SOCIOLOGY EXAM 4

occupational gender segregation.

"Female" jobs pay less: this is called

standpoint theory

A perspective that says the knowledge we create is conditioned by where we stand or by our subjective social position in our daily lives. Janice is a sociologist who does research on women's lived experiences of inequality. She believes that her and other women's work is vital in sociology because in the past, the only perspective truly considered legitimate was that of White men. What theory is Janice likely using in her work?

sexuality

A term used to encompass sexual identity, attraction, and relationships. sexual identity, sexual attraction, and sexual relationships. A binary understanding of sexuality includes heterosexuality and homosexuality.

patriarchy

Any set of social relationships in which men dominate women.

indirect labor costs

Costs in time, training, or money incurred when an employee takes time off to care for sick family members, opts for parental leave, arrives at work late, or leaves a position after receiving employer-provided training ?? Hikaru is consistently fifteen minutes late to the office due to time spent getting their children ready for school.

labor supply factor

Factors that highlight reasons why women or men may prefer particular occupations. Cecilia works in a day care because she loves children.

labor demand factor

Factors that highlight the needs and preferences of the employer. The school board approves the hiring of a female teacher to teach kindergarten because they believe a female teacher will be better with children.

savings-led Microfinance

Participating groups of women save and pool their money, agree on guidelines for investing or lending in their communities, and organize their resources to serve local needs. The groups enhance not only the women's economic capital but also their social capital, building ties that support them in times of economic or other crises. Although Oxfam funds coaches who help the women get started, Saving for Change groups are not financed or managed from the outside; they are fully autonomous and run by the women themselves.

liberal feminist

The belief that women's inequality is primarily the result of imperfect institutions, which can be corrected by reforms that do not fundamentally alter society itself. Shawna is a feminist who believes women's inequality is mostly due to flaws in social institutions, so she works in politics to elect women political leaders and helps pass laws protecting women's rights. What type of feminist is Shawna?

glass escalator

The nearly invisible promotional boost that men gain in female-dominated occupations. Douglas went to school to become a nurse. Even though his female nurse counterparts have just as much experience, or sometimes even more, he is promoted quickly. What term best describes this phenomenon?

Transgender:

a diverse group of people whose gender identity, expression, or behavior differs from their assigned sex at birth or is outside the gender binary. Not everyone who is transgender describes their gender as binary male or female. Approximately 1.4 million people identify as transgender today. Approximately 12% of people ages 18-24 identify as transgender today. Estimates in surveys vary. Gender is associated with social power. Gender has been used to provide men more resources and social power than women.

Standpoint epistemology:

a philosophical perspective that argues that what we can know is affected by the position we occupy in society. Collins argues that Black women have been denied status as agents of knowledge

Patriarchy:

a set of social relationships in which men dominate women. Globally, women fall behind men on indicators including political representation, income, and wealth. Social change occurs slowly. Sexuality

Matrix of domination:

a system of social positions in which any individual may concurrently occupy a status (for example, gender, race, class, or sexual orientation) as a member of a dominated group and a status as a member of a dominating group. The Sociology of Masculinities Connell (2010): masculinities are not the same as men. The focus is on the cultural, social, and institutional influences that "make men."

gender roles

activities, attitudes, and behaviors considered appropriately feminine or masculine. These were a functionalist theory from Talcott Parsons. Women enacted expressive roles; men maintained instrumental roles. Critiques of Parsons's theory It involves class, race, and gender biases that viewed all families as traditionally organized. It shows a family that is capable to make ends meet without dual earners. It is functional for individuals who were asked to fit such roles. The gendered division of labor is not functional for a society that is over half women. Insight of Parsons's theory Families contribute strongly to children's gender role socialization. Many parents hold gendered beliefs about how their infants are supposed to look and behave before they are born Speaking to the children in utero varies. Gender reveal parties are different. Parents also teach gender roles over a child's life by dividing labor, their chosen occupations, and the amount of time they spend with their children. Communication of gender roles also occurs through book selection. Gendered structures such as the marketplace may make available predominantly gender-typed items. Socioeconomic status, race, and sexuality can influence parents' gendered expectations of their children, their children's behaviors, what they tell their children about gender, and the options they provide to their children. Gendered Playgrounds, Gendered Interactions: Schools and Peers Schools Schools are physically gendered spaces/institutions. There are gendered dimensions to formal and informal learning This includes unspoken socialization to norms, values, and roles (including gender roles). This gender dynamic influences both students and faculty. Curriculum still contains solid gender messages. E.g., history texts are still heavily populated by male characters, and women, people of color, and sexual minorities are shown in special features. Peers Children quickly learn and display stereotypical gender roles in peer groups. Play among mixed-gender groups has a different effect than same-gender groups. Boys tend to play in larger groups at games with more rules over larger distances; more aggressive and competitive, Girls tend to play in smaller groups, imitate one another, take turns, encourage, and support one another. In late childhood and adolescence, children are especially concerned about their friends' opinions. LGBTQ+ youth are especially at risk of peer prejudice and discrimination. Media Power: Reflecting and Reinforcing Stereotypes of Gender and Sexuality Television and Movies Television and commercials are major methods of spreading gender stereotyping. Children consume a lot of media each day. E.g., the linguistics of Disney movies Female characters spoke more in older Disney movies than modern ones. Women, LGBTQ+ people, racial and ethnic groups, and those with disabilities are underrepresented in major films. Music, Gaming, Fantasy Sports Rasmussen and Densley (2017) have researched how popular music lyrics are gendered. Multiple genres have become more violent, antisocial, and objectifying of women. Video Games Perrin (2018) shows that there is a growing/significant gender difference in video gaming activity as people age. Duggan (2015) found that the perception of how games portray gender is mixed. 26% of all players to 35% of frequent gamers do not think women are portrayed poorly in most games. Another 16% of players and 24% of gamers agreed that women are portrayed poorly in most games. However, content studies suggest that popular video games consistently convey stereotypical gender images. Ruberg (2017): "all games are fair territory for exploring queerly." Most players of fantasy sports are young men. Kissane and Winslow (2016) found that women fantasy sports players saw this domain as a male space where they felt "highly visible." Exercising mediated agency: asking for "help" to improve experience and play. Conflicted agency: using gender stereotypes to their advantage or to act unlike other women. Gender Inequalities: Family, School, and Work In no known society do women have great control over economic or political resources, exercise greater power and authority, or enjoy more prestige than men. Gender and Family Life There is significant gender inequality in household tasks. Daily domestic tasks can include many hours of unpaid work that is gender stereotyped "women's work."

Which of the following is an ongoing concern for women in poor countries?

adequate education In many places in the world, women do not have access to their basic needs. Women in poor countries still face many obstacles. These include high rates of maternal mortality, access to nurses and physicians, and access to an adequate education.

Glass ceiling:

an artificial boundary that allows women to see the next occupational or salary level even as structural obstacles keep them from reaching it.

intersex

born with characteristics associated with sexed notions of male or female bodies (including genitals, gonads, and chromosome patterns) that do not fit typical binary patterns. Children are often subjected to cosmetic surgeries and medications so that they are categorizable as male or female.

queer theory

describes how societies develop ideas about sexuality and gender, rejecting claims that gender identities and sexuality are fixed or stable. The word queer, originally used against people thought to be gay, was then reclaimed by LGBTQ+ groups as "self-affirming." This theory highlights homophobia and heterosexism. There are over 13 million LGBT people in the United States. These numbers may vary between surveys. LGBTQ+ have experienced stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination. These are the experiences of a sexual minority population. Global attitudes have become generally much more accepting over the past several decades. Learning and Performing Gendered Selves in a Gendered World Norms, values, and practices around gender and sexuality vary among societies, cultures, and groups. Few people perfectly fit these stereotypes. In many cultures, people believe gender stereotypes are real sex differences, and label those who diverge as deviant.

The belief that social equality should exist between the sexes; also, the social movements aimed at achieving that goal.

feminism

______ describes an artificial boundary that allows women to see the next occupational or salary level even as structural obstacles keep them from reaching it.

glass ceiling

Second shift:

he unpaid housework women typically do after they come home from their paid employment Women still do the larger share of these tasks, but the number has fallen over time as more tasks are shared. The type of couple or household arrangement may make a difference. The state of residence has an impact of household division of labor. Labor market power and traditionalism impact the amount of household labor. Childcare has been historically gender-typed as women's work. Families depend on community and government structures for health and stability. Paid parental leave is not available in the United States but is available in many other countries. On-site childcare is decreasingly available in higher education. Housework and childcare during the COVID-19 pandemic Some women are sharing the increased burdens with fathers Some women are doing most of the increased housework and childcare Gender and Higher Education Higher education is highly correlated with income. Historical ideas In the 18th- to mid-20th century, women were discouraged from pursuing higher education In the late 19th century, there was uncertainty about women's capacity to succeed at both education and reproduction, which led to barriers to access and acceptance. In the 20th century, ordinary families used resources on their sons as future earners. There were also structural and ideological barriers. Female enrollment was limited/prohibited until Title IX passage in 1972. More women have enrolled in college each year since 2000 than men. For every group except Black women, college enrollment rates have grown since 2000. More men than women fail to graduate high school. More men have noncognitive difficulties in school than women. Young women have higher grades overall than young men. Women perceive college as bringing greater returns. Men may be choosing other historically masculine fields. Men are more likely to leave college without completing a degree. Men may be more averse than women to accruing debt. Gay men are more likely to finish college than heterosexual peers. Lesbian women are less likely to complete higher education than either gay men or heterosexual men and women. Gender and the Wage Gap

Labor supply factors:

highlight reasons why women or men may prefer particular occupations. Several decades ago, women were encouraged to choose feminine occupations. The jobs most commonly occupied by women today still include traditionally feminine jobs.

Labor demand factors:

highlight the needs and preferences of the employer

What was one unexpected side effect of the COVID-19 pandemic across the world?

increase in domestic violence

According to Martin and Fabes, all-boy play groups tend to foster what type of behavior?

more aggressive and competitive play

concentration of men and women in different occupations

occupational gender segregation

gender identity

one's sense of being a woman, man, girl, or boy, or being outside of the gender binary.

cisgender

people whose gender identity matches their sex assigned at birth.

heteronormative

societies where sexual activity between a man and a woman is the only sexual activity considered "correct"?

sex

the anatomical and other biological differences between males and females that originate in human genes. Some sex differences are present at birth; others develop later.

Sexism:

the belief that one sex is innately superior to the other and is therefore justified in having a dominant social position. Forms of sexism can range from stereotyping to prejudice and discrimination to sexual harassment and sexual violence First wave feminism in the United States was connected with abolitionism. Women struggled for basic rights, including the rights to vote and own land. Women's gender socialization included pressure to find husbands who would provide for them. There were economic implications in sexual relationships, and these relationships hurt women's autonomy. The second wave of feminism is associated with equal treatment of women in the home, workplace, and under the law. Betty Friedan's The Feminine Mystique (1963) helped initiate this wave. Women would show themselves as equal to men if given an equal opportunity. First and second-wave feminist ideas

Hegemonic masculinity:

the culturally normative idea of male behavior, which often emphasizes strength, control, and aggression. Some ideas about masculinity are so deeply ingrained in culture that when discussing social problems, we forget that we are talking almost entirely about men. E.g.: mass shooters. Some writers have suggested "men's studies" in curricula. Every course that is not "women's studies" is already "men's studies" There is a lack of insight about how masculinities shape men, institutions, and societies. Gender and Sexuality in a Global Perspective Advances toward gender equality have occurred more rapidly in various places. Women and Families Disproportionate caregiving expectations are an important roadblock to gender equity. Girls and Education Norms against girls' education, access, work, children, and unsafe or unavailable transportation can prevent girls from getting an education. Keeping girls in school helps spread economic development. Educated girls and women leads to lower child mortality rates. Healthier mothering and care of mothers may also be linked to education. Education is also linked to jobs, higher self-esteem, income, and community empowerment. Girls, Women, and Work Economic vulnerability of women is tied to social vulnerability of women. Impoverished girls are vulnerable to sexual exploitation and trafficking. The size of the sex trade in developing states is multifactorial. Societal norms dictate that young couples wait until marriage to consummate a relationship. For young men, access to prostitutes offers a way to gain pleasure and experience. Girls and young women in the brothels are usually poor, with no advocates and few protectors. Gender and Pandemic: The Gendered Impact of COVID-19 Women globally work in many fields concerned with caregiving. Educating children during the pandemic has fallen largely to them, causing virus exposure, long second shifts, and leaving jobs to address family concerns. Some countries have reported an increase in domestic violence, especially during lockdowns. The United Nations has also mentioned that women were hit hard by the collapse of "informal economies" and a greater difficulty of aiding human trafficking victims. Change Happens: Women's Empowerment Multiple NGOs and not-for-profit organizations operate globally to provide the tools for women to work within their communities and combat educational access, violence, poverty, gender discrimination, and other issues. E.g., Oxfam America's Saving for Change program emphasizes "savings-led microfinance." Groups of women organize their resources to serve local needs. In Mali in West Africa, households saved money and increased food security, women can gain financial literacy and empowerment, and there are opportunities to serve the global market for local commodities. There is a risk for the victimization of women who step outside of traditionally subjugated roles. Greater independence may allow women to leave violent relationships or challenge other norms. Family money is more likely to go toward necessities. Maternal and child mortality are reduced. Poverty, marginality, and illiteracy that may lead girls and women to the global sex trade are reduced. There are important implications for the domestic development of a country.

Gender wage gap:

the difference between the earnings of women who work full-time year-round as a group and those of men who work full-time year-round as a group.

Standpoint theory:

the knowledge we create is conditioned by our social position in our daily worlds. Smith calls our daily worlds our "every day, every night" worlds. Much of our social worlds have been shaped from the perspectives of privileged white males. Therefore, our base of knowledge is incomplete because it has come from a limited number of social perspectives. She describes a "bifurcation of consciousness: when our individual experiences are different from or contradict the dominant point of view. Smith argues that (versus Weber) researchers create knowledge from data we gather and interpret from our own standpoint. Patricia Hill Collins (1990) focuses on Black women's lives and struggles.

gender

the norms, roles, and behavioral characteristics associated in a given society with being a man or a woman. Conforming to societal norms of masculinity and femininity. Norms of masculinity/femininity are often binary: exclusively one or the other). These behaviors are often called gender displays or one's gender presentation. People often behave in ways that are not associated with binary gender notions. There is gender diversity within and across societies. E.g., two-spirited Native American people identify as both masculine and feminine. E.g. India's hijras.

gender socialization

the process of learning social norms and values around gender. Agents of socialization are those who promote gendered ideas and behaviors. Gender may be seen as less an identity than a performance. Erving Goffman (1959) argued our social selves are the product of society, and groups tailor their presentation in a way most favorable to the given situation. West and Zimmerman (1987) suggest that gender is something we do rather than a fixed identity. Gender can be seen as a structure present throughout social life. The Roots of Gender: Families and Gender Role Socialization

Human capital:

the skills, knowledge, and credentials a person possesses that make him or her valuable in a particular workplace.

Multicultural feminism:

understand and end inequality for all women, regardless of race, class, nationality, citizenship, age, sexual orientation, physical ability, or other characteristics. Multicultural feminists seek to build global coalitions among women. Multicultural feminists acknowledge that contemporary women's movement reflects ideas central to women in Europe and North America because that is where the movement originated. Third-wave feminism emerged as a product of changing societal norms and opportunities, and the Internet. Issues such as gendered violence and reproductive rights have been discussed. Choice is a central tenet of third-wave feminism, as well a social media. Third-wave feminists feel that any issue a feminist finds important can and should be discussed. Feminist Perspectives on Doing Sociology Dorothy Smith (1987, 1990, 2005)

Socialist feminism:

women's inequality as the result of the combination of capitalistic economic relations and male domination (patriarchy), arguing that both must be fundamentally transformed before women can achieve equality. This idea originated with Marx and Engels: inequality is an inevitable feature of capitalism.

Liberal feminism:

women's inequality is primarily the result of imperfect institutions, which can be corrected by reforms that do not fundamentally alter society itself. Liberal feminists have fought to elect women, to enact legislation to ensure equal pay for equal work, and to protect women's rights to make choices about fertility and family lives.

Radical feminism:

women's inequality underlies all other forms of inequality. Radical feminists focus on the patriarchy and argue that relations between the sexes must be radically transformed before women can hope for true equality.