Sociology Exam One

Who is Emile Durkheim?

Emile Durkheim played an important role in the development of sociology. 1. One of his primary goals was to get sociology recognized as a separate academic discipline. 2. He was interested in understanding the social factors that influence individual behavior; he studied suicide rates among different groups and concluded that social integration—the degree to which people are tied to their social group—was a key social factor in suicide. 3. Durkheim's third concern was that social research be practical; sociologists should not only diagnose the causes of social problems but should also develop solutions for them.

Who is Max Weber?

Disagreeing with Karl Marx, Max Weber defined religion as a central force in social change (i.e., Protestantism encourages greater economic development and was the central factor in the rise of capitalism in some countries). 1. The Protestant belief system encouraged its members to embrace change. 2. Protestants sought "signs" that they were in God's will; financial success became a major sign. The more money they made, the more secure they were about their religious standing. 3. Weber called this behavior the Protestant ethic; he called their readiness to invest capital in order to make more money the spirit of capitalism

Mead's "I" and "Me"

George H. Mead (1863-1931) agreed with Cooley but added that play is critical to the development of a self. In play, we learn to take the role of others—to understand and anticipate how others feel and think. 1. Mead concluded that children are first able to take only the role of significant others (parents or siblings, for example); as the self develops, children internalize the expectations of other people, and eventually the entire group. Mead referred to the norms, values, attitudes, and expectations of people "in general" as the generalized other. 2. According to Mead, the development of the self goes through stages: (1) imitation (children initially can only mimic the gestures and words of others); (2) play (beginning at age three, children play the roles of specific people, such as a firefighter or the Lone Ranger); and (3) games (in the first years of school, children become involved in organized team games and must learn the role of each member of the team)3. He distinguished the "I" from the "me" in development of the self: the "I" component is the subjective, active, spontaneous, creative part of the social self (for instance, "I shoved him"), while the "me" component is the objective part— attitudes internalized from interactions with others (for instance, "He shoved me"). 4. Mead concluded that not only the self, but also the mind is a social product. We cannot think without symbols, and it is our society that gives us our symbols by giving us our language

What were the four factors that led to their development?

1: The social upheaval in Europe as a result of the Industrial Revolution, which led to changes int he way people lived their lives. 2: The political revolutions in America and France, which encouraged people to rethink their ideas about social life 3: The development of imperialism-as the Europeans conquered other nations, they came in contact with different cultures and began to ask why cultures varied 4: The success of the natural sciences, which created a desire to apply scientific methods in order to ind answers for the questions being raised about the social world.

What is ethnocentrism?

A consequence of internalizing culture is ethnocentrism, using our own culture (and assuming it to be good, right, and superior) to judge other cultures. It is functional when it creates in-group solidarity, but can be dysfunctional if it leads to discrimination against those who are different.

What is the sociological perspective?

A. This perspective is important because it provides a different way of looking at familiar worlds. It allows us to gain a new vision of social life. B. The sociological perspective is an approach to understanding human behavior by placing it within its broader social context. C. Wright Mills referred to the sociological perspective as the intersection of biography and history. C. This perspective stresses the broader social context of behavior by looking at individuals' social location—employment, income, education, gender, age, and race—and by considering external influences—people's experiences. We are able to see the links between what people do and the social settings that shape their behavior. D. This perspective enables us to analyze and understand both the forces that contribute to the emergence and growth of the global village and our unique experiences in our own smaller corners of this village.

Basic assumptions of the conflict theory

According to conflict theory, society is viewed as composed of groups competing for scarce resources. Karl Marx focused on struggles between the bourgeoisie (the small group of capitalists who own the means of production) and the proletariat (the masses of workers exploited by the capitalists). 1. Contemporary conflict theorists have expanded this perspective to include conflict in all relations of power and authority. 2. The perspectives differ in their level of analysis. Functionalists and conflict theorists provide macro-level analysis because they examine the large-scale patterns of society. Symbolic interactionists carry out micro-level analysis because they focus on the small-scale patterns of social life.

Who is Auguste Comte?

Auguste Comte coined the term "sociology" and suggested the use of positivism—applying the scientific approach to the social world—but he did not utilize this approach himself. Comte believed that this new science should not only discover sociological principles, but should then apply those principles to social reform.

Cooley's "looking-glass self"

Charles H. Cooley (1864-1929) concluded that human development is socially created—that our sense of self develops from interaction with others. He coined the term "looking-glass self" to describe this process. (1) According to Cooley, this process contains three steps: (1) we imagine how we look to others; (2) we interpret others' reactions (how they evaluate us); and (3) we develop a self-concept. (2) A favorable reflection in the "social mirror" leads to a positive self-concept, while a negative reflection leads to a negative self-concept. (3) Even if we misjudge others' reactions, the misjudgments become part of our selfconcept. (4) This development process is an ongoing, lifelong process.

Scientific Research method

Henslin identifies eight steps in the scientific research model. Other authors may identify more than or fewer than eight steps, but the basic model remains the same. 1. Selecting a topic is guided by sociological curiosity, interest in a particular topic, research funding from a governmental or private source, and pressing social issues. 2. Defining the problem involves specifying what the researcher wants to learn about the topic. 3. Reviewing the literature uncovers existing knowledge about the problem, helps narrow down the problem and learn what areas need to be researched, and provides ideas about what questions to ask. 4. Formulating a hypothesis involves stating the expected relationship between variables based on predictions from a theory. Hypotheses need operational definitions, or precise ways to measure the variables. 5. Choosing a research method is influenced by the research topic and the questions that need to be answered. 6. Collecting the data involves concerns over validity, the extent to which operational definitions measure what was intended, and reliability, the extent to which data produce consistent results. Inadequate operational definitions and sampling hurt reliability. 7. Analyzing the results involves the use of either qualitative or quantitative techniques to analyze data. Computers have become powerful tools in data analysis because they reduce large amounts of data to basic patterns, take the drudgery out of analyzing data, allow the researcher to use a variety of statistical tests, and give the researcher more time to interpret the results. 8. By writing up and publishing the results, the findings are available for replication. That is, others can repeat your study to see if they come up with similar findings.

Who is Herbert Spencer?

Herbert Spencer viewed societies as evolutionary, coined the term "the survival of the fittest," and became known for social Darwinism. Spencer was convinced that no one should intervene in the evolution of society and that attempts at social reform were wrong.

When and in what century was sociology developed?

In the middle of the nineteenth century when European social observers began to use scientific methods to test their idea.

Who is Karl Marx?

Karl Marx, whose ideas about social classes and class struggle between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat is the foundation of the conflict perspective, believed that class conflict was the key to human history, and that the struggle would end only with a revolution by the working class.

What is the difference between type of norms and how sanctions work to control them?

Norms are the expectations, or rules of behavior, that develop out of a group's values. Sanctions are the positive or negative reactions to the way in which people follow norms. Positive sanctions (a money reward, a prize, a smile, or even a handshake) are expressions of approval; negative sanctions (a fine, a frown, or harsh words) denote disapproval for breaking a norm.

Basic assumptions of the symbolic-interaction theory

Symbolic interactionism views symbols, things to which we attach meaning, as the basis of social life. 1. Through the use of symbols, people are able to define relationships to others; to coordinate actions with others, thereby making social life possible; and to develop a sense of self. 2. A symbolic interactionist studying divorce would focus on how the changing meanings of marriage, family, and divorce have all contributed to the increase in the rate of divorce in U.S. society.

Basic assumptions of the structural-functional theory

The central idea of functional analysis is that society is a whole unit, made up of interrelated parts that work together. 1. To understand society, we must look at both structure (how the parts of society fit together to make up the whole) and function (how each part contributes to society). 2. Robert Merton used the term function to refer to the beneficial consequences of people's actions to keep society stable, and dysfunction to refer to consequences that undermine stability. Functions can be either manifest (actions that are intended) or latent (unintended consequences).

The nature Vs nurture debate

There has been and continues to be considerable debate over whether "nature" (heredity) or "nurture" (social environment) most determines human behavior. Studies of feral, isolated, and institutionalized children indicate that although heredity certainly plays a role in the "human equation," it is society that makes people "human." People learn what it means to be and, consequently, become members of the human community through language, social interaction, and other forms of human contact.

What is cultural relativism?

people can also employ cultural relativism, the practice of understanding a culture on its own terms without assessing its elements as any better or worse than one's own culture. Cultural relativism presents a challenge to ordinary thinking because we tend to use our own culture to judge others. 1. Because we tend to use our own culture as the standard, cultural relativism presents a challenge to ordinary thinking. 2. At the same time, this view helps us appreciate other ways of life.