Sociology Exam 1

Characteristics of Culture

1. All people share a culture with others in their society. 2. Culture evolves over time and is adaptive. 3. The creation of culture is ongoing and cumulative. 4. The transmission of culture is the feature that most separates humans from other animals.

Microculture

a culture that develops at the micro level in groups or organizations and affects only a segment of one's life or influences a limited period of one's life

How Sociologists Study the Social World

A. Planning a research study 1. Define a topic or problem 2. Review existing relevant research studies and define variables 3. Formulate hypotheses or research questions and determine how to define and measure variables B. Designing the research plan and method for collecting the data 4. Design the research plan 5. Select a sample 6. Collect the data using appropriate research methods C. Making sense of the data 7. Analyze data and relate it to previous findings on the topic 8. Draw conclusions and present the report, including suggestions for future research and policy recommendations if appropriate

Sociological Findings and Commonsense Beliefs

Belief: Most of the differences in the behaviors of women and men are based on "human nature"; men and women are plainly very different from each other. Belief: Racial groupings are based on biological differences among people; racial categorizations are socially constructed and vary among societies and over time within societies. Belief: Most marriages in the United States do not last - As these illustrate, the discipline of sociology provides a method to assess the accuracy of our common-sense assumptions about the social world.

Ideal culture

consists of practices, beliefs, and values regarded as most desirable in society and consciously taught to children

Laws

norms formally encoded by those holding political power in a society

Mores

norms that most members observe because they have great moral significance in a society; conforming is a matter of right and wrong

Cause-and-effect relationships

occur when there is a relationship between variables so that one variable stimulates a change in another; has an independent and dependent variable

Spurious relationships

occur when there is no causal relationship between the independent and dependent variables, but they vary together, often due to a third variable affecting both of them

George Herbert Mead (1863-1931)

one of the founders of the Symbolic Interaction perspective who explored the mental processes associated with how humans define or make sense of situations; placed special emphasis on human interpretations of gestures and symbols (including language) and the meanings we attach to our actions

Social institutions

organized, patterned, and enduring sets of social structures that provide guidelines for behavior and help each society meet its basic survival needs

Self

our notion of who we are; emerges from social experience and interaction with others

Linguistic Relativity Theory

posits that the people who speak a specific language make interpretations of their reality - they notice certain things and may fail to notice certain things

Sanctions

reinforce norms through rewards and penalties

Ideas Underlying Sociology

1. People are social by nature . 2. People live much of their lives belonging to social groups. 3. Interaction between the individual and the group is a two-way process in which each influences the other 4. Recurrent social patterns, ordered behavior, shared expectations, and common understandings among people characterize groups. 5. The processes of conflict and change are natural and inevitable features of groups and societies.

Comte's conceptualization of society

1. Social statics, aspects of society that give rise to order, stability, and harmony 2. Social dynamics, forces that promote change and evolution (even revolution) in society - Concerned with structure (social statics) and process (social dynamics)

When you view our social world with a sociological perspective, you:

1. become more self-aware by understanding your social surroundings, which can lead to opportunities to improve your life; 2. have a more complete understanding of social situations by looking beyond individual explanations to include group analyses of behavior; 3. understand and evaluate problems more clearly, viewing the world systematically and objectively rather than only in emotional or personal terms; 4. gain an understanding of the many diverse cultural perspectives and how cultural differences are related to behavioral patterns; 5. assess the impact of social policies; 6. understand the complexities of social life and how to study them scientifically; 7. gain useful skills in interpersonal relations, critical thinking, data collection and analysis, problem solving, and decision making; and 8. learn how to change your local environment and the larger society.

Theoretical perspective

a basic view of society that guides sociologists' research questions, methods, and analysis

Rise of Sociology

Several conditions from the 1600s to the 1800s gave rise to sociology: 1. European nations were imperial powers extending their influence and control by establishing colonies in other cultures. This exposure to other cultures encouraged some Europeans to learn more about the people in and around their new colonies. 2. They sought to understand the rapid changes in their own societies brought about by the Industrial Revolution (which began around the middle of the 1700s) and the French Revolution (1789-1799). 3. Advances in the natural sciences demonstrated the value of the scientific method, and some wished to apply this scientific method to social sciences and understand the social world. - In the early and mid-1800s, no one had clear, systematic explanations for why the old social structure, which had endured since the early Middle Ages, was collapsing or why cities were exploding with migrants from rural areas. French society was in turmoil, members of the nobility were being executed and new rules of justice were taking hold. Churches were made subordinate to the state, equal rights under the law were established for citizens, and democratic rule emerged. - These dramatic changes marked the end of the traditional monarchy and the beginning of a new social order.

Why does sociology matter?

Sociology is important because it helps us understand relationships with other people and inform social policy decisions.

Why study sociology?

The sociological perspective helps us to be more effective as we carry out our roles as life partners, workers, friends, family members, and citizens. A sociological perspective allows us to look beneath the surface of society and notice social patterns that others tend to overlook.

Karl Marx (1818-1883)

a German social philosopher from whom conflict theory derives; recognized the plight of workers toiling in English factories during the height of 19th-century industrial expansion amidst the rise of capitalism and viewed the ruling elites and the wealthy industrial owners as exploiters of the working class; wrote about the new working class crowded in urban slums, working long hours under appalling conditions, without earning enough money for decent housing and food; believed that the two classes, the capitalists (also referred to as the bourgeoisie), who owned the means of production (property, machinery, and other means of creating saleable goods or services), and the workers (also referred to as the proletariat), would continue to live in conflict until the workers shared more equally in the profits of their labor; believed workers would eventually rise up and overthrow capitalism, forming a new, classless society, making collective ownership - or shared ownership of the means of production - the new economic order

Macro-level analysis

a focus on entire nations, global forces, and international social trends; essential to our understanding of how larger societal forces and global events shape our everyday lives

Micro-level analysis

a focus on individual or small-group interaction in specific situations; one-to-one and small-group interaction form the basic foundation of all social groups and organizations to which we belong, from families to corporations to societies

Meso-level analysis

a focus on intermediate-sized units smaller than the nation but larger than the local community or even the region; includes national institutions (such as the economy of a country, the national educational system, or the political system within a country), nationwide organizations (such as a political party, a soccer league, or a national women's rights organization), and ethnic groups that have an identity as a group; smaller than the nation or global social units, but still beyond the everyday personal experience and control of individuals

Sample

a group of systematically chosen people who represent a much larger group to study

Counterculture

a group with expectations and values that contrast sharply with the dominant values of a particular society

Social World Model

aids in picturing the levels of analysis in our social surroundings as an interconnected series of small groups, organizations, institutions, and societies; includes both social structures and social processes

Material culture

all the human-made objects we can see or touch - all of the artifacts of a group of people

Capitalism

an economic system in which individuals and corporations, rather than the state, own and control the means of production

Society

an organized and interdependent group of individuals who live together in a specific geographic area, who interact more with each other than they do with outsiders, who cooperate for the attainment of common goals, and who share a common culture over time

Lewis Coser

argued that conflict can strengthen societies and the organizations within them; argued that problems in a society or group lead to complaints or conflicts - a warning message to the group that all is not well; resolution of the conflicts shows that the group is adaptable in meeting the needs of its members, thereby creating greater loyalty to the group; concluded that conflict provides the message of what is not working to meet people's needs, and the system adapts to the needs for change because of the conflict

Rational Choice (Exchange) Theory

argues that humans are fundamentally concerned with self-interests, making rational decisions based on weighing costs and rewards of the projected outcome of an action - Exchange Theory has roots in economics, behavioral psychology, anthropology, and philosophy - Social behavior is seen as an exchange activity - a transaction in which resources are given and received. - Every interaction involves an exchange of something valued: money, time, material goods, attention, sex, allegiance, etc. - People stay in relationships because they get something from the exchange, and they leave relationships that have more costs than benefits for them; they constantly evaluate whether there is reciprocity or balance in a relationship so that they are receiving as much as they give In summary: - Human beings are mostly self-centered, and self-interest drives their behavior. - Humans calculate costs and benefits (rewards) in making decisions. - Humans are rational in that they weigh choices in order to maximize their own benefits and minimize costs. Every interaction involves exchanges entailing rewards and penalties or expenditures. A key element in exchanges is reciprocity - a balance in the exchange of benefits. - People keep a mental ledger in their heads about whether they owe someone else or that person owes them. Criticisms: - Gives little attention to micro-level internal mental processes, such as self-reflection - Charitable, unselfish, or altruistic behavior is not easily explained by this view

Conflict groups

arise from within interest groups to fight for change

Structural-Functional Theory

assumes that all parts of the social structure (including groups, organizations, and institutions), the culture (values and beliefs), and social processes (e.g., legislators working to create a law, an instructor teaching a child, or social change) work together to make the whole society run smoothly and harmoniously - People grow up sharing the same values, beliefs, and rules of behavior of those around them - Gradually, individuals internalize these shared beliefs and rules - A person's behavior is, in a sense, governed from within because it feels right and proper to behave in accordance with what is expected - Places emphasis on social consensus, which gives rise to stable and predictable patterns of order in society - Because people need groups for survival, they adhere to the group's rules so that they do not stand apart from it - Most societies run in an orderly manner, with most individuals fitting into their positions in society In summary, the Structural-Functional perspective: - examines the macro-level organizations and patterns in a society, looks at what holds societies together and enhances social continuity, - considers the consequences, or functions, of each major part in society, - focuses on the way the structure (groups, organizations, and institutions), the culture, and social processes work together to make society function smoothly, and - notes manifest functions (which are planned), latent functions (which are unplanned or secondary), and dysfunctions (which undermine stability). Criticisms: - Some ideas are so abstract that they are difficult to test with data - Functionalism does not explain social changes in society, such as conflict and revolution - Makes the assumption that if a system is running smoothly, it must be working well because it is free from conflict - Assumes that conflict is harmful, even though stability is not always good

Variables

concepts (ideas) that can very in frequency of occurrence from one time, place, or person to another

Political science

concerned with government systems and power - how they work, how they are organized, the forms of government, relations among governments, who holds power and how they obtain it, how power is used, and who is politically active; overlaps with sociology, particularly in the study of political theory and the nature and uses of power

Nonverbal language

consists of gestures, facial expressions, and body postures

Conflict Theory

contends that conflict is inevitable in any group or society and that inequality and injustice are the source of the conflicts that permeate society - Resources and power are distributed unequally in society, and the rich protect their positions by using the power they have accumulated to keep others in their places - Most of us want more of the resources in society, causing the possibility of conflict between the haves and the have-nots - These conflicts sometimes bring about a change in a society In summary: - Conflict and the potential for conflict underlie all social relations. - Groups of people look out for their self-interest and try to obtain resources and make sure they are distributed primarily to members of their own group. - Social change is desirable, particularly changes that bring about a greater degree of social equality. - The existing social order reflects powerful people imposing their values and beliefs upon the weak. Criticisms: - Many conflict theorists focus on macro-level analysis and lose sight of the individuals involved in conflict situations - Empirical research to test Conflict Theory is limited - The conflict perspective paints a picture with rather broad brushstrokes - Conflict theorists tend to focus on social stress, dynamics, and disharmony; Conflict Theory is not very effective in explaining social cohesion and cooperation - Altruism and cooperation are common human behaviors but not recognized by Conflict Theory

W. E. B. Du Bois (1868-1963)

contributed to Conflict Theory; believed that although research should be scientifically rigorous and fair-minded, the ultimate goal of sociological work was social improvement - not just human insight; helped establish the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), stressing the need for minority groups to become advocates for their rights - to object loudly when those in power act to disadvantage minorities - and to make society more just

Ralf Dahrendorf (1929-2009)

contributed to Conflict theory; argued that society is always in the process of change and affected by forces that bring about change; refined Marx's ideas by pointing out that capitalism had survived despite Marx's prediction of a labor revolt because of improved conditions for workers; maintained that, instead of divisions based on ownership, conflict had become based on authority; noted that those with lower-status positions could form interest groups and engage in conflict with those in higher positions of authority; argued that there is always potential for conflict when those without power realize their common position and form interest groups; major contribution to Conflict Theory is in the recognition that conflict over resources results in a conflict among a multitude of interest groups

Harriet Martineau (1802-1876)

contributed to feminist and conflict theories; argued that social laws influence social behavior and that societies can be measured on their social progress (including how much freedom they give to individuals and how well they treat the most oppressed members of society)

Contributions to Multilevel Analysis - Max Weber (1864-1920)

contributions include both micro- and meso-level analyses; emphasis on 'verstehen' (meaning deep, empathetic understanding in humans) gives Weber a place in micro-level theory, and discussions of power and bureaucracies give him a place in meso- and macro- level theory 'Verstehen' stems from the interpretations or meanings of individuals at the micro level give to their social experiences; argued that to understand people's behavior, you must step into their perspective; following in Weber's footsteps, sociologists try to understand both human behavior and the meanings that people attach to their experiences; in this, Weber is a micro theorist who set the stage for symbolic interaction theorists The goal-oriented, efficient new organizational form called bureaucracy was the focus of much of Weber's writing at the meso level; this organizational form was based on rationality - the attempt to reach maximum efficiency with rules that are rationally designed to accomplish goals - rather than relying on long-standing tradition for how things should be done Weber also attempted to understand macro-level processes; asked how capitalists understood the world around them; argued that Marx's focus on economic conditions as the key factor shaping history and power relations was too narrow; felt that politics, economics, religion, psychology, and people's ideas are interdependent - affecting each other; thought society was more complex than Karl Marx's theory

Feminist Theory

critiques the hierarchical power structures that disadvantage women and other minorities - Proponents note that men form an interest group intent on preserving their privileges - Some branches of Feminist Theory come from interaction perspectives, emphasizing the way gender socialization, cues, and symbols shape the nature of much human interaction - Moves from the meso- and macro-level analysis to micro-level analysis - Points to the importance of gender as a variable influencing social patterns Criticisms: - Patricia Hill Collins examines the discrimination and oppression people face because of their race, class, gender, sexuality, or nationality, all of which are interconnected - Uses the term 'intersectionality,' meaning individuals have multiple identities

Folkways

customs or desirable behaviors that are not strictly enforced

Evidence

facts and observations that can be objectively observed and carefully measured using the five senses (sometimes enhanced by scientific instruments)

Empirical knowledge

founded on information gained from evidence (facts) rather than intuition

Objectivity

free from personal opinions or values so as to eliminate bias or the contamination of data collection and analysis

Interest groups

groups that share a common situation or common interests

Herding and Horticultural Societies

herding societies have food-producing strategies based on domestication of animals, whose care is the central focus of their activities horticultural societies are those in which the food-producing strategy is based on domestication of plants, using digging sticks and wooden hoes to cultivate small gardens both societies settle in one place, making their living by cultivating food, and have some control over its production; forms of social inequality start to become pronounced

Beliefs

ideas we hold about life, about the way society works, and about where we fit into the world; expressed as specific statements that we hold to be true; based on values

Role

include expected behaviors, rights, obligations, responsibilities, and privileges assigned to a social status

National society

includes a population of people, usually living within a specified geographic area, connected by common ideas and subject to a particular political authority; features a social structure with groups and institutions; has relatively permanent geographic and political boundaries in addition to one or more languages and a unique way of life; inhabitants share a common identity as members of the country or large region in most cases

Social units

interconnected parts of the social world, ranging from small groups to societies; perfect relationships or complete harmony among social units is unusual, as they are motivated by self-interest and the need for self-preservation

Macro-level groups

large social units, usually quite bureaucratic, that operate at a national or global level, such as national governments or international organizations; most members are unlikely to know or have communicated with the leaders personally or know someone who knows the leaders; at least five degrees of separation from one another

Industrial Societies

rely primarily on mechanized production, resulting in greater division of labor based on expertise

Agricultural Societies

rely primarily on raising crops for food but make use of technological advances, such as the plow, irrigation, animals, and fertilization, to continuously cultivate the same land; cultivation of the same land results in permanent settlements and greater food surpluses; social inequality becomes extensive enough to divide society into social classes; religion, political power, a standing army, and other meso-level institutions and organizations come to be independent of the family; thus, the meso-level becomes well established

Cultural relativism

requires setting aside cultural and personal beliefs and prejudices to understand another group or society through the eyes of its members and using its own community standards

Formal sanctions

rewards or punishments conferred by recognized officials

Norms

rules of behavior shared by members of a society and rooted in the value system

Symbolic Interaction Theory

sees humans as active agents who create shared meanings of symbols and events and then interact on the basis of those meanings; through these interactions, we learn to share common ideas, understand what to expect from others, and gain the capability to shape our society - As we interact, we make use of symbols, actions, or objects that represent something else and therefore have meaning beyond their own existence - such as flags, wedding rings, words, and nonverbal gestures - symbolic communication helps people construct a meaningful world - Humans continually create and recreate society through their construction and interpretation of the social world - Stresses human agency, or the active role of individuals in creating their social environment In summary: - People continually create and recreate society through interacting with one another. - People interact by communicating with one another through the use of shared symbols. - We learn who we are (our sense of self) and our place in society through interacting with others. Criticisms: - Neglects the macro-level structures of society that affect human behavior by focusing on interpersonal interactions

Micro-level groups

small, local-community social units, such as families and school classrooms, within which everyone knows everyone else or knows someone who also knows another member; degree of separation is usually not more than two degrees

Mechanical solidarity

social cohesion and integration based on the similarity of individuals in the group, including shared beliefs, values, and emotional ties between members of the group; the division of labor is based largely on male/ female distinctions and age groupings; everyone fulfills his or her expected social positions

Organic solidarity

social cohesion based on division of labor, with each member playing a highly specialized role in the society and each person being dependent on others due to interdependent, interrelated tasks; has cohesion regardless of whether people have common values and shared outlooks

Stigma

social disapproval that discredits a person's or group's claim to a "normal" identity

Levels of analysis

social groups from the smallest to the largest; micro, meso, and macro

Meso-level groups

social units of intermediate size, such as state governments (with limited geographic range), ethnic groups, and religious denominations (with large geographic range but population sizes that make them a minority of the entire nation); large enough that members have never heard the names of many other members; three or four degrees of separation

Hunter-Gatherer Societies

societies in which people rely on the vegetation and animals occurring naturally in their habitat to sustain life; life is organized around kinship ties and reciprocity - mutual assistance - for the well-being of the whole community; resources are shared among the people, but sharing is regulated by a complex system of mutual obligations

Post-Industrial or Information Societies

societies that have moved from human labor and manufacturing to automated production and service jobs, largely processing infomation; require workers with high levels of technical and professional education

Public sociologists

sociologists who use sociological tools to understand and inform citizens about how society operates and to improve society

Deductive research

starts with a theory that is then tested

Inductive research

starts with observations that then lead to hypothesis development and, potentially, theory formation

Theories

statements or explanations regarding how and why two or more facts are related to each other and the connections between these facts; allow social scientists to make predictions about the social world

Controls

steps used by researchers to eliminate all variables except those related to the hypothesis - especially those variables that might be spurious; helps ensure that the relationship is not spurious

Social processes

take place through actions of people in institutions and other social units, such as the process of socialization

Sociological imagination

the ability to understand the complex interactive relationship between individual experiences and public issues as discussed by C. Wright Mills; holds that we can best understand our personal experiences and problems by examining their broader social context, as many individual problems (or private troubles) are rooted in social or public issues.

Subculture

the culture of a meso-level group that distinguishes itself from the dominant culture of the larger society; large enough to support people throughout the life span

Language

the foundation of every culture, conveying verbal, written, and nonverbal messages among members of society

Emile Durkheim (1858-1917)

the founder of the functionalist perspective; theorized that society is made up of necessary parts that fit together into a working whole; believed that individuals conform to the rules of societies because of a collective conscience - the shared beliefs in the values of a group

Random sample

the most common form of representative sample; all people in the population being studied have an equal chance of being selected for the study

Manifest functions

the planned outcomes of interactions, social organizations, or institutions

Objectivity

the practice of considering observed behaviors independently of one's own beliefs and values

Research methods

the procedures one uses to gather data

Globalization

the process by which the entire world is becoming a single interdependent entity

Sociology

the scientific study of social life, social change, and social causes and consequences of human behavior; focuses on group patterns

Environment

the setting in which the social unit operates, including everything that influences the social unit, such as its physical and organizational surroundings and technological innovations

Social structure

the stable patterns of interactions, statuses (positions), roles (responsibilities), and organizations that provide stability for the society and bring order to individuals' lives

Taboos

the strongest form of mores; concern actions considered unthinkable or unspeakable in the culture

Anthropology

the study of humanity in its broadest context; closely related to sociology, especially cultural anthropology

Psychology

the study of individual behavior and mentall processes; differs from sociology in that it focuses on individuals rather than on groups, institutions, and societies

Ethnocentrism

the tendency to view one's own group and its cultural expectations as right, proper, and superior to others

Nonmaterial culture

the thoughts, language, feelings, beliefs, values, and attitudes that make up much of our culture; comprised of four main elements: (1) values, (2) beliefs, (3) norms or rules, and (4) language

Triangulation

the use of two or more methods of data collection to enhance the amount and type of data for analysis and the accuracy of the findings

Culture

the way of life shared by a group of people - the knowledge, beliefs, values, rules or laws, language, customs, symbols, and materia; products within a society that help meet human needs; provides guidelines for living

Real culture

the way things in society are actually done

Dysfunctions

those actions that undermine the stability or equilibrium of society

Economists

those who analyze economic conditions and explore how people organize, produce, and distribute material goods; interested in supply and demand, inflation and taxes, prices and manufacturing output, labor organization, employment levels, and comparisons between postindustrial, industrial, and nonindustrial nations

Henri Saint-Simon and Auguste Comte

two social thinkers who decried the lack of systematic data collection or objective analysis in social thought; argued that a science of society could help people understand and perhaps control the rapid changes and unsettling revolutions taking place - Comte coined the term 'sociology' in 1838; his basic premise was that religious or philosophical speculation about society did not provide an adequate understanding of how to solve society's problems; argued the need to gather scientific knowledge about the social world as well as the physical world; asked (1) what holds society together and gives rise to a stable order in lieu of anarchy, and (2) why and how do societies change?

Informal sanctions

unofficial rewards or punishments, such as smiles and frowns

Latent functions

unplanned or unintended consequences of actions or social structures