SOCIOLGY

charismatic authority

Based on leader's personal qualities -Napoleon Adolf Hitler Temporary and unstable -Martin Luther King, Jr. César Chávez Mother Teresa

Inequality

Conflict theorists argue that education perpetuates social inequality and benefits the dominant class at the expense of all others.

christianity

1.7 billion, Jesus—1st century C.E., Jesus is the Son of God. Through good moral and religious behavior (and/or God's grace), people achieve eternal life with God.

judaism

18million, abraham Isaac and Jacob 2000 BCE, God's nature and will are revealed in the Torah (Hebrew scripture) and in His intervention in history. God has established a covenant with the people of Israel, who are called to a life of holiness, justice, mercy, and fidelity to God's law.

Confucianism

5.9 Million, Confucius 500 BCE The sayings of Confucius (collected in the Analects) stress the role of virtue and order in the relationships among individuals, their families, and society.

hinduism

719 Million, siddhartha gautama 500-600 BCE Through meditation and adherence to the Eight-Fold Path (correct thought and, behavior) people can free themselves from desire and suffering, escape the cycle of eternal rebirth, and achieve nirvana (enlightenment)

Functionalist Education

Functionalists view education as one of the most important components of society. According to Durkheim, education is the "influence exercised by adult generations on those that are not yet ready for social life" Durkheim asserted that moral values are the foundation of a cohesive social order and that schools have the responsibility of teaching a commitment to the common morality.

traditional authority

Legitimized by long-standing custom -Patrimony (authority resides in traditional leader supported by larger social structures, as in old British monarchy Subject to erosion as traditions weaken -Patriarchy (rule by men occupying traditional positions of authority , as in the family)

rational Legal authority

Legitimized by rationally established rules and procedures -Modern British Parliament Authority resides in the office, not the person -US president, congress, federal bureaucracy

marxist perspective

Marxist perspective is self-limiting because it attributes the population problem solely to capitalism. In actuality, nations with socialist economies also have demographic trends similar to those in capitalist societies.

unequal funding

One of the biggest problems in public education today results from unequal funding. why does it exist? Most educational funds come from state legislative appropriations and local property taxes

high fertility

Preindustrial societies. Little population growth occurs because high birth rates are offset by high death rates. Food shortages, poor sanitation, and lack of adequate medical care contribute to high rates of infant and child mortality. Early industrialization. Significant population growth occurs because birth rates are relatively high whereas death rates decline. Improvements in health, sanitation, and nutrition produce a substantial decline in infant mortality rates. Overpopulation is likely to occur because more people are alive than the society has the ability to support.

dynamics of collective behavior

Problems were not being solved through "official" channels. As the problem appeared to grow worse, organizational responses became more defensive and obscure. People believe there is strength in numbers. People may act as a collectivity when they believe it is the only way to fight those with greater power and resources.

postindustrial cities

Since the 1950s, postindustrial cities have emerged in nations such as the United States as their economies have gradually shifted from secondary (manufacturing) production to tertiary (service and information-processing) production -cities increasingly rely on an economic structure that is based on scientific knowledge rather than industrial production, and as a result, a class of professionals and technicians grows in size and influence.

stages of social movements

Social movements typically go through three stages: (1) a preliminary stage (unrest results from a perceived problem), (2) coalescence (people begin to organize), and (3) institutionalization (an organization is developed, and paid staff replaces volunteers in leadership positions).

social movement

an organized group that acts consciously to promote or resist change through collective action (Goldberg, 1991). Because social movements have not become institutionalized and are outside the political mainstream, they offer "outsiders" an opportunity to have their voices heard.] Social movements are more likely to develop in industrialized societies than in preindustrial societies, where acceptance of traditional beliefs and practices makes such movements unlikely

conditions of collective

Three major factors contribute to the likelihood that collective behavior will occur: (1) structural factors that increase the chances of people responding in a particular way, (2) timing, and (3) a breakdown in social control mechanisms and a corresponding feeling of normlessness

industrial cities

Tönnies as Gesellschaft —societies exhibiting impersonal and specialized relationships, with little long-term commitment to the group or consensus on values (see Chapter 4). In Gesellschaft societies, even neighbors are "strangers" who perceive that they have little in common with one another.

demography

a subfield of sociology that examines population size, composition, and distribution. Many sociological studies use demographic analysis as a component of the research design because all aspects of social life are affected by demography.

low fertility

Advanced industrialization and urbanization. Very little population growth occurs because both birth rates and death rates are low. The birth rate declines as couples control their fertility through contraceptives and become less likely to adhere to religious directives against their use. Children are not viewed as an economic asset; they consume income rather than produce it. Societies in this stage attain zero population growth, but the actual number of births per year may still rise due to an increased number of women of childbearing age.

labor unions

came into being in the mid-nineteenth century. Unions have been credited with gaining an eight-hour workday, a five-day workweek, health and retirement benefits, sick leave and unemployment insurance, and workplace health and safety standards for many employees.

mass behavior

collective behavior that takes place when people (who often are geographically separated from one another) respond to the same event in much the same way. Rumors, gossip, mass hysteria, fads and fashions, and public opinion are forms of mass behavior.

Conflict Theorists

conflict theorists argue that schools often perpetuate class, racial-ethnic, and gender inequalities as some groups seek to maintain their privileged position at the expense of others

value added theory

developed by sociologist Neil Smelser (1963) is based on the assumption that certain conditions are necessary for the development of a social movement. Smelser called his theory the "value -added " approach based on the concept (borrowed from the field of economics) that each step in the production process adds something to the finished product.

mortality rates

drop shortly after birth and begin to rise significantly during middle age. After age 65, rates of chronic diseases and mortality increase rapidly.

preindustrial economy

economies include hunting and gathering, horticultural and pastoral, and agrarian societies. Most workers engage in primary sector production

democracy

is a political system in which the people hold the ruling power either directly or through elected representatives. The literal meaning of democracy is "rule by the people" (from the Greek words demos, meaning "the people," and kratein, meaning "to rule"). In an ideal-type democracy, people would actively and directly rule themselves.

totalitarianism

is a political system in which the state seeks to regulate all aspects of people's public and private lives. Totalitarianism relies on modern technology to monitor and control people; mass propaganda and electronic surveillance are widely used to influence people's thinking and control their actions. Nazi

migration

is the movement of people from one geographic area to another for the purpose of changing residency. Migration affects the size and distribution of the population in a given area. Distribution refers to the physical location of people throughout a geographic area. In the United States, people are not evenly distributed throughout the country; many of us live in densely populated areas. Density is the number of people living in a specific geographic area. In urbanized areas, density may be measured by the number of people who live per room, per block, or per square mile.

Demographic Transition Theory

is the process by which some societies have moved from high birth and death rates to relatively low birth and death rates as a result of technological development. Demographic transition is linked to four stages of economic development

education

is the social institution responsible for the systematic transmission of knowledge, skills, and cultural values within a formally organized structure. In all societies, people must acquire certain knowledge and skills in order to survive. In less-developed societies, these skills might include hunting, gathering, fishing, farming, and self- preservation. In contemporary, developed societies, knowledge and skills are often related to the requirements of a highly competitive job market.

social epidemiology

is the study of the causes and distribution of health, disease, and impairment throughout a population. Typically, the target of the investigation is disease agents, the environment, and the human host. Disease agents include biological agents such as insects, bacteria, and viruses that carry or cause disease; nutrient agents such as fats and carbohydrates; chemical agents such as gases and pollutants in the air; and physical agents such as temperature, humidity, and radiation.

new social movement

looks at a diverse array of collective actions and the manner in which those actions are based on politics, ideology, and culture. It also incorporates factors of identity, including race, class, gender, and sexuality, as sources of collective action and social movements. Examples of "new social movements" include ecofeminism and environmental justice movements.

Political Opportunity Theory

means government structure, public policy, and political conditions that set the boundaries for change and political action.

monarchy

s a political system in which power resides in one person or family and is passed from generation to generation through lines of inheritance. Monarchies are most common in agrarian societies and are associated with traditional authority patterns. However, the relative power of monarchs has varied across nations, depending on religious, political, and economic conditions.

hidden curriculum

s the transmission of cultural values and attitudes, such as conformity and obedience to authority, through implied demands found in the rules, routines, and regulations of schools students who are from low-income families and/or are African American or Hispanic (Latino/a) may be affected the most adversely by educational settings that have been established on the basis of upper- and middle-class white (non- Hispanic) values, attitudes, and behavior From a conflict perspective, education is used to perpetuate class, racial-ethnic, and gender inequalities through tracking, ability grouping, and a hidden curriculum that teaches subordinate groups conformity and obedience.

Symbolic Interactions

symbolic interactionists focus on classroom communication patterns and educational practices, such as labeling, that affect students' self-concept and aspirations.

universal health care

system—a health care system in which all citizens receive medical services paid for by tax revenues

postindustrial

tertiary sector

population composition

the biological and social characteristics of a population, including age, sex, race, marital status, education, occupation, income, and size of household.

profane

the everyday, secular or "worldly" aspects of life advocates of evolutionism assert that their beliefs are based on provable scientific facts.

primary sector production

the extraction of raw materials and natural resources from the environment. These materials and resources are typically consumed or used without much processing. The production units in hunting and gathering societies are small; most goods are produced by family members.

megalopolis

the next ten years, Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo are expected to have a combined population of about 40 million people living in a 350-mile-long megalopolis

secondary sector production

the processing of raw materials (from the primary sector) into finished goods. For example, steel workers process metal ore; auto workers then convert the ore into automobiles, trucks, and buses. In industrial economies, work becomes specialized and repetitive, activities become bureaucratically organized, and workers primarily work with machines instead of with one another. With the emergence of mass production, larger surpluses are generated, typically benefiting some people and organizations but not others.

clinical gaze, postmodernist

which they use to gather information. Doctors develop the clinical gaze through their observation of patients; as the doctors begin to diagnose and treat medical conditions, they also start to speak "wisely" about everything. As a result, other people start to believe that doctors can "penetrate illusion and see... the hidden truth"

industrial economy

work becomes specialized and repetitive, activities become bureaucratically organized, and workers primarily work with machines instead of with one another. With the emergence of mass production, larger surpluses are generated, typically benefiting some people and organizations but not others. 2nd sector

white collar

workers were office workers and professionals.

blue collar

workers were primarily factory and craft workers who did manual labor;

elite models

-power in political systems is concentrated in the hands of a small group of elites, and the masses are relatively powerless. -are based on the assumption that decisions are made by the elites, who agree on the basic values and goals of society. However, the needs and concerns of the masses are not often given full consideration by those in the elite. According to this approach, power is highly concentrated at the top of a pyramid-shaped social -all our attention to a central concern in contemporary U.S. society: the ability of democracy and its ideals to survive in the context of the increasingly concentrated power held by capitalist oligarchies such as the media giants we discuss in this chapter.

crowd behavior

. Contagion theory asserts that a crowd takes on a life of its own as people are transformed from rational beings into part of an organism that acts on its own. A variation on this is social unrest and circular reaction—people express their discontent to others, who communicate back similar feelings, resulting in a conscious effort to engage in the crowd's behavior . Convergence theory asserts that people with similar attributes find other like-minded persons with whom they can release underlying personal tendencies. Emergent norm theory asserts that as a crowd develops, it comes up with its own norms that replace more conventional norms of behavior.

islam

1 billion, muhamad 600 CE,Muhammad received the Qur' an (scriptures) from God. On Judgment Day, believers who have submitted to God's will, as revealed in the Qur' an, will go to an eternal Garden of Eden.

types of social movements

A social movement is an organized group that acts consciously to promote or resist change through collective action. Reform, revolutionary, religious, and alternative movements are the major types identified by sociologists. Reform movements seek to improve society by changing some specific aspect of the social structure. Revolutionary movements seek to bring about a total change in society—sometimes by the use of terrorism. Religious movements seek to produce radical change in individuals based on spiritual or supernatural belief systems. Alternative movements seek limited change of some aspect of people's behavior. Resistance movements seek to prevent change or to undo change that has already occurred

sacred

According to Emile Durkheim, sacred refers to those aspects of life that are extraordinary or supernatural —in other words, those things that are set apart as "holy." People feel a sense of awe, reverence, deep respect, or fear for that which is considered sacred . invisible gods, spirits, specific animals or trees, altars, crosses, holy books, and special words or songs that only the initiated could speak or sing

religion

According to the sociologist Meredith B. McGuire, religion as a social institution is a powerful, deeply felt, and influential force in human society. Sociologists study the social institution of religion because of the importance religion holds for many people; they also want to know more about the influence of religion on society, and vice versa

sick role, functionalist

Talcott Parsons, the set of patterned expectations that defines the norms and values appropriate for individuals who are sick and for those who interact with them. 1. People who are sick are not responsible for their condition. It is assumed that being sick is not a deliberate and knowing choice of the sick person. 2. People who assume the sick role are temporarily exempt from their normal roles and obligations. For example, people with illnesses are typically not expected to go to school or work. 3. People who are sick must want to get well. The sick role is considered to be a temporary one that people must relinquish as soon as their condition improves sufficiently. 4.Those who do not return to their regular activities in a timely fashion may be labeled as hypochondriacs or malingerers. People who are sick must seek competent help from a medical professional to hasten their recovery.

Resource Mobilization Theory

The ways in which a social movement utilizes such resources as money, political influence, access to the media, and personnel.

malthusian theory of population growth

eo-Malthusians (or "new Malthusians") have reemphasized the dangers of over-population. To neo-Malthusians, Earth is "a dying planet" with too many people and too little food, compounded by environmental degradation. Over-population and rapid population growth result in global environmental problems, ranging from global warming and rain-forest destruction to famine and vulnerability to epidemics (Ehrlich, Ehrlich, and Daily, 1995). Unless significant changes are made, including improving the status of women, reducing racism and religious prejudice, reforming the agriculture system, and shrinking the growing gap between rich and poor, the consequences will be dire

special interest groups

groups and political action campaigns, and forming new groups.

governmental bureaucracy

growth of state because societies are so large and complex emerged governmental bureaucracies staffed by scribes

inequalities in health and health care, conflict perspective

he issues of concern to conflict theorists are the ability of all people to obtain health care; how race, class, and gender inequalities affect health and health care; power relationships between doctors and other health care workers; the dominance of the medical model of health care; and the role of profit in the health care system.

tertiary sector production

he provision of services rather than goods— as a primary source of livelihood for workers and profit for owners and corporate shareholders. Tertiary sector production includes a wide range of activities, such as fast-food service, transportation, communication, education, real estate, advertising, sports, and entertainment.

alternative medicine

healing practices inconsistent with dominant medical practice—take a holistic approach, and today many people are turning to alternative medicine either in addition to or in lieu of traditional medicine.

lifestyle factors

health: drugs, sexually transmitted diseases, and diet and exercise.

Latent Functions

hidden, unstated and sometimes unintended consequences of activities within an organization in education: matchmaking and production of social networks, restricting some activities, creating a generation gap.

credentialism

important in this nation, a process of social selection in which class advantage and social status are linked to the possession of academic qualifications is closely related to meritocracy —previously defined as a social system in which status is assumed to be acquired through individual ability and effort (Young, 1994/1958). Persons who acquire the appropriate credentials for a job are assumed to have gained the position through what they know, not who they are or whom they know. According to conflict theorists, the hidden curriculum determines in advance that the most valued credentials will primarily stay in the hands of the middle and upper classes, so the United States is not actually as meritocratic as some might claim.

church

is a large, bureaucratically organized religious organization that tends to seek accommodation with the larger society in order to maintain some degree of control over it. Church membership is largely based on birth; children of church members are typically baptized as infants and become lifelong members of the church. Older children and adults may choose to join the church, but they are required to go through an extensive training program that culminates in a ceremony similar to the one that infants go through. Leadership is hierarchically arranged, and clergy generally have many years of formal education. Churches have very restrained services that appeal to the intellect rather than the emotions. Religious services are highly ritualized; they are led by clergy who wear robes, enter and exit in a formal processional, administer sacraments, and read services from a prayer book or other standardized liturgical format.

authoritarian

is a political system controlled by rulers who deny popular participation in government. A few authoritarian regimes have been absolute monarchies whose rulers claimed a hereditary right to their position. Cuba

Sect

is a relatively small religious group that has broken away from another religious organization to renew what it views as the original version of the faith. Unlike churches, sects offer members a more personal religion and an intimate relationship with a supreme being, depicted as taking an active interest in the individual's everyday life. Whereas churches use formalized prayers, often from a prayer book, sects have informal prayers composed at the time they are given. Typically, religious sects appeal to those who might be characterized as lower class, whereas denominations primarily appeal to the middle and upper-middle classes, and churches focus on the upper classes.

cults

is a religious group with practices and teachings outside the dominant cultural and religious traditions of society

ecclesia

is a religious organization that is so integrated into the dominant culture that it claims as its membership all members of a society. Membership in the ecclesia occurs as a result of being born into the society rather than by any conscious decision on the part of individual members. The linkages between the social institutions of religion and government are often very strong in such societies. Although no true ecclesia exists in the contemporary world, the Anglican church (the church of England), the Lutheran church in Sweden and Denmark, the Catholic church in Spain, and Islam in Iran and Pakistan come fairly close.

holistic care

is an approach to health care that focuses on prevention of illness and disease and is aimed at treating the whole person—body and mind—rather than just the part or parts in which symptoms occur.

capitalism

is an economic system characterized by private ownership of the means of production, from which personal profits can be derived through market competition and without government intervention. Most of us think of ourselves as "owners" of private property because we own a car, a television, or other possessions.

socialism

is an economic system characterized by public ownership of the means of production, the pursuit of collective goals, and centralized decision making. Like "pure" capitalism, "pure" socialism does not exist.

political party

is an organization whose purpose is to gain and hold legitimate control of government; it is usually composed of people with similar attitudes, interests, and socioeconomic status. A political party (1) develops and articulates policy positions, (2) educates voters about issues and simplifies the choices for them, and (3) recruits candidates who agree with those policies, helps those candidates win office, and holds the candidates responsible for implementing the party's policy positions. In carrying out these functions, a party may try to modify the demands of special interests, build a consensus that could win majority support, and provide simple and identifiable choices for the voters on election day. create a platform, a formal statement of the party's political positions on various social and economic issues.

underground economy

is made up of a wide variety of activities through which people make money that they do not report to the government, and in some cases, their endeavors may involve criminal behavior (Venkatesh, 2006). Sometimes referred to as the "shadow economy," the underground economy is made up of workers who are paid "off the books," which means that they are paid in cash, their earnings are not reported, and no taxes are paid. Lawful jobs, such as nannies, construction workers, and landscape/yard workers, are often part of the shadow economy because workers and bosses make under-the-table deals so that both can gain through the transaction: Employers pay less for workers' services, and workers have more money to take home than if they paid taxes on their earnings. off the books

contingent work

is part-time work, temporary work, or subcontracted work that offers advantages to employers but that can be detrimental to the welfare of workers is found in every segment of the workforce, including colleges and universities, where tenure-track positions are more scarce than in the past and a series of one-year, nontenure-track appointments at the lecturer or instructor level has become a means of livelihood for many professionals.

collective behavior

is short-lived and relatively unorganized, social movements are longer lasting, are more organized, and have specific goals

fertility rates

is the actual level of childbearing for an individual or a population. The level of fertility in a society is based on biological and social factors, the primary biological factor being the number of women of childbearing age (usually between ages 15 and 45) In low-income countries or other settings in which children are identified as an economic resource for their parents throughout life, fertility rates are higher than in higher-income countries. However, as modernization and urbanization occur in such societies, the positive economic effects of having more children may be offset by the cost of caring for those children and the lowered economic advantage gained from having children in an industrialized nation.

pluralist model

model is rooted in a functionalist perspective which assumes that people share a consensus on central concerns, such as freedom and protection from harm, and that the government serves important functions no other institution can fulfill. According to Emile Durkheim (1933/1893), the purpose of government is to socialize people to be good citizens, to regulate the economy so that it operates effectively, and to provide necessary services for citizens. Contemporary functionalists state the four main functions as follows: (1) maintaining law and order, (2) planning and directing society, (3) meeting social needs, and (4) handling international relations, including warfare power in political systems is widely dispersed throughout many competing interest groups the diverse needs of women and men, people of all religions and racial-ethnic backgrounds, and the wealthy, middle class, and poor are met by political leaders who engage in a process of bargaining, accommodation, and compromise. Competition among leadership groups in government, business, labor, education, law, medicine, and consumer organizations, among others, helps prevent abuse of power by any one group. Everyday

social construction of illness, symbolic interactionist

of illness and how health and illness cannot be strictly determined by medical criteria. Symbolic interactionists also make us aware of the importance of communication between physicians and patients, including factors that may reduce effective medical treatment for some individuals. However, these approaches have been criticized for suggesting that few objective medical criteria exist for many illnesses and for overemphasizing microlevel issues without giving adequate recognition to macrolevel issues such as the effects on health care of managed care, health maintenance organizations, and for-profit hospital chains.

Manifest Functions

open, stated and intended goals or consequences of activities within an organization or institution in education; socialization, transmission of culture, social placement, change and innovation.

Tracking

refers to the practice of assigning students to specific curriculum groups and courses on the basis of their test scores, previous grades, or other criteria. Conflict theorists believe that tracking seriously affects many students' educational performance and their overall academic accomplishments.