Social Research Methods

Survey questions and scales/answer options

-Dichotomous scales - yes/no; agree/disagree -Rating scales - Excellent, good, fair, poor; very satisfied, satisfied, dissatisfied, very dissatisfied; On a scale of 1-10. -Frequency scales - Very often, often, sometimes, a few times, never; Every day, a few times a week, once a week, a few times a month, once a month, less than once a month; How many hours a day on average, do you. -And many other scale options (see the survey design chapter in the week 6 folder.

Survey limitations / challenges

-Do respondents understand the questions? Example: question 11 (previous slide) "thinking critically and analytically" or "broad general education." -Are the questions developmentally appropriate? Double barreled questions: -Asking about two concepts at once. -"Speaking clearly and effectively." -Professional Quality of Life Scale question 25: As a result of my [helping job], I have intrusive, frightening thoughts.

Steps in a Lit Review

1.Identify key words and descriptors (grab the terms that you used to fill in the templates). 2.Create search queries. 3.Identify a) relevant databases and b) relevant journals. 4.Search databases and collect a minimum of five articles. 5.Critically read the literature. The abstract of an article can tell you a lot! 6.Summarize, synthesize, and organize the literature. 7.Write the literature review. What do we already know about your topic? --End the literature review with a clear statement about the "gap" in the literature (the unknown about your topic) and why your study is important.

Experiments in "hard sciences"

Randomized control trials (RCTs) ---Vaccine and other drug trials -Participants are randomly assigned to get the vaccine or a placebo. -Active independent variable = vaccine or not -Dependent (outcome) variable = whether a person gets the disease or not. Why don't social scientists use RCTs?

Where do research projects begin?

Many research projects start with a question that is driven by our curiosity. Why do dogs circle before they lay down? Why does bright light, such as the sun, cause some people to sneeze? Our curiosities result in mental itches. Some mental itches can be scratched through Google or Wikipedia and do not require research

Research paradigms/worldviews

Positivists/Post-positivists: believe that we can be positive about knowing something. We can know truth (or get close to truth). Reality exists and it can be measured objectively. ----Researchers in this paradigm primarily use Quantitative methods. Constructivists believe that we can never really know truth. We construct knowledge about a topic, often through co-constructing it with others. (We can never really know the truth.) ------Researchers in this paradigm primarily use qualitative methods.

Nonexperimental Design

•Nonexperimental - the researcher is describing or observing. •A researcher sends out a survey to all first-year students at UB at the end of the semester about their level of engagement in their courses. •A researcher observes students in a face-to-face class and counts how often the student engages in class discussion and how often they ask questions. •A researcher sets up a table in the Union dining area and asks students about their food choices and their awareness of the relationship between food choices and developing type II diabetes.

Nonexperimental and experimental

•Nonexperimental and experimental designs only apply to quantitative research. •Both nonexperimental and experimental designs result in the collection of numeric data. •To analyze the numeric data, researchers use statistics.

Operationalizing what you want to measure

•Concepts are translated into constructs that are observable and measurable. •Teacher effectiveness is not operationalized. •Change in mental health is not operationalized. •The researcher must translate these ideas into something that is measurable. •How is teacher effectiveness measured? •How is mental health measured? •Lots of different ways! Researchers have many choices during their research. Operationalizing what you want to measure

experimental Design

•Experimental - the researcher is intervening in an active way. •A group of people get a vaccine and another group of people get a placebo. •A researcher invites a group of students to attend a workshop on preventing type II diabetes. After the workshop, the researcher compares students who attended the workshop to those who did not to see if those who attended the workshop are less likely to develop type II diabetes. •A researcher shows a group of students a media clip and then measures their anxiety level in comparison to a control group that did not see the media clip.

variable cont.

•Independent or predictor variables - the presumed cause of something •Dependent or outcome variables - response or outcome •Does smoking (independent or predictor) have a causal relationship with lung cancer (dependent or outcome)? •Does attending a type II diabetes prevention workshop (independent or predictor) have a causal relationship with the development (or not) of type II diabetes (dependent or outcome)? •Does having a career mentor (independent or predictor) in the field you are interested in result in full-time employment after graduation in that field (dependent or predictor)?

Literature review (example)

"A substantive, thorough, sophisticated literature review is a precondition for doing substantive, through, and sophisticated research" (Boote & Beile, 2005 p. 3). "A review of the literature ... without it, you will not acquire an understanding of your topic, of what has already been done, how it has been researched, and what the key issues are" (Hart, 1998, p. 1).

Quiz 1 answers

- A researcher approaching a research topic from a constructivist paradigm is most likely to use research methods such as: Interviews, focus groups, and case studies - Institutional review boards (IRBs) exist to: Protect human subjects / research participants from harm - The purpose of a literature review is to: all of the above -A researcher is interested in whether attending a type 2 diabetes workshop impacts health outcomes for a random sample of 100 college students. If the researcher randomly selects a group of 50 students to attend the workshop and then compares outcomes to the 50 students who did not attend the workshop, the approach is: Quantitative and experimental -The researcher analyzes two variables to see if a relationship exists between attending the type 2 diabetes prevention workshop and whether the attendee is diagnosed with type 2 diabetes within a year after the workshop. If no attendees develop type 2 diabetes within a year, the researcher can conclude a cause and effect relationship between workshop attendance and the development of the disease. FALSE - In the previous example, the yes/no variable of whether or not an attendee develops type 2 diabetes is: A dependent variable -A researcher is interested in the topic of social media and anxiety. The researcher creates a survey to measure the following variables: number of hours spent on social media each day and level of anxiety on a 10 point scale. The research approach is: Quantitative and the variables are operationalized -A researcher wants to explore the lived experiences of students who study abroad by having in-depth conversations with them when they return from studying abroad. The paradigm that best fits this study is: constructivist -A researcher plans to conduct a survey. All of the following should be part of the research plan (the "recipe"): (check all that apply) Who will participate in the study The survey questions Whether the survey will be online or a paper survey -Quantitative and qualitative researchers use the same research methods. FALSE

QUIZ 1 con.

- A researcher is interested in understanding more about the outcomes of a career mentoring program. The goal of the program is to help unemployed people find jobs. In a sentence (or two), explain how you would approach this topic from a constructivist paradigm. conduct interviews with the participants (who did the program) and ask them questions, such as if they believed the career mentoring program successfully helped them find a job. - A researcher is interested in understanding more about the outcomes of a career mentoring program. The goal of the program is to help unemployed people find jobs. In a sentence (or two), explain how you would approach this topic from a post-positivist paradigm. conduct a study and then analyze the results via survey. This will allow the researchers to measure the following variables: the outcomes of a career mentoring program and if it successfully helped unemployed people find jobs. -Practitioners (those employed in social and human services) can use research results: To make better decisions about how to spend resources To alter programs, start programs, or cancel programs To compare different groups of people who participate in programs -Which of the following terms refers to the idea that the researcher should design a study that is best suited to minimize risks and maximize benefit? Beneficence

quiz 1 con.

-A researcher is interested in whether the pandemic has impacted the mental health of students at UB. The researcher sends out a survey to all UB students asking them "rate your level of agreement" questions about their mental health. This approach is: Quantitative and nonexperimental -Through appropriate sampling techniques, a researcher is able to make inferences about a population from a representative sample. In this way, the researcher achieves: Generalizability -Data can be: ALL OF THE ABOVE -Quantitative and qualitative researchers use the same research methods. FALSE -Researchers select their research approach prior to conducting a literature review. FALSE - The impact of social media on the mental health of teenagers," is an example of a: RESEARCH TOPIC -Students with low anxiety will achieve better grades on their course paper than those with high anxiety. This statement is an example of a: Directional hypothesis

Halo effect

-The tendency to make specific inferences on the basis of a general impression. -Infer perceptions of things that are difficult to define/measure from something else, which appears to be more concrete and tangible. Examples - Job satisfaction survey: -A decline in company revenue causes a decline in ratings of supervisors or more dissatisfaction with company culture. -Working from home causes your job satisfaction to decrease even though nothing about your job responsibilities has changed.

Problem template

-There is a problem in _________ (societal organization). -Despite _________ (something that is happening or should be happening) ________ is occurring. -The problem has negatively impacted _______ (population or victims) because __________. -A possible cause of the problem is _____________. -Perhaps a study that investigates ________ could help to remedy the situation. Problem template example; -There is a problem in health care organizations. -Despite efforts to enhance the work environment and prepare nurses in nursing school for the challenges, nurses are still experiencing burnout. -The problem has negatively impacted nurses and those they serve because they may decide to exit the profession. -A possible cause of the problem is that adequate mentoring programs do not exist. -Perhaps a study that investigates successful nursing mentoring programs could help to remedy the situation.

Problem Statement Template example

-There is a problem in colleges and universities. -Despite efforts to provide support to veteran students, veterans are experiencing significant mental health challenges while in college (including PTSD, suicide, and other life-threatening issues). -The problem has negatively impacted veteran students because they may experience significant challenges academically and socially while in college. -A possible cause of the problem is that veteran students may not feel comfortable seeking help. -Perhaps a study that investigates help-seeking behaviors in student veterans could help to remedy the situation.

Major differences in quantitative and qualitative research methods

-There overall objectives are different. -The types of questions they pose are different -The types of data collection instruments they use are different -The form of data (results) they produce are different -Degree of flexibility built into study design is different -The role of the researcher is different

Steps in the Research Process

1. Identify a research problem 2. Conduct a literature review 3. Articulate research questions or hypotheses 4. Select the research approach and design 5. Create a plan for research -----select the sample -----select instruments and measures that are valid and reliable -----develop procedures for data collection and analysis 6. Obtain human subjects/IRB approval 7. Collect the data 8. Analyze data to answer research question and test hypotheses 9. Interpret the data and evaluate overall research validity. 10. Communicate results and present the findings

In order to "trust" survey results, we need

A 'GOOD' SAMPLE •Appropriate sampling techniques •An adequate number of respondents •Representative samples that "look" like the population A 'GOOD' INSTRUMENT •Measurement reliability Measurement validity Takeaways About Surveys: -Surveys have strengths and limitations. -Surveys always have error in measurement. -Sampling is critical. Surveys should use probability sampling if the intent is to generalize to a population. -Surveys can suffer from low measurement reliability and validity - e.g., the survey can be "bad.". -Researchers often choose survey instruments based on their reliability and validity. -Reliable and valid surveys already exist on many topics of interest to social scientists - no need to create your own survey. -Don't rush to conduct a survey. There may be more appropriate methods to answer your questions and study your topic.

Paradigms/Worldview

A paradigm or world view is how you see the world; what you believe. Put another way, a paradigm or worldview encompasses your beliefs about how the world works. It could be thought as your philosophy. In the case of SSC213, your paradigm is your philosophy on research and how we create new knowledge. So in the case of a quantitative researcher and a qualitative researcher, they are going to have different worldview (meaning that they have different ideas about how we create new knowledge.) There is not a right paradigm/worldview. It is about what you believe! But, there needs to be a match/clear alignment between a research project and the research paradigm.

How will this class help you?

As an undergrad, you are often asked to conduct literature reviews. As an undergrad, you may want to pursue a research opportunity on your own or with a faculty member. If you go on to graduate school, you may be required to write a thesis or dissertation (an original piece of scholarly research) Almost all jobs in social sciences require the use of research, evidence, data to guide decision-making. You will be a more informed consumer of data in the news, online, etc. (in your day to day life)

Why do we conduct research?

BASIC research: To add to the body of knowledge on a topic — knowing for the sake of knowing. (We never have enough information about the world; there is always more to know.) APPLIED research: To improve practice and make better decisions.

Basic/theoretical versus applied

Basic/theoretical research is testing or developing a theory. Some social scientists conduct basic research (such as testing and developing theories. For example, a psychological study conducted in a laboratory with psy-101 students. Applied - practical use (working in the field and actually conducting the research) For example, a social worker conducting interviews with client in an organization to improve a program. BOTH are scientific research (Basic/theoretical and applied) because the researchers use systematic processes of inquiry.

Morgan, Chapter 3. (1-5) issues in paradigms.

Issue 1: The Nature of Reality Is there one reality or are there multiple realities? This issue is the most divisive because seemingly there are either many realities (constructivist) or one (positivist); both positions cannot exist at the same time. We think that part of the issue comes from the lack of an agreed-on definition of reality. Issue 2: The Relationship of Knower to Known Can investigators and participants be in a study without influencing each other? "Double-blind" studies acknowledge this issue by having both the participants and the researcher be unaware of the conditions of the study. The issue for the positivist is to determine how much of the outcome might be due to these effects. For the constructivists, how much difference does it make if the observer is a participant as compared to a "silent" observer? We think that issue two separates the approaches on a relative rather than absolute basis. The positivist is usually more confident that bias can be overcome, but both paradigms need to be sensitive to this issue. Issue 3: The Possibility of Generalization Can the results of an individual study be generalized to other populations, settings, treatment variables, and measurement variables? Few studies using a positivist approach have employed proper sampling techniques. Usually, participants are not randomly sampled from a target population. Instead, participants are usually obtained from a "convenience" sample, often found at the investigator's clinic. The constructivist professes to make no claims for generalizing the results beyond what was found in the study, but many qualitative studies seem to make conclusions beyond the specifics of their findings. Meta-analyses allow quantitative investigators to combine studies to make better generalizations. This issue seems to separate the two approaches on a relative rather than absolute basis. Researchers from both approaches should be cautious about generalizing their results. Issue 4: The Possibility of Causal Linkages Can we identify causes? Positivists believe that under the proper experimental conditions, one can conclude that the independent variable "caused" the change (effect) in the dependent variable. These proper conditions include the random assignment of participants to groups. However, few positivists are willing to make more than a probability statement about causes. Constructivists rule out the concept of causality on many grounds, but perhaps the most salient is their position that most events have multiple causes. There is no way to resolve differences between the two paradigms on issue four! Issue 5: The Role of Values in Inquiry Can researchers be unbiased? It is important for all researchers to recognize that research is not value-free. One might ask the positivist, "Who selected the research problem, variables, sample, or particular treatment?" Of course, the investigator selected all aspects of the study. Therefore, the constructivists are correct in assuming that research is not value-free. A part of a constructivist research report is to state the biases of the investigator, or to "come clean." Issue 5 appears to separate the two paradigms on a relative basis. The degree of subjectivity in most constructivist studies, in which the investigator is the "instrument," seems to us far greater than that in the positivist approach. However, this difference is not all-or-nothing. Researchers in both paradigms should acknowledge that there will be subjectivity and bias; however, they should do what they can to minimize the potential effects of biases.

Satisficing

People often engage in sub-optimal decision-making strategies to conserve cognitive effort. Meaning, "don't make me think too hard!" -Stages of cognitive processing: (1) accurately interpret the meaning of the question being posed; (2) search memory for relevant information; (3) summarize information into a single judgment; and (4) convey that judgment in the most accurate way given the response options. -Survey respondents satisfice when they fail to fully engage in one or more of the four stages of cognitive processing, thus degrading the integrity of their survey responses.

Pitfalls in Topic Selection

Pitfall: You pick a topic that is very broad. "PTSD in veterans" "Social media and mental health" Pitfall: You start plowing through the literature with just a topic. Formulate questions about the topic that point you to the data/literature that you need to answer those questions. What do we already know about teenagers' use of Instagram and disordered eating? Three elements (underlined) that make this topic much more specific.

Qualitative Research

Qualitative methodology Qualitative research allows for the use of observation and the accumulation of in-depth and detailed data about a phenomenon. At the root of qualitative inquiry is an interest in understanding the experiences people have and the meanings they make of that experience. Qualitative researchers do not count things or use numbers to conduct research! Qualitative researchers use: Phenomenology (interviews, focus groups)Case studies, naturalistic observations What is a phenomenon? An observable event. (Or experience that we have) For example, a Black Lives Matter rally, an interaction between a child and a teacher, a job training program, an online game, a leadership conference.

Quantitative Research

Quantitative methodology is a formal, objective, systematic process in which numerical data are used to obtain information about the world. Quantitative research is used to describe variables, to examine relationships among variables, and to determine cause and affect interactions between variables. Quantitative researchers use: Experiments, quasi-experiments, non- experimental methods What is a variable? Anything that has a quantity or quality that varies. For example: age, GPA, how often you exercise, your opinion on climate change, where you live (commuter vs. residential)

Social science research methods

Regardless of the method selected, social science research methods are designed to be systematic and to minimize biases. The goal is to produce findings that represent reality as closely as possible, overcoming some of the hidden biases that influence our conclusions when we are not systematic.

Journey to the Research Topic, Problem, and Questions

Research in Different Disciplines: Biology, chemistry, and other "hard" sciences History Public policy Psychology Social sciences Social science is the science of people or collections of people, such as groups, firms, societies, or economies, and their individual or collective behaviors.

Research

Research is a systematic investigation and the search for truth. - Research methods (methods is the ways that social scientists collect data.) -Data: pieces of information Data collected through scientific research can be quantitative and qualitative. (Data does not only refer to numbers or statistics!! It can be words, observations, etc.) Quantitative Data: is numbers and statistics (something you can count) Qualitative Data: is words, quotes, rich descriptions (observation) *Some researchers used both methodologies.

Knowledge and Research Methods

Research methods are the building blocks of the scientific enterprise. They are the "how" for building systematic knowledge. Let's take a moment to think about knowledge. How do you "know" things? One way you know things is through your own personal experiences. Even as personal experiences are rich in depth and detail, and create a lot of meaning in life, they are also quite limited in scope. If you try to generalize what is true for you, it is easy to overgeneralize and arrive at misleading conclusions for everyone. Another fundamental way to gain knowledge is through the authority of others—your parents, teachers, books you have read, shows you have watched, news and articles from social media. This "second-hand" knowledge includes many diverse sources, and often this knowledge is more than one step removed from where it originated. By learning about research, reading samples of research, and practicing research it is possible to expand your ability to think through knowledge and its acquisition in new ways. When you learn the rules on which research is based, you are learning to generate knowledge in the tradition and practice of science.

A scholarly research project is more than a mental itch

Researchers ask: -Questions that are investigated by a community of scholars. -Questions that are debated and researched quite continuously. -Questions that inform a large audience of people Topic: I am researching ________________. Question: because I want to find out who/what/when/where/whether/how/why ___________. Significance: In order to help my audience understand how/why/whether __________. Example: TOPIC: I am researching PTSD in sexual assault survivors QUESTION(S): because I want to find out what resources help sexual assault survivors overcome their trauma. SIGNIFICANCE: to help my audience understand what resources are most beneficial to survivors -Who is the implied audience? -Organizations who help survivors and families.

sampling

Sampling techniques: -Probability sampling (ideal for surveys) -Two most common probability samples are a: -Random sample -Stratified sample Non-probability sampling (not ideal for surveys) -Convenience sample -Purposeful sample -Snowball sample

Scientific versus non-scientific research

Scientific: -Contribute to our body of knowledge -Systematic inquiry and investigation (doctors, biologists, and clinicians usually do this research) -biology and drug trials are scientific research (for example) Non-scientific: -Research that you do every day - everyday research, such as googling information on how to buy a car.

Social Science

Social science is the science of people or collections of people, such as groups, firms, societies, or economies, and their individual or collective behaviors. Social sciences can be classified into disciplines such as psychology (the science aid human behaviors), sociology (the science of social groups), and economics (the science of firms, markets, and economies). It is very different science than hard science or health/medical research.

Quasi-Experiments in social sciences

Steps in a Research Project: Step 1: Identify a research problem Step 2: Conduct a literature review Step 3: Articulate research questions or hypotheses Step 4: Select the research approach and design Step 5: Create a plan for research Step 6: Seek/receive approval for research Step 7: Collect data Step 8: Analyze the data Steps 9 and 10: Interpret and communicate the results. finish week 7 notes..

Experiments in social sciences

Steps in a Research Project: Step 1: Identify a research problem Step 2: Conduct a literature review Step 3: Articulate research questions or hypotheses Step 4: Select the research approach and design Step 5: Create a plan for research Step 6: Seek/receive approval for research Step 7: Collect data Step 8: Analyze the data Steps 9 and 10: Interpret and communicate the results. Experiment (ACTIVE independent variable): ---ACTIVE - program for couples. The program introduces something into the lives of participants that would not just occur naturally. -Experiment versus quasi-experiment: ----Both experiments and quasi-experiments introduce something (program, intervention, etc.) into the lives of participants. ----If RANDOM assignment to the program, it is an experiment. ----If couples self-select and sign up for the program because they want to do the program, it is a quasi-experiment. No RANDOM assignment. -Random assignment: --Experimental group (those that got the program/ workshops) --Control group (those that didn't)Random assignment

cont.

Supporting Healthy Relationships (SHR): Couples meeting the program's eligibility criteria were randomly assigned to one of two groups: 1. The program group. These couples were offered the package of SHR program services and attended relationship workshops, family support services, and supplemental activities. 2. The control group. These couples were not provided SHR services, but they were not prevented from accessing other services available in the community. Collecting Data: Example: The study hypothesized that building parents' relationship skills would support more positive outcomes for parents, such as improved relationship quality and reduced levels of psychological distress. More stable and more nurturing home environments would, over time, result in more positive outcomes for their children. •PRE-TEST. Baseline instruments, including a self-administered questionnaire and child information forms. Administered BEFORE the program started. •POST-TEST. Surveys after the program (24 and 30 months after). Why do we conduct research? •To add to the body of knowledge on a topic •To improve practice and make better decisions

Methodology versus method

The research methodology (quantitative, qualitative, or both/mixed) is the procedures or techniques that guide the research. A research method is even more specific and refers to exactly how the data is collected. (A survey is a method, and is a one-on-one interview.) A survey is typically quantitative.

Surveys and Self-reports

What is a survey? -A quantitative method whereby a researcher poses a set of predetermined questions to an entire group or a sample. -Surveys help us to measure constructs and variables. What is not a survey: -A series of open-ended/short answer questions. We might instead call that an open-ended questionnaire. -A poll (election polling, for example) is not the type of survey we are discussing in SSC 213. Surveys are good for: -Surveys aim to describe or explain features (variables) of a very large group or groups. Definitions: Construct - broad topic that cannot be measured by a singular variable (e.g., life satisfaction) Hope scale is an example of trying to measure a construct. Variables - anything that has a quantity or quality - variables are singular (rating of satisfaction with ONE aspect of your life)

Problem

Without identifying a social problem, there is no clear reason to conduct a research study in the social sciences. Example problems from DB #1 Lower graduation rates of African American students in comparison to White students. Negative impact of social media on body image. Some students are not equipped to learn through technology - it does not match their preferred learning style. Researchable Problems: https://www.countyhealthrankings.org/app/new-york/2019/rankings/erie/county/outcomes/overall/snapshot

social

social is the study of human society and social relationships. Focuses mostly on behaviors.

Variables

•Anything that can take on a quantity or a quality. •Researchers study the relationships between independent and dependent variables when they are interested in examining cause and effect relationships. •Independent or predictor variables - the presumed cause of something •Dependent or outcome variables - response or outcome Example of variables: •Categorical variables - no numeric values; labels or categories. •Political affiliation •Gender •Academic major •Continuous variables - can be quantified; have numeric values •Number of credits earned •GPA •Hours spent exercising each week •Number of posts on Instagram

Quantitative studies

•Ask questions that can be answered by collecting and analyzing data that can be represented numerically. •Surveys, for example, allow for the collection of data from a large number of people. The analysis of survey data can be represented numerically.

Hypotheses

•Once the research constructs are operationalized, then the researcher can create a hypothesis or a research question. •A hypothesis is a statement about the relationship between two or more variables. •It is a prediction of what you think you will find during a research study. •Could be a hunch based on your own experience. •But, should be guided by the literature review and what we already know about the topic. Example of Hypotheses: •There is NO relationship between GPA and number of hours spent gaming per week. (null) •There is a relationship between GPA and number of hours spent gaming per week. (alternate) •GPA decreases as number of hours spent gaming per week increases. (directional) •There is a relationship between satisfaction with academic advising and first-to-second year retention. •Students who visit the campus recreation center at least once a week will experience less anxiety. •Veteran students who utilize student services will be more likely to graduate. •Hypotheses can be stated as research questions. •Do college students who spend more than two hours a day online gaming have lower GPAs than those who spend less than two hours a day online gaming?Example of Hypotheses

Relevance to practitioners

•Quantitative studies allow us to collect numeric data and analyze the data using statistics. •Statistics help to focus our attention and sends signals as to what we should pay attention to. Statistics tell us: •What has changed based on something we did? •Are there differences between groups of people that we serve? •And what can we learn about causal relationships? Did our intervention work / help those that we serve?

Topics versus questions (quantitative research)

•Research topic - abstract conceptual problem •Quantitative research question - must be concrete and measurable •Research question must pass the "so what" test. •Example: •Research topic: Impact of social media usage on the mental health of women aged 13-18. •Research question: Does spending more time on social media result in increased anxiety amongst women aged 13-18?

Differences in cultural backgrounds of respondents

•Self-Compassion Scale question 9: When something upsets me I try to keep my emotions in balance.

Cause and effect

•Social scientists can NEVER say that one thing causes another to happen. •Does having a career mentor in the field you are interested in result in full-time employment after graduation in that field? •There may be MANY, MANY other explanations for why someone does/does not find full-time employment. •Does attending a type II diabetes prevention workshop have a causal relationship with the development (or not) of type II diabetes? •There may be MANY, MANY other reasons why someone develops type II diabetes. •Researchers can examine causal relationships, but they can never state that one singular thing causes another thing to happen. Life is too complex!

Target population versus sample

•Statistics: The practice or science of collecting and analyzing numerical data in large quantities, especially for the purpose of inferring proportions in a population from those in a representative sample. •Target population - population that the researcher is interested in and wants to be able to generalize to. •UB undergraduate students •Social workers in WNY •High schools in the United States •Target population - unit of analysis might be individuals or groups of "things."

Target population versus sample

•The practice or science of collecting and analyzing numerical data in large quantities, especially for the purpose of inferring proportions in a population from those in a representative sample. •Sample - subset of the population. Researchers draw samples because it is often impractical to conduct research on an entire population.

What are statistics?

•The practice or science of collecting and analyzing numerical data in large quantities, especially for the purpose of inferring proportions in a whole from those in a representative sample. •In the social sciences, statistics help us to describe, to look for difference, to find associations/relationships between variables, and, in some cases, to predict. •How do statistics help us in a practical sense? •To make decisions!