Sociology Midterm Review

Public Beliefs about Homelessness

"Causal beliefs matter only to the degree that they affect citizens' assessments of how serious the homelessness problem is and what should be done about it. In this section, we search for statistical linkages between the three belief variables ... and three types of policy attitudes."

How would Allan Johnson answer the question of what sociology is? ("The Forest, the Trees, and One Thing")

"I believe that the choices we make as individuals matter beyond our lives more than we can imagine, that things don't have to be the way they are, but that they won't get better by themselves" -page 35

Thomas Theorem

"If people define situations as real, they are real in their consequences -Meaning is socially constructed -Objects and phenomena are given meaning by individuals, groups and communities -Different groups often assign different, and sometimes conflicting, meanings to the same object or phenomenon -Social world is dynamic: Interpretation or definitions can change -Social change occurs when the definition of the situation changes

How does Johnson define Individualism?

"Individualism is a way of thinking that encourages us to explain the world in terms of what goes on inside individuals and nothing else - He describes individualism as a way of thinking that is blind to external factors. -Theres a difference between personal problems that require level solutions vs. social issues that call for collective action -It's more complicated than just what's going on inside one person. See page 41 "Social systems and people are connected...."

Is Gans a Functionalist?

"Instead of identifying functions for an entire social system, I shall identify them for the interest groups, socioeconomic classes, and other population aggregates with shared values

Functional Alternative to Poverty

- Pay people to do "dirty work" decent wages -Redistribute income (from the wealthy to the poor) -Share political power equally

Types of Theories

- Positivist -Interpretative -Critical -Grand -Classical -Contemporary

Manifest Functions and Dysfunctions

-"Objective consequences" -Deliberate -Intended outcomes/goals -Recognizable -Obvious Can have either a positive or negative effect on society

Deductive Approach

-Begin with a research problem/question -Formulate a hypothesis -Test Hypothesis -Collect Empirical Data -Draw Conclusions -Report results

How does Peter Berger in "Invitation to Sociology" define classical sociology?

-Classical sociology is what was taught in most graduate programs at the time. Represents what most sociologists, at the time, saw as the core of the discipline. -He argues that sociology should not be practical, but theoretical. -It's not about social reform or social work but it should offer explanations. -Adamant that sociology is not just about the gathering of statistics. Its not enough to gather statistics about social behavior. -Argues that sociology must have theoretical significance. That it should focus on big questions or abstract principles, such as social relations -Sociologists should be "flies on the wall" -"Gather evidence to make sense of the puzzle"

Quantitative Research

-Concerned with generalizability -Goal is to have precise or accurate measures so the research is convincing -Provides reliable/valid answers

Obstacles to developing a Sociological Imagination

-Cultural values of individualism and free will -Desire for certain rather than multiple answers -Social processes are dynamic, not static -Contested nature of the discipline

What is theory?

-Explanations of social phenomena -Framework for understanding social phenomena -Statement of how and why specific facts are related Set of ideas that guide thinking and research in sociology

Functionalism Key Theorists

-Foundation established by Emile Durkheim Other Key figures: -Auguste Comte -Robert Merton -Talcott Parsons Functionalists examine the effect a practice or institution have on society

Major Theoretical Approaches (Schools of Thought)

-Functionalist -Conflict -Symbolic Interactionism

Survey Research

-Good surveys require thought and effort -Surveys can be well made or poorly made and can be used in appropriate or in appropriate ways -It's easy to conduct a survey that yields misleading or worthless (spurious) results

"Conflict" Theories

-Macro-sociological perspective -Society is made up of groups with fundamentally different interests -Focus is usually on social problems, inequality

Is smoking a personal trouble or public issue?

-People argue its an individual (and an individual's problem) if they choose to smoke -Do the consequences make smoking an individual matter or a public one?

Types of Funcitons

-Positive Functions -Negative Functions -Manifest Functions -Latent Functions

Theory's connection to Methods

-Shapes questions -Techniques -Interpretation of Results

Robert Merton "Social Theory and Social Structure"

-Societies evolve -Functional equivalents exist: different social arrangements can satisfy the same function -Institutions are complex

What did radical sociology develop? Why?

-Sociology "for the people" vs. Sociology "of the people" -To contrast the mainstream sociology which they saw as maintaining ruling class power in America

Allan Johnson- "The Forest, the Trees, and One Thing" What does he tell us in this piece?

-Sociology allows us to see the forest AND the trees. It's not an either/or proposition. -Sociology entails multiple levels of analysis and helps us understand personal issues, societal issues and global issues.

Imagine a traffic jam.. Individuals can/will explain traffic in different ways. How does Peter Berger explain it?

-Sociology encourages us to see the bigger pictures. -But it doesn't suggest that the other ways of seeing are wrong. -But that there is always something more going on, beyond our individual, unique experiences. -"Things are not [always] what they seem .... Social reality turns out to have many layers of meaning. The discovery of each new layer changes the perception of the whole."

What is the sociological perspective?

-Sociology looks beyond normal, taken-for-granted views of reality, to provide deeper, more illuminating and challenging understandings of social life. -Looks at the social causes and consequences of individual and group behavior

Classical Sociology

-Sociology should be "value free" -Sociologists should be detached -Sociology should focus on big questions that impact everyone -Requires interpretation

Critical Sociology

-Subjectivity is not always bias -Sociologists have social responsibility to speak "truth to power" -Sociology should question dominant institutional structure Agnes' Sociology Department falls in this category

Logic of Survey Research

-Survey research is often called correlational -Survey researchers measure variables that represent alternative explanations -Researchers consider alternative explanations when planning a survey and measure the alternatives with control variables Ideally... A researcher wants to know whether an independent variable (IV) causes changes in the dependent variable (DV)

Dalton Conley points

-Thinking like a sociologist means making the familiar strange -Sociologists question what most others take for granted about society

Latent Functions and Dysfunctions

-Unintended consequences -Unrecognized effects -Implicit (versus explicit) Can have either a positive or negative effect on society Shows that 'social life is not as simple as it first seems'

Triangulation

-Using two or more methods in a study in order to validate or check the results -Used to address limitations of any one method

10 Steps in All Sociological Research

1. Define the topic of investigation 2. Find out what others have learned about the topic 3. Assess the requirements for carrying out research 4. Specify the research question 5. Consider the ethical issues 6. Devise a research strategy 7. Gather the data 8. Interpret/analyze the data 9. State your conclusions 10. Disseminate the results

Research Techniques/Methods

1. Experiments 2. Surveys 3. Interviews 4. Field Research 5. Secondary/Historical Data Analysis

3 main ideas to gain from "On Being Sane in Insane Places"

1. Labels are "sticky" 2. The meaning of "normal" or mental illness is socially constructed 3. Definition of the situation is key

Functionalism Major Claims

1. Social consequences and social order is the norm 2. Social problems can be resolved by the system

Conflict Theory Major Claims

1. Social divisions (class, race, religion, gender, status, age, etc.) are built into the social order, the fabric of society 2. Coercion- to avoid conflict- is the basis of society, not consensus or common values 3. Social practices and institutions are structures of domination that serve those in power 4. Dominant values or ideologies usually serve the interests of those in power 5. Social change comes from conflict, usually subordinated groups challenging those in power

What 3 points did C. Wright Mills make in "The Promise" (see page 4)

1. What is the structure of society? What are its components? How are they related to one another? Is one feature more important than others? 2. Where does this society stand in human history? How has it changed? How does X reflect the historical period? 3. What kinds of people live in this society? What are their experiences like? What kind of people are they? What do we know about who they are?

What is a hypothesis?

A proposed explanation for a phenomenon or a prediction about how two variables are related.

What is the "sociological imagination"?

A quality of mind that will help [people] use information and develop...lucid summations of what is going on in the world and what may be happening within themselves- C. Wright Mills "The sociological imagination enables us to grasp history and biography and the relations between the two within society. That is its task and its promise" - C. Wright Mills "The Promise"

A researcher would follow the 10 steps for a qualitative study. Which steps do not apply to quantitative research? A. 0; All sociological research follows the same basic steps. B. 2 and 5 C. 5 and 8 D. 1 - 10; Quantitative researchers follow a different set of steps.

A. 0; All sociological research follows the same basic steps.

Michael Schwalbe (Finding out how the social world works) argues that "research is better suited to answering some questions than others" (p.62). Which kinds of questions do sociologists answer through their research? Empirical, Aesthetic, Interpretative A. Empirical and Interpretative B. Empirical and Aesthetic C. Interpretative and Aesthetic D. All of the above

A. Empirical and Interpretative Empirical: questions that can be answered through observation and experiment Aesthetic: questions about what is subjectively pleasing to the senses Moral: questions that relate to right and wrong; call for a judgement Interpretative: questions about the meaning that can be viewed in different ways by different people

Three Ways to Do Sociology: Positivist Sociology

Approach to the study of society that relies specifically on scientific evidence, such as experiments and statistics, to reveal a true nature of how society operates

In the final section of Lee, et al., the researchers search for statistical correlations between beliefs about homelessness and policy attitudes. Identify the independent variable in their hypothesis. A. Attitudes toward policy B. Beliefs about homelessness C. Exposure to homeless D. Social status (sex, age, race, education, and region of birth)

B. Beliefs about homelessness -Beliefs about homelessness (X) cause the change in variable (Y) -Policy attitudes (Y) change as a result of another variable (X)

Stanford Prison Study What was the most important flaw described in Haney, Banks and Zimbardo (1973)? A. The sample size (N) was too small to accept or reject the hypothesis. B. The researchers did not consider important ethical issues. C. The researchers did not take enough time to gather information. D. The research subjects were predominantly white, middle class males.

B. The researchers did not consider important ethical issues.

Basic vs Applied

Basic ("Classical Sociology") -Search for knowledge/info -Practical implications are not a concern -Good sociology helps us understand society as it is Applied -Search for solutions -Public policy, social problems are primary focus -Good sociology helps us change society Some scholars believe sociologists have a moral and social responsibility to go beyond basic sociology. "Toward a Radical Sociology"- Albert Szymanski

What is Albert Szymanski telling us in "Toward a Radical Sociology"?

Begins by describing what he calls "corporate" sociology or conservative sociology; and then he distinguishes it from radical sociology. These are intentionally provocative terms and they represent what Max Weber might call "ideal types" -broad characterizations intended to point out similarities and differences

Which of the following questions is best answered using qualitative research methods? A. Do Mexican immigrant women have healthier babies than Mexican-American women? B. Are men over 40 more likely to exercise than women over 40? C. Why do so few racial and ethnic minorities own their homes? D. Does being obese as a child decrease the ability to make friends as an adult?

C. Why do so few racial and ethnic minorities own their homes?

Political Perspectives

Conservative vs. liberal vs. radical traditions/orientations

Critical vs. Classical Sociology

Critical -Focuses on social divisions -Societal values represent group interests -Social institutions serve some groups, but not others -Societal change must be revolutionary- conditions only change through resistance and struggle Classical -Focuses on what joins individuals together -Societal values are universal -Social institutions serve the general community -Social change is orderly, progressive (evolutionary) -Values and ideas in society are universally held

What term took over Radical Sociology?

Critical Sociology

Critical Sociology Link to Orientations and Theory

Critical orientation is linked to the conflict approach- both seek to reduce social inequality

What is sociology?

Field of study that analyzes and explains important matters in our personal lives, our communities, and the world.

Define experiments

Formal tests of specific variables and effects that are performed in a controlled setting where all aspects of the situation can be controlled -Used to demonstrate cause and effect - Least commonly used method in socioology

Key Differences between Functionalism and Conflict Theory

Functionalism: -Social order is the norm, conflict is an anomaly -Focus is on what joins us together -Societal values are universal -Social institutions serve the general community Conflict: -Conflict is a constant, normal aspect of everyday life -Focus is on social divisions -Societal values represent group interests -Social institutions serve some groups, but not others

Which author uses sociological research that uses a sociological perspective?

Gaines- "Teenage Wasteland" "The discourse of teenage suicide has been dominated by atomizing psychological and medical models. And so the larger picture of American youth as members of a distinctive generation with a unique collective biography, emerging at a particular moment in history, has been lost" page 10

Theoretical Perspectives

Have to do with different ideas about the nature of society

What does Szymanski mean by corporate sociology? How does he describe corporate sociology?

He argues that capitalist America determines the contours of what sociologists do. In fact, he argues that all we do is collect data for the government or for corporations interested in social control or manipulating us into buying things. He is also very critical of sociologists who see themselves as social philosophers, whose work focuses on abstract concepts and grand theory "The role of a radical sociologist must be to relate people's personal troubles and day-to-day concerns to the dynamics of social structures, thus translating them into political issues"

Benefits of Sociological Perspective

Humanizing Liberating Empowering -Reject belief that you have no freedom or power -Understand obstacles to solving social problems -Beware of simple explanations of complex issues

Interpretative Sociology Link to Orientations and Theory

Interpretative orientation is linked to the symbolic-interaction approach- both focus on the meanings people attach to their social world

Classical Theorists

Karl Marx -Communist Manifesto -emphasized economic inequality Max Weber -Economy and Society -Emphasized power

Functionalism

Main Focus: What holds societies together? 1. Society should be viewed as a system of practices and institutions -Society is an interdependent set of differentiated structures (practices and institutions) functioning together to promote social well-being 2. Societies are like biological organisms whose different parts work together to maintain equilibrium (social order) -Different social institutions perform distinct functions (economic, political, legal, cultural) 3. If institutions or practices persist, they contribute something crucial to society

What are the major divisions in the discipline?

Marco-sociology Micro-sociology

Qualitative Research

Open to Discovery -Interview questions are open-ended -Information you need will take time to gather Goal is to understand the relationship between variables (e.g., status and attitudes) in depth Explains how or why something happens

Agency and Structure

Our experiences are not random but, rather, are shaped by social structure (the organized pattern of relationships and institutions that together form the basis of society" By contrast, structure is those factors of influence (such as social class, religion, gender, ethnicity, customs, etc.) that determine or limit an agent and his or her decisions.

What does Mills propose in "The Promise"? Examples?

Personal trouble or milieu vs. Public issues of social structure Example: Unemployment If a person is unemployed, it is a personal matter. But when your entire communities or a situation where the unemployment rate is high in general, or among a particular segment of the population, it is a public issue concerning a lack of economic opportunities

Methodological Perspectives

Positivist (statistical) vs. Humanist (interpretive)

Positivist Sociology Link to Orientations and Theory

Positivist orientation is linked to the structural-functional approach- both are concerned with the scientific goal of understanding society as it is

Different ways to Analyze Data

Quantitative -Descriptive statistics (Mean, Median, Standard deviation) -Probability -Produce statistics -Use numbers to represent data -Findings are summarized in charts and tables Qualitative -Interpret responses -Look for patterns -Compare and contrast -Use respondents own words in reports -Quotes from research subjects -Detailed descriptions, images or videos from experiments

Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research

Quantitative: -Most concerned with generalizability -Equally important goal is to have precise or accurate measures so the research is convincing Qualitative: -Most concerned with meaning -Goal is to understand a topic in depth or from a particular perspective -This is one of the major fault lines in sociology (Positivism vs. Interpretative) - These are fundamentally different approaches to understanding society

What is a survey?

Questionnaire that are administered to a sample of respondents selected from a target population -Survey research tends to look at large-scale patterns and employs statistics and other mathematical means of analysis -Most commonly used research method in sociology

Results of the reading "On Being Sane in Insane Place"

Results - All pseudo-patients admitted to hospital - 7 of 8 diagnosed as schizophrenic - Normal behavior was interpreted as insane - No staff members suspected them; 35 patients were suspicious - Pseudo-patients stayed in hospital between 7 and 52 days - Discharge with diagnosis of "schizophrenia in remission"

How does the game of monopoly help us to understand what sociology is?

See "The Forest, the Trees, and One Thing" pages 40-41 Social systems are composed of: Roles/Positions Material realities Ideologies Values Rules "We can describe the game without saying anything abut the personalities, intentions, attitudes, or other characteristics of the people who play it. The game in other words has an existence that we can describe all by itself. It exists whether or not anyone is playing it at the moment. The same is true of social systems." (p. 40)

How does Szymanski define radical sociology?

See page 7 1. Relentless curiosity to understand people and society 2. A deep and healthy skepticism towards all established ideas 3. A compassion and identification with the oppressed

Symbolic Interactionism

Society is made up of human beings, therefore focus should be on the individual -Developed at the University of Chicago -Popular from 1910-1960s

What do sociologists study?

Sociologists subject matter is diverse, ranging from crime to religion, from the family to the state, from the divisions of each race and social class to the shared beliefs of a common culture, and from social stability to radical change in whole societies.

Sociology: Societal Level

Sociology examines and explains matters like crime and law, poverty and wealth, prejudice and discrimination, schools and education, business firms, urban community, and social movements

Sociology: Personal Level

Sociology investigates the social causes and consequences of such things as romantic love, racial and gender identity, family conflict, behavior, aging, and religious faith.

Sociology: Global Level

Sociology studies such phenomena as population growth and migration, war and peace, and economic development

Steps in Careful Research

Step 1: Define topic of investigation Step 2: Library Research Step 3: How can I find out more? Step 4: Specify the research question

Symbolic Interactionists claim

Stimulus --> Interpretation --> Response Individuals interpret the social world Human being interact in terms of the meanings they assign their environments

Define Structure and Agency

Structure: is what gives form and shape to social life (set of social practices, institutions, norms) Agency: is individual will, intentions that lead to meaningful action and interaction

Define Interpretative Sociology

Study of society that concentrates on the meanings people associate to their social world

Questions Appropriate for a Survey

Surveys Produce: -Quantitative information about the social world -Descriptions of people/social world Surveys are appropriate for research questions about self-reported beliefs, behaviors

Symbolic Interactionism Main Focus

Symbolic interactionists are concerned with the ways individuals make meaning Reject simplistic model of social behavior Stimulus --> Response

Macro-sociology

Telescope that allows researchers to "zoom out" and see the big picture -Focuses on broad aspects of society -Analyzes human behavior, generally -Social institutions Examples: Immigration, social movements, Inequality

Define Agency

The capacity of individuals to act independently and to make their own free choices Mills

Three Ways to Do Sociology: Interpretative Sociology

The study of society that focuses on the meanings people attach to their social world

Three Ways to Do Sociology: Critical Sociology

The study of society that focuses on the need for social change

Micro-sociology

Tool to allow researchers to "zoom in" on society -Focuses on the individual -Small-scale social phenomenas Examples: Identity, Families, Cultural Symbols, Group Dynamics

Major Idea Lacking in Sociological Research

What about individuals? Symbolic interactionism developed as a response to the exclusive focus on social structure and institutions

On Being Sane in Insane Places

What was the goal of the Rosenhan study? What methods were used? Why? Were there advantages/disadvantages to this approach

Symbolic Interactionism Key Theorists

William I. Thomas -One of the founders of symbolic interactionism -Definition of the situation is key - "Preliminary to any self-determined act of behavior there is always a stage of examination and deliberation" George Herbert Mead -Mind, Self and Society Erving Goffman -The Presentation of Self in Everyday life Herbert Blumer -Symbolic Interactionism: Perspective and Method