SOCIOLOGY HENSLIN LONG ANSWER OUTLINE

Discuss how functionalist theorists explain how government in the United States achieves a balanced system that protects its citizens from one another and from government itself.

In a view called pluralism, functionalists say that no one group holds power, that the country's many competing interest groups balance one another (checks and balances). Pluralism is a diffusion of power among many special interest groups, prevents any one group from gaining control of the government and using it to oppress the people. Checks and balances is a system designed to ensure that no one branch of government dominates the others.

Discuss how the sociological perspectives (functionalist, conflict, symbolic interactionist) explain the causes of prejudice and discrimination.

According to functionalists prejudice and discrimination is functional in controlling the social environment and creating in-group solidarity.In conflict theory prejudice and discrimination is caused by split labor markets created by groups in power to control workers and maintain power. Symbolic interactionists stress that labels that we are socialized to believe affect perception and create prejudice.

Develop a profile that answers the question, "Who are the poor?"

Certain social groups are disproportionately represented among the poor population. Poor people tend to be clustered in the South. Racial minorities are most likely to be poor. The chances of being poor increases as the amount of education decreases. Children are the most adversely affected by poverty and are more likely than adults to live in poverty.

Discuss two major problems in U.S. education.

Cheating by teachers and school administrators is of concern. Faced with pressure to meet standards, some school districts change student's test answers and fake high school graduation rates. School violence and shootings are becoming an increasing issue for some U.S. schools.

Using the conflict perspective, explain how the ruling class controls the United States.

Conflict theorists take the position that a power elite dominates the US. With connections that extend to the highest centers of power (e.g. top corporate, political, and military leaders), this ruling class determines the economic and political conditions under which the rest of the country operates.

Discuss how elites maintain stratification, and point out the benefits and liabilities of each method.

Depending on the political climate and resources available to those in power and those who are ruled, the stratification system is maintained in various ways. These ways include controlling information, ideas, criticism and technology, and the use of force.

According to functionalist theorists, education provides a number of social benefits. Identify four of the manifest functions of education and briefly state how they benefit society.

Education and schooling have many of these manifest functions. One of these is to teach the younger generation needed knowledge and skills to live in their society. This aids the child to become successful. Another manifest function is the cultural transmission of values which is the process of transmitting values from one group to another. It often refers to how cultural traits are transmitted across generations. In education, it is ways in which schools transmit the society's culture. This functions in the way that it teaches children to learn how to follow the norms of the people in the society. It also teaches things such as patriotism which pertain to the culture of the people. Social integration is also important and it also promotes a sense of national identity for the people. It brings them together under one country. Lastly, schools tend to gatekeep their students - the process by which education opens and closes doors of opportunity. It shows kids where they can be successful.

An electrician can earn more money than a college professor. Based on the features that contribute to occupational prestige, why do electricians rank in the lower half of the occupational prestige table and professors rank near the top?

Electricians may rank in the lower half of the occupational prestige table even though they receive more money because compared to a college professor, they do not require more education, involve more abstract thought, and offer greater autonomy.

What is "feminism"? Describe how it has evolved in the United States.

Feminism is the view that biology is not destiny and that stratification by gender is wrong and should be resisted. There are three waves of feminism. The first wave had a radical branch that wanted to reform all the institutions of society and a conservative branch whose goal was to win the vote for women. The second wave was of protests against gender inequalities. The final wave concentrates of the problems of women in Least Industrialized Nations, criticism of the values that dominate work and society, and women's sexual pleasure.

Describe the three functionalist theories of disengagement, activity, and continuity. Note how each focuses on the adjustments that occur between elderly people and others in society.

Functionalists focus on why retirement is beneficial for society and how individuals adjust to retirement. (1) Disengagement theory explains retirement as a mechanism for ensuring that the society's positions of responsibility are passed smoothly from one generation to the next. The individual starts to disengage during middle age by beginning to reassign priorities to goals and tasks and continuing this process as time goes on. (2) Activity theory looks at how retired people replace their usual activities with other activities. The hypothesis is that the more activities the elderly engage in, the more satisfaction they will have in life. (3) Continuity theory stresses that in retirement, people adjust to old age by continuing ties with their past. When they retire, people take up new roles similar to the ones they gave up. Research shows that people who are used to handling multiple roles and those who are more financially prepared adjust better to retirement.

How do functionalists and conflict theorists differ in their approach to the study of religion?

Functionalists stress that religion is universal because it meets universal human needs. Conflict theorists are highly critical of religion. They stress that religion supports the status quo and helps to maintain social inequalities.

Discuss the major functions of religion.

Functionalists stress that religion is universal because it meets universal human needs: (1) answering questions about ultimate meaning (the purpose of life, why people suffer); (2) providing emotional comfort; (3) uniting believers into a community that shares values and perspectives; (4) providing guidelines for life; (5) providing social control and support for the government; and (8) spearheading social change on occasion (as in the case of the civil rights movement in the 1960s)

What is gender stratification? Generally speaking, what are the consequences of gender stratification?

Gender stratification refers to the ranking of people based on their biological sex. This ranking results in males and females having unequal access to power, prestige, and property, which either enhances or limits a person's access to a society's resources.

The conflict perspective emphasizes that education reproduces the social class structure. Show how the concept of the hidden curriculum perpetuates social inequality.

Hidden curriculums are the unwritten goals of schools, such as teaching obedience to authority and conformity to cultural norms. By stating that each school reproduces the social class means that each school is teaching its kids to work in positions similar to those of their parents. It helps perpetuate social inequalities because the students never rise in their ranks.

Compare the similarities and differences between education in the most industrialized, industrializing, and least industrialized nations.

In general, formal education reflects a nation's culture and economy. Formal education is extensive in the Most Industrialized Nations such as Japan and the United States. In less industrialized nations, education is emphasized much less. In the Least Industrialized Nations, where most people work the land or take care of families, most children do not go to school beyond the first couple of grades. Even though many of the Least Industrialized Nations have mandatory school attendance laws, they are not enforced.

Journalistic accounts often state that one out of every two marriages ends in divorce. Explain why this statement presents a distorted image of divorce in the United States. Provide an alternative statistic which presents a more accurate description of divorce in the U.S.A.

In most instances, divorce statistics are compared with the marriage statistics annually. These totals are misleading as one set of figures is not related to the other. Usually the couples who divorce in a given year do not come from the group that married in that year. Couples who divorce are drawn from the entire group of married couples. About 1.9 percent of all the married couples in a given year actually get divorced.

Briefly explain how race is both a reality and a myth.

In the sense that different groups inherit distinctive physical traits, race is a reality. There is no agreement regarding what constitutes a particular race, however, or even how many races there are. In the sense of one race being superior to another and of there being pure races, race is a myth. The idea of race is powerful, shaping basic relationships among people.

What are the three models of global stratification discussed by the author? Why did the author choose one particular model over the others?

Initially the three models of global stratification were deemed First World, Second World, and Third World. Now there is a more neutral way of categorizing nations related to a nation's level of industrialization: "Most Industrialized," "Industrializing," and "Least Industrialized." The author favors this model because it is more neutral.

Discuss the arguments presented by liberals and conservatives regarding affirmative action. Is there a trend towards eliminating affirmative action? Why or why not?

Liberals argue that this policy is the most direct way in which to level the playing field of economic opportunity, while conservatives believe that such practices result in reverse discrimination. There is a trend towards eliminating affirmative action. One of the most controversial rulings was Proposition 209. This amendment to the California state constitution banned preferences to minorities and women in hiring, promotion, and college admission

Discuss the three reasons social class has such an impact on one's health.

Life is hard on the poor. There are constant stresses that weaken their immune systems and cause their bodies to deteriorate faster. Lifestyle is shaped by social class. People living in the higher class tend to not smoke, eat lots of fats, be overweight, and abuse drugs. Social class opens and closes doors to medical care. People with good incomes are able to afford inclusive medical treatment.

Discuss the characteristics and trends in marriage among U.S. families. LO 12.3

Marriage in the United States is usually based on romantic love that precedes the ceremony. Predictable social characteristics that have a high correlation of similarity between husband and wife include age, education, social class, religion, and race or ethnicity. People with similar characteristics tend to marry each other. A significant variable that adds to the prediction of marriage is propinquity, or the spatial nearness of couples. Long distance relationships are less successful than those in which the couple have easy access to one another. Marriages follow racial lines in 93 percent of the cases. Of interracial marriages, the ones with the sharpest increase in numbers are between African Americans and whites.

Describe the patterns of gender inequality that currently exist in education.

More women than men are currently enrolled in universities and colleges (56 percent), and more women earn bachelor's degrees (57 percent) and master's degrees (60 percent). However, women are still generally "tracked" into degree programs that have been traditionally defined as feminine. In graduate school, the gender gap increases. Men tend to outnumber women in most science doctorates, are more likely to be promoted to full professor than women, and earn more money than women.

Discuss Gaetano Mosca's argument for the reason why society is stratified.

Mosca argued that social stratification by power is inevitable. He backs his claim by asserting that society cannot function without organizations, therefore there needs to be leadership to coordinate people's actions. Leadership requires inequalities of power because some people take leadership positions and others follow. It is human nature to be self-centered; thus, people in positions of power use their positions to bring greater rewards to themselves.

What does the research by Jeanette and Robert Lauer indicate relative to the percent of married couples who are happily married?

Of the 351 couples interviewed, only 51 indicated they were unhappy and stayed together for religious reasons, the sake of the children, or family tradition. The remaining 300 couples indicated they were happy, over 85 percent of the sample. Other studies show that three of five American married couples are "very happy." Some of the reasons the couples provided for their happily married status included thinking of their spouse as their best friend, liking their spouse as a person, thinking of marriage as a long-term commitment, and the belief that marriage is sacred.

Discuss power, and the ways in which functionalists and conflict theorists would disagree over the concept of power in a democracy

Power is the ability to get your way despite resistance. Functionalists view that each person has the power to participate in a democratic government as a citizen. The conflict theorists believe that the individual vote is a facade. They assert that the power elite is so powerful that the U.S. government makes no major decision, regardless of what individual citizens think, without its approval.

Explain the difference between prejudice and discrimination. Is it possible to be prejudiced but not to discriminate? Or, to discriminate without being prejudiced? Illustrate how and why people learn prejudice

Prejudice is an attitude or prejudging whereas discrimination is an act of unfair treatment directed against an individual or a group. It is possible to be prejudice but not discriminate and discriminate without being prejudice. People can be prejudice but choose not to act on them because they are afraid they might be caught and punished. Or for example you are working in a cinema and a 15 year old boy comes to buy a ticket, you refuse to sell him one because you don't want under 16's in your cinema, You are discriminating but not being prejudicial.

Distinguish the difference between "race" and "ethnicity," and give an example of each.

Race refers to inherited biological characteristics, ethnicity refers to cultural ones. An example of race is brown skin which is considered to be characteristically inherited. An example of ethnicity is Filipino considered to be more of a people who identify with one another on the basis of this common ancestry and cultural heritage.

The terms "sex" and "gender" mean two different things. Explain the difference between these two concepts and how each is related to the "nature versus nurture" debate.

Sex is the biological characteristics that differentiate males from females. Gender is the attitudes and behaviors society characterizes each sex (femininity and masculinity). Sex is nature and gender is nurtured by society.

Define social stratification and discuss the four systems of social stratification.

Social stratification is a system in which groups of people are divided into layers according to their relative property, power, and prestige. The four types are slavery, caste, estate, and class. Slavery occurs when some people own other people. In a caste system people's statuses are lifelong conditions determined by birth. An estate was the stratification system of medieval Europe, consisting of nobility, clergy, and commoners. Finally a class system is based on possession of money or material position.

Describe Erik Wright's modification of Marx's model of social class.

Sociologist Erik Wright realized that not everyone falls into Marx's two broad classes (capitalists and workers, which were based on a person's relationship to the means of production). For instance, although executives, managers, and supervisors would fall into Marx's category of workers, they act more like capitalists. Wright resolved this problem by regarding some people as simultaneously members of more than one class, which he called contradictory class locations. Wright identified four classes: capitalists (business owners who employ many workers); petty bourgeoisie (owners of small businesses); managers (employees who have authority over others); and workers.

Distinguish between the individual and structural explanations of poverty.

Sociologists look to such factors as inequalities in education; access to learning job skills; racial, ethnic, age, and gender discrimination; and large-scale economic change to explain the patterns of poverty in society. The other explanation is individualistic, focusing on the characteristics of individuals that are assumed to contribute to their poverty.

How do symbolic interactionists view religion? What are the major aspects of religion that are most aligned with the symbolic interactionist perspective?

Symbolic interactionists attach meaning to things such as symbols, rituals, beliefs, and religious experiences. The Symbols of religion for example, are no ordinary symbols. They evoke deep feelings of respect, awe, and reverence. Rituals also are something symbolic interactionists pay attention to as rituals attach the meanings to actions. Rituals are ceremonies or repetitive practices. In religion they are rites often intended to evoke a sense of awe for the sacred, just like their symbols. These contribute to the beliefs of the people and create a cosmology or the people - a unified picture of the world. With religion, people attach meanings and prejudices to different situations and it therefore affects their ideals of things surrounding them.

Why do cults and sects meet with greater hostility than church and ecclesia?

The Cults and Sects of religion are met with much more hostility than the church and ecclesia because the other two are much less established than the latter. The Church and ecclesia have gathered many members and is well rounded and established within society. However, the cults and sects bring in a new form of belief that is rather new to the people in that society, and the unknown brings hostility toward them. This is especially because the established society may also feel that the new cult is a threat to the already existing societal norms at the time.

Explain how a positive stereotype such as "Asian students are smart" can become a self-fulfilling prophecy similar to what Rist viewed in teacher expectations of students based on their social class.

The Rist research showed that the labels kindergartners receive in their first few days of class can remain with them forever. This can pertain to the stereotypes of Asians as the teachers placing them in categories will select them as the "smart" children. This turns into a self-fulfilling prophecy and the students categorized as intelligent truly do become the top of their classes. The students, thanks to their stereotypes come to think of themselves as more academically confident and smarter than the other kids in their class.

What are the four main concerns that are typically responded to by religious belief? Is there any evidence to suggest that science could replace religion in its ability to respond to these questions?

The four main concepts which are answered for people by religion are the existence of god, the purpose of life, an afterlife, and about mortality. Without religion, the people would not be able to find answers to questions pertaining to these subjects anywhere. Science is not able to answer these questions as the solutions will never be represented in hard facts. This perpetuates the people's need for religion in their lives.

Discuss how marriage and family are viewed from the three sociological perspectives.

The functionalist perspective stresses how the family is related to other parts of society and how it contributes to the well-being of society. 1. The family is universal because it serves functions essential to the well-being of society: economic production, socialization of children, care of the sick and aged, recreation, sexual control, and reproduction. Central to the conflict perspective is the struggle over power: who has it and who resents not having it? Symbolic interactionists examine how the contrasting experiences and perspectives of men and women are played out in marriage.

How does sex discrimination enter into the concept of the glass ceiling?

The glass ceiling is the invisible barrier that keeps women from reaching top levels in the workplace. Women are stereotyped as being less capable of leadership than men but stronger in "support" positions such as public relations and human resources. Women are also less likely to have mentors who assist them in developing skills that open the doors to executive positions. The ongoing stereotype dictates that someone who is a male is more capable, regardless of the field or the job.

Why do the oil-rich countries of the Middle East fail to fit into the classifications of Most Industrialized and Industrializing?

The oil rich countries of the Middle East fails to fit into the classification of Most Industrialized and Industrializing. It falls into the fourth category of Oil-rich, non industrialized nations. These nations are not industrialized, but are immensely wealthy. To classify them as Least Industrialized would gloss of distinctions such as their modern hospitals, extensive prenatal care, desalination plants, abundant food and shelter, high literacy, and computerized banking.

According to anthropologists and biologists, how many distinct races exist among humans? What are the racial classifications discussed in the textbook? Why are the racial categories chosen by the author inadequate to provide a full picture of race?

The question of how many races inhabit the planet is a debatable topic among anthropologists and sociologists. The number of race classifications has ranged from two to two thousand. The author discusses European Americans, Latinos, African Americans, Asian Americans, and Native Americans. These classifications are inadequate for a number of reasons. For instance, European Americans share their whiteness but have numerous ethnicities

Identify and describe the six major patterns of minority and dominant group relations.

The six major patterns of minority and group relations include genocide, population transfer, internal colonialism, segregation assimilation, and multiculturalism. Genocide occurs when the dominant group tries to destroy the minority group. In population transfer, the dominant group expels the minority group. In internal colonialism the dominant group exploits the minority group. In segregation, the dominant group structures the social institutions to maintain minimal contact with the minority group. Assimilation is when dominant group absorbs the minority group. Multiculturalism is when the dominant group encourages racial and ethnic variation; when successful, there is no longer a dominant group.

Identify the three types of social mobility and distinguish the differences between them.

The three types of social mobility are intergenerational, structural, and exchange mobility. Intergenerational mobility is the change that family members make in social class from one generation to the next. Structural mobility is a movement up or down the social class ladder that is due more to changes in the structure of society than to the actions of individuals. Exchange mobility is a large number of people moving up the social class ladder, while a large number move down; it is as though they have exchanged places, and the social class system shows little change.

Compare and contrast the two major economic systems. Identify a shortcoming of each system.

The two major economic systems are capitalism and socialism. Capitalism's shortcoming is that it leads to social inequality. It produces a tiny top layer of wealthy people with vast political who exploit an immense bottom layer of poorly paid worker. The criticism of capitalism asserts that it does not respect individual rights and controls people's lives.

Compare and contrast the working poor and underclass noting similarities and differences.

The working poor is composed of laborers, service workers, low-paid salespeople, and those with temporary and seasonal jobs. If they graduated from high school, they probably did not do well in school. The underclass is concentrated in the inner cities and has little connection with the job market. Both depend on the government for food stamps, welfare, and food banks to survive.

Justify the ways a group becomes a minority group. Give an example of each.

There are two ways a group can become a minority group. The first is through the expansion of political boundaries. For example, in 1848, after defeating Mexico in war, the U.S. took over the Southwest. The Mexicans living there, who had been the dominant group prior to the war, were transformed into a minority group. The second way is by migration. For example Mexicans who have chosen to move to the U.S.

Identify and describe the three types of authority and provide an example of each.

There is traditional, rational-legal, and charismatic authority. Traditional authority is based on custom. For example, birth into a particular family makes an individual the chief, king, or queen. Rational legal authority is based on written rules. For example in the US the president's authority comes from the legal power assigned to that office, as specified in a written constitution. Charismatic authority is based on an individual's outstanding traits, which attract followers. For example Joan of Arc.

Discuss the classical causes of slavery, and explain how the justification for slavery was modified by the colonial landowners in the New World.

War, debt, crime. to defend slavery, US slave owners developed an ideology making those arrangements seem necessary and fair. they develop view that their slaves were inferior. said not even human. colonists wove elaborate justification for slavery, built on the presumed superiority of their own group.