Sociology Chapter 9: Gender and Sexuality

What is the conflict theory of gender inequality?

Conflict theorists believe: Gender inequality is a result of exploitation. Capitalists benefit from maintaining patriarchal families, because women serve as a critical source of unpaid labor. Engels maintained that if private property were abolished, gender inequality would no longer exist because there would be no need for an unpaid labor force to maintain the capitalist system.

What is a patriarchy? How does it feed into sexism?

Patriarchy: a male-dominated society; has existed in most, if not all, past and present societies. From a patriarchal point of view, gender inequality can be traced back to biological differences in earlier societies. However, this does not explain the persistence of gender inequality in contemporary societies.

Socialization: How do peers feed into sex, gender, and sexuality?

Peers reinforce gender stereotypes through peer pressure. By age three, children develop a preference for same-sex playmates; this tendency increases markedly throughout childhood. Boys tend to gain prestige through athletic ability, humor, or taking risks and defying norms. Girls tend to gain prestige through social position and physical attractiveness.

What was Alfred Kinsey's take on sexuality? What is the queer theory?

Alfred Kinsey argued that people are not exclusively heterosexual or homosexual, but rather fall along a wide spectrum between the two extremes. Queer theory: rejects the idea of a single gay, lesbian, bisexual, heterosexual, or transgender identity, emphasizing instead the importance of difference.

What is "men's liberation?"

A movement that originated in the 1970s to discuss the challenges of masculinity; the need to free men from oppressive gender roles.

What are the Essentialists' and Constructionists' believes concerning gender?

Essentialists: Gender as immutable and biological; therefore, gender identity is an unambiguous, two-category system. Gender binary: a system of classification with only two distinct and opposite gender categories. Constructionists: Gender is socially constructed; therefore, meanings of masculinity and femininity may differ drastically in different societies and historical periods. Most mainstream sociologists take a constructionist approach. This approach also posits more categories than just female and male.

Socialization: How do families feed into sex, gender, and sexuality?

Families are the primary source of socialization, and begins gender role socialization even before birth. Social learning takes place, (the process of learning behaviors and meanings through interaction.) Gender pervades every aspect of family life, from chores or privileges to rules and lessons.

What is feminism?

Feminism: the belief in the social, political, and economic equality of the sexes and social movements organized around that belief.

What is the feminist theory of gender inequality?

Feminist theory is related to both conflict theory and symbolic interactionist theory. This theory contributes to "writing women back in" to scholarship in history, literature, art, and the social and natural sciences, areas in which the efforts of women traditionally been minimized or overlooked entirely.

First Wave Feminism

First wave: earliest period of feminist activism, from mid-nineteenth century until American women won the right to vote in 1920. Convention held in Seneca Falls, New York, in 1848 Declaration of Sentiments Suffrage movement: the movement organized around gaining voting rights for women. Key players: Lucretia Mott, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and Susan B. Anthony.

What is the structural functionalist theory of gender equality?

Functionalists believe: Certain social roles are better suited to one gender than to the other. Societies are more stable when norms are filled by what is traditionally considered the appropriate gender. Expressive roles (emotionally supportive and nurturing) are better suited to women, and instrumental roles (task oriented, breadwinning, and authoritative) are better suited to men.

What is gender identity? (Provide examples.) What is gender expression? (Provide examples.)

Gender identity: our deeply held sense of ourselves as male, female, or some other gender. Examples: Cisgender: when gender identity conforms to sex assigned at birth. Transgender: when gender identity is different from sex assigned at birth. Gender expression: our external manifestations of gender. Examples: "Masculine" or "feminine" clothing; Grooming; Behavior; Body Language; Gestures; Names

What does the phrase gender-nonconforming mean? What are three other terms that hold similar meaning/are encapsulated by the description of gender-nonconforming?

Gender nonconforming: when gender identity and/or expression differs from societal expectations about gender roles. Three Terms: Nonbinary; Genderqueer; Genderfluid

What is intersectionality in terms of gender, sex, sexuality, etc. and what role does it play?

Gender rarely shapes individual experience in isolation but is instead linked to other social statuses in the effects it has on our lives. Miliann Kang's study of the work of Asian immigrant women demonstrates how race and gender, along with other social statuses like class and sexual orientation, intersect at the nail salon (and in other settings as well).

What is gender role socialization? What is heteronormativity?

Gender role socialization: the subtle, pervasive process of learning what constitutes masculinity or femininity. Heteronormativity: the assumption that heterosexuality is the only acceptable orientation.

What is gender? How does the nature vs. nurture debate relate to gender?

Gender: the physical, behavioral, and personality traits that a group considers normal, natural, right, and good for its female and male members. Nature and nurture are interrelated rather than oppositional. Behavior influences biology, just as biology influences behavior.

What is hegemonic masculinity? What is toxic masculinity?

Hegemonic masculinity promotes a particular kind of masculine ideal that is held out as superior to any other kind of masculinity, as well as femininity. Toxic masculinity has gained currency as critics have highlighted the dysfunctional aspects of hegemonic masculinity and the risks associated with trying to achieve its masculine ideal. One of the most extreme and troubling expressions is the incel movement.

Define the following terms: heterosexuality, homosexuality, bisexuality, and asexuality.

Heterosexuality: sexual attraction toward members of the other gender. Normative and dominant category; privilege attached to membership in this category. Homosexuality: sexual attraction toward members of one's own gender. Minority category; 4 percent of adults. Bisexuality: sexual attraction toward members of both genders. Minority category; 3 percent of men and 4 percent of women. Asexuality: the lack of sexual attraction of any kind; no interest in or desire for sex. Very small minority group; 1 percent of adults.

What is homophobia? What is transphobia?

Homophobia: fear of, or discrimination toward, gay, lesbian, and bisexual people. Transphobia: fear of, or discrimination toward, transgender or other gender-nonconforming people.

What is the symbolic interactionist theory of gender equality?

Interactionists believe: Gender is socially constructed and maintained in our everyday lives. Because we need to categorize everything in order to make sense of the world, we cannot interact with others without first determining their gender. Gender identity is a performance that provides social cues. Transgender individuals' sense of self and gender identity differ from their physical sex.

What does the term intersex mean?

Intersex: a person whose chromosomes or sex characteristics are neither exclusively male nor exclusively female.

Provide examples of LGBTQ+ movements.

LGBTQ rights groups focus on campaigning for civil rights for gays, lesbians, bisexuals, and trans individuals. The 1968 Stonewall riots were a watershed moment for the movement. For the last several decades, the fight for marriage equality was one of the most visible and controversial issues for the movement. Same-sex marriage: federally recognized marriage between members of the same sex. In 2015, same-sex marriage became legal throughout the United States. Awareness of the discrimination and harassment sexual minorities and gender-nonconforming persons is increasing.

What is the correlation between gender, sexuality, and life chances and work and income?

Many jobs are gendered, with female-dominated jobs paying far less on average than male-dominated jobs. In 2017, women earned 81 cents for each dollar earned by men. The gender pay gap is largest for women of color. Feminization of poverty: the economic trend showing that women are more likely than men to live in poverty; results from a combination of social forces: The gendered gap in wages The higher proportion of single mothers taking on financial responsibility for children than single fathers The increasing costs of child care In states that do not have laws prohibiting it, employers can still discriminate against LGBTQ persons in hiring and pay.

What is the correlation between gender, sexuality, and life chances and family?

Men are more likely than women to never have been married and slightly more likely to report being married. Divorce seems to be far more difficult for women with children than for men. Even though women increasingly work outside the home, they are still often expected to be a family's primary caregiver. Until June 2015, LGBTQ individuals couldn't marry at all.

What is the "men's rights movement?" What is the "pro-feminist men's movement?"

Men's rights movement: argues that because of feminism, men are actually discriminated against and even oppressed in both the legal arena and in everyday life. Members of this movement suggest that feminism has created a new kind of sexism by privileging women, or by attempting to erase differences altogether. Pro-feminist men's movement: argues that men's lives, like women's, are constrained by sexism and patriarchy, and that men should support feminism, because it will help end oppression for all people.

What are microaggressions? Explain gendered language.

Microaggression: everyday uses of subtle verbal and nonverbal communications that convey denigrating or dismissive messages to members of certain social groups. English language has often assumed that the default category for all human experiences is male and heterosexual. Individuals who are not heterosexual males often experience microaggressions.

Why are said terms problematic? What new terms have been proposed?

Reasons why these terms are problematic: They are prejudices and not true "phobias," such as agoraphobia, which is a psychological phenomena. They suggest the problems faced by LGBTQ are the result of maladjusted individuals, and not deeply institutionalized cultural values and norms. Some have proposed new terms: Heterosexism: fear of or discrimination toward transgender or other gender-nonconforming people. Cisgenderism: belief in the superiority of cisgender persons and identities.

Socialization: How do schools feed into sex, gender, and sexuality?

Schools continue gender role socialization through segregation into same-sex groups and gender-stereotyped tasks. Teachers typically interact with male students in more favorable ways. Textbooks still contain sexist language and gender stereotypes. At school, women tend to be concentrated at lower levels, as teachers and aides; men tend to occupy upper-management and administrative positions. Heteronormativity pervades school life, teaching LGBTQ students that they will only be accepted if they hide their true identities.

Second Wave Feminism

Second wave: period of feminist activism from 1960s to 1970s; associated with issues of women's equal access to education and employment. Other issues included equal-opportunity laws, reproductive rights, and legislation against sexual harassment and marital rape. Betty Friedan's The Feminine Mystique was instrumental in addressing the sense of limitation and dissatisfaction that many women felt with their lives.

What is sex? What are the primary and secondary characteristics that define sex?

Sex: an individual's membership in one of two biological categories, male or female. Primary sex characteristics: biological factors, such as chromosomes, hormones, and reproductive organs, that distinguish males from females. Secondary sex characteristics: physical differences between males and females, including facial and body hair, musculature, and bone structure, that are unrelated to reproduction.

What is sexism? What is misogyny?

Sexism: the belief (usually on the part of males) that one's sex is superior to the other. Misogyny: an ingrained prejudice against women; dislike, hatred, or contempt of women.

What is sexual orientation or identity?

Sexual orientation or identity: the inclination to feel sexual desire toward and engage in sexual behaviors with people of a particular sex or gender.

What is sexuality?

Sexuality: the character or quality of being sexual.

Socialization: How does the media feed into sex, gender, and sexuality?

The media reinforces gender stereotypes through television, movies, books, video games, music, music videos, magazines, and so on. Girls are pressured to conform to images and standards of beauty that they see in the media. Boys absorb portrayals of masculinity as assertive, strong, and analytic. Television has seen increasingly positive representations of LGBTQ people, but they have not achieved equal status with hetero, cisgender people.

What is the correlation between gender, sexuality, and life chances and criminal justice?

The social construction of masculinity as aggressive, dominant, and physical translates directly into statistics regarding gender and crime. Men are likelier to commit crimes as well as be victims of violent crimes such as homicide and assault. Women are far likelier than men to be victimized by their intimate partners. LGBTQ people are the most likely targets of hate crimes in the United States. In prison, LGBTQ inmates are vulnerable to sexual victimization at up to thirteen times the level of risk for the average inmate.

Third Wave Feminism

Third wave: period of feminist activism starting in the 1980s and 1990s; focusing on intersectionality and campaigning for the inclusion of all women (including nonwhite, working class, and LGBTQ women) in the feminist movement.

What is the correlation between gender, sexuality, and life chances and education?

Women are more likely than men to finish high school and earn higher levels of educational attainment (bachelor's, master's, and doctorate). Men earn more money per degree granted. LGBTQ youth are up to four times more likely to attempt suicide, and nine of 10 experience harassment in school.

What is the correlation between gender, sexuality, and life chances and health?

Women have longer life expectancies than men. The male-female life expectancy gap may be closing; more women engage in stress-related behaviors, such as working outside the home, smoking, and drinking alcohol. Early research suggests being gay might have implications for health as well. Psychosocial stressors of living in communities with antigay prejudice is associated with a life expectancy difference of roughly twelve years and cardiovascular risk. Sexual minorities are more likely to smoke, drink, use illicit drugs, and suffer from higher rates of mental illness. LGBTQ adults are less likely to have health insurance and a personal doctor.