identical behavior of others

False consensus effect

the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors. EX: Everybody picks their nose secretly, because I do. Beliefs tend to fall in this effect.

self-serving bias

the tendency to perceive oneself favorably

Reactance

the tendency to react in the opposite direction to a persuasive message when compliance might place limits on personal freedom. EX: People honking at you to quickly get out of your spot. The driver will likely slow down to show they have a choice.

other race effect

the tendency to recall faces of one's own race more accurately than faces of other races

Other-Race Effect

the tendency to recall faces of one's own race more accurately than faces of other races. (Also called the cross-race effect and the own-race bias.)

Other-Race Effect

the tendency to recall faces of one's own race more accurately than faces of other races. Also called the cross-race effect and the own-race bias

confirmation bias

the tendency to search and interpret info that confirms one's beliefs, but fail to see the beliefs that go against one's own beliefs

Self-serving attribution

the tendency to take credit (internal attribution) when good things happen and to blame others (external attribution) when bad things happen

self serving bias

the tendency to take credit for positive outcomes but deny responsibility for negative outcomes in our lives

False Uniqueness Effect

the tendency to underestimate the commonality of one's abilities and one's desirable or successful behaviors. EX: I'm really smart and really fast. Abilities/Talents/and even cognitions fall to this effect.

ethnocentrism

the tendency to view one's own cultural group as superior to others and as the standard for judging the worth of foreign ways

cognitive dissonance

the tension caused by the gap between how someone should act/decide and how they actually acted/decided

Frustration-Agression Principal

the theory that frustration the perception that you are being prevented from ATTAINING A GOAL increases the probability of an aggressive response

Social Exchange Theory

the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs

social exchange theory

the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs

Social Exchange Theory

the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs.

social exchange theory

the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 766)

social exchange theory

the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs. EX: prestige, snoring, good looking, sex, etc. i.e. the social relationships we choose to develop is in part decided by our cost/benefit analyses

System Justification Theory

the theory that people are motivated to see the existing political and social status quo as desirable, fair, and legitimate.

Psychological reactance

the theory that people react against threats to their freedom by asserting themselves and perceiving the threatened freedom as more attractive

Scapegoating

the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame

scapegoat theory

the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame

Scapegoat Theory

the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame.

scapegoat theory

the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 747)

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent. For example, when our awareness of our attitudes and of our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting discomfort by changing our attitudes.

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent. For example, when our awareness of our attitudes and of our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting discomfort by changing our attitudes; we tend to rationalize our actions & change our attitudes NOT our behaviors.

cognitive dissonance theory

the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent. For example, when our awareness of our attitudes and of our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 728)

cognitive dissonance theory

the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort we feel when two of our thoughts are inconsistent; for example, when our awareness of our attitudes and of our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes

attribution theory

the theory that we explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation (50%) or the person's disposition (50%)

attribution theory

the theory that we explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition

Attribution Theory

the theory that we explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition.

attribution theory

the theory that we explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition; studied by Fritz Heider

culture

the total lifestyle of a people, including all the ideas, symbols, preferences and material objects that they share

motivational function of emotion

the use of mental imagery to experience goal attainment, effective coping and arousal management. Emotional function that incites motivation.

Bystander Effect or Diffusion of Responsibility

the vicious murder of Kitty Genovese in Kew Gardens, NY committed with view of at least 38 witnesses, none of whom intervened, led John Darley and Bibb latane to research this. the larger the number of people who witness an emergency situation, the less likely anyone will be to intervene. The larger the group who witness a problem, the less responsible any one individual feels to help. People tend to assume someone else will take action.

Communication - Channel of communication

the way the message is delivered--whether face-to-face, in writing, on film, or in some other way. Active experience or passive reception. Media & personal influence. p. 244

social cognition

the ways in which we interpret, analyze, remember, and use information about our social world

cerebral cortex

the wrinkled looking outer layer of the brain that coordinates and integrates all other brain areas into a fully functioning unit, that is the brains thinking center and that is much larger in humans than in other animals

dual process theories

theories of social cognition that describe two basic ways of thinking about social stimuli, one involving automatic effortless thinking and the other involving more deliberate, effortful thinking

attachment theory

theory based on John Bowlby's work that posits that children are biologically predisposed to develop attachments to caregivers as a means of increasing the chances of their own survival

diffusion of responsibility

theory for why bystander effect occurs - each individual bystander thinks someone else will get involved

triangular theory of love

theory proposing that love has three basic components (intimacy, passion and commitment) that when combined form 8 different subtypes

contact hypothesis

theory that direct contact between hostile groups will reduce prejudice under certain conditions

Information integration theory

theory that impressions are based on perceiver dispositions and a weighted average of a target person's traits

attribution theory

theory that suggests how we explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition

Social Comparison Theory

theory that we seek to evaluate our abilities and beliefs by comparing them with those of others

reward theory of attraction

theory that we will like those whose behavior is rewarding to us and that we will continue relationships that offer more rewards than costs

cognition

thinking

convergent thinking

thinking pointed to one right answer

divergent thinking

thinking that has multiple right answers, can express yourself, creative thinking, generating new solutions to problems

Groupthink

thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives

vivid information (and persuasiveness of message)

this can be more persuasive than statistical facts. This is seen in the identifiable victim effect, this takes place when an advert shows one victims story and picture and allow the person to relate to that individual person then information about mass of people.

mood linkage

this happens when people share each others' up and down moods; for example, we feel happier around happy people than around angry or depressed ones

mirror image perceptions

this happens when two opponents view each other as the other views them; each demonizes the other; the tendency to form diabolical views of each other in a conflict

street harrassment

threats/remarks to a stranger by strangers based on nothing but appearance

Darley and Latane

to see if people would help; heard cry for help, but people that were with groups didnt help and alone did

Central traits

traits that exert a powerful influence on overall impressions

Ethnocentrism

type of prejudice - judging another culture solely by the values and standards of one's own culture. -having or based on the idea that your own group or culture is better or more important than others

implicit bias

unconscious, automatic biases measured by IAT; impacts decision-making and impressions (e.g., of other racial groups) without the person's conscious awareness

empathy

understanding or vicariously experiencing another individual's perspective and feeling sympathy and compassion for that individual

discrimination

unfair treatment of a person or group on the basis of prejudice

Graduated and reciprocated initiatives in tension-reduction (GRIT)

unilateral, persistent efforts to establish trust and cooperation between opposing groups

Discrimination

unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members

discrimination

unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group or its members. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 743)

discrimination

unjustifiable negative behavior towards a group or its members

altruism

unselfish concern for the welfare of others; selflessness

Altruism

unselfish regard for the welfare of others

altruism

unselfish regard for the welfare of others

Altruism

unselfish regard for the welfare of others.

altruism

unselfish regard for the welfare of others. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 765)

attachment style

way a person typically interacts with significant others

Cognitive dissonance theory

we act to reduce the discomfort we feel when two of our thoughts or our thoughts and actions are inconsistent. People tend to alter their thoughts/attitudes to match their actions.

automatic mimicry

we automatically and unconsciously imitate other's expressions, mood, behaviors, voice etc.

Attribution theory

we explain someone's behavior by either crediting the situation or the person's disposition

matching hypothesis

we seek individuals most like ourselves (attractive wise).

Outgroup homogeneity effect

we tend to overestimate the differences between groups and underestimate the differences within groups 2 main reasons: 1. fewer personal interactions with outgroups 2. no representative samples of each group

Optimal distinctiveness theory

we want to balance standing out with fitting in in society

Private level

what we consciously believe but do not say to others

self-handicapping strategy

when an individual intentionally places one's self at a disadvantage to provide an excuse for failure.

bystander apathy

when individuals do not offer any means of help to a victim when other people are present

insight learning

when one suddenly realizes how to solve a problem

Groupthink

when striving for unanimity (consensus) (dominates members' mental representations, and) overrides realistic appraisal of alternatives

Attribution theory

why people behave the way they do - percieveing and evaluating others and themselves, can be people or situation

Normative rules

widely accepted rules and social systems based on social norms, how people should/shouldn't behave

Kitty Genovese

woman whose murder in front of witnesses led to research on bystander effect

Obedience was highest when:

¤ The person giving the orders was close and perceived to be a legitimate authority figure ¤ The victim was depersonalized or at a distance ¤ There were no role models for defiance

ABC model of attitudes pro war attitude

¤Affective component - how we feel toward an object (Fear the world is a bad place) ¤ Behavioral component - how we behave toward an object (support war presidents) ¤ Cognitive component - what we believe about an object (believes war is a necessary solution)

Overcoming prejudice

¤[*Increased interactions*] reduce prejudice. ¤ Getting people to [*work towards a common goal*] is an even more effective strategy (Dovidio et al, 1999). ¤ [*Media influence*] - Rwanda - tolerance between Hutus and Tutsi increased in areas exposed to a soap opera featuring two warring factions that eventually formed friendships (Paluck, 2009). ¤ "we're all the same" approach usually does not work ¤ [*Multi-culturalism*]: accepting, recognizing and enjoying the differences among peoples and groups