Sociology Research Methods Midterm 2

Overview of the Qualitative Data Analysis Process:

1. Prepare the data for analysis 2. Read the data 3. Code the data 4. Find and Generate Themes and Patterns 5. Represent the Themes and Patterns

Beginning the Focus Group Discussion:

There are 2 ways to begin a group discussion: 1. Ice-Breaker Question: this is where each person gives a brief self-introduction: this sets a relaxed atmosphere for the data gathering exercise. 2. Discussion-Starter Question: this presents a general topic and throws discussion open to the group; should be of interest and easily responded to; deters groupthink; can get to topics that participants want to talk about.

Data Collection: Rapport

Establishing relationship of trust, cooperation, and mutual respect (rapport): -Be polite -Dress appropriately -Give the participant your full attention -Express genuine empathy -Be comfortable with silence

When would ethnography be appropriate?

-Appropriate when subculture, culture, or social group is your unit of analysis -When you wish to answer questions about the behavior, norms, values, even language use of a social group, or a culture/subculture -Not appropriate for studies of cause and effect; nor appropriate for comparing two or more groups (the goal is to immerse oneself in one site)

Qualitative Research Does NOT Involve:

-Finding objective cause and effect (but study participants' perceptions of cause and effect are OK). Beginning the research plan with a preconceived notion of what the outcomes will be. -Finding evidence for a theory or hypothesis (not the point, not objective research) -Interpreting subjective experiences (of participants and researchers) as objective facts.

Characteristics of Qualitative Research:

-Natural setting: collect data in the field, not the laboratory or through surveys; Data collected through up-close contact with participants -Researcher as key instrument: data collected ourselves, not by others, no secondary data analysis -Inductive analysis: develop and establish themes embedded in data from the bottom up: starting with the raw data, reading them, and coding them. -Participant's meaning: focus on learning the meaning that participants hold; NEVER about the meaning that the social scientist brings to the research -Emergent Design: as opposed to quantitative research, with qualitative research, plans are not tightly prescribed; they can change throughout the research process. -Reflexivity: social this entails how a social scientist reflects on their role in the study and how their personal background, culture, and experiences hold potential for shaping the direction of the research and the analysis of the data.

Data Collection: the Interviewing Relationship:

-Not a one-sided relationship, but, rather it is a research partnership: it is more active. Things to keep in mind (when interviewing): -The interviewer and the informant are working together to produce information useful to the research project. -The interviewer defines the areas of exploration. The informant provides observations, external and internal, accepting the interviewer's guidance regarding topics. -The interviewer does not ask questions out of idle curiosity. You may ask for information that the informant might not make generally available. -The interviewer must respect the integrity of the informant; the interviewer does not judge responses. The interviewer ensures the informant will not be damaged or disadvantaged because of participation in the interview. All information should remain confidential.

Data Recording Procedures in Qualitative Research:

-Observational protocol: planning needed because of multiple observations; separate descriptive notes from reflexive notes (researcher's personal thoughts, such as speculations, feelings, problems, ideas, hunches, impressions, and prejudices). Interview protocol: plan for asking questions and recording answers: -Protocol should include: basic information about the interview; an introduction, the interview content questions with probes; closing instructions: AND a note about how the interview will be recorded and who (or what) will transcribe the interview to convert the interview into raw data.

Data Collection: Unstructured Interview (Probing):

-Probe respondent to get more details; generalizations not good in final report Remind the informant to elaborate and extend "What happened next?" -Get more detail: "Could you walk me through that?" -Social Context: "Who else was there? Did you talk to anyone about that? (Identifying Actors)" -Inner events: and making indications explicit "How did you feel about...?" -probing into their emotions.

Data Collection Procedures in Qualitative Research:

-Purposeful selection: select participants or sites with a purpose; that purpose being to help answer your research question: probability or random sample is NOT appropriate. -Recruitment: think about strategies for recruitment-what message might you give to potential participants to facilitate recruitment -Number of participants: having a set number is not always appropriate; saturation is best-when participants are not providing any new meaningful data, you have an adequate sample. -Qualitative observation: researchers take field notes on behaviors and activities at research sites; unstructured or semi-structured notes. Notes about what you see, activities, notes on what is going on at the research site. You can write down everything you see (and structure them later) or you can have particular categories. Observers may be non-participants or complete participants -Qualitative interviews: when you are actually talking to people: face-to-face, e-mail, or videoconference (e.g. Skype, Zoom, Facetime); you can conduct interviews one at a time or with 6-8 people at a time as in focus groups Involve semi-structured or structured questionnaires and questions are open-ended.

Interviewing: Getting Started:

-Recording: "Is it okay to start this interview?" -Consent: "These are two copies of our consent form. Could you read one of them, and if it is alright would you sign it and then give it to me while you hang on to the other copy?" -Goal of study: "We are trying to learn about the experiences of young people who have gone through the process of applying to colleges and so we are talking to people who have actually gone through the experience."

Roles as Ethnographer:

-Researcher as social actor - reflect on your status and social role If one sees oneself as an objective researcher (constructivist/interpretivist) who seeks merely to describe and analyze how individuals construct their collective subjective reality (i.e. their subculture)... -Must be sensitive to... 1. Sources of bias, e.g.,... 2, How your presence might influence group interaction 3. How group behavior might diminish your objectivity (i.e., going native) -If one's philosophy of social research is one of transformation and social justice, sensitivity to bias is not as important -Participatory action research: Act as a resource for social change

Description of Ethnography (Qualitative Observation):

-Roots are in anthropological studies of cultures and subcultures -Defined as direct observation of the activities of members of a particular social group, subculture, or culture (as well as relevant materials associated with the group by immersing oneself in the group) -Purpose: description and analysis of the social group, culture, or subculture (non-judgemental evaluation) -Method: Field notes of observations; qualitative interviews

Sources of Data for Ethnography:

-The central task is to obtain rich data to produce thick descriptions and evaluations of the group -How to obtain it? -Observing the behavior and activities of individuals Intensive (unstructured) interviewing (guided conversation to elicit detailed materials from participants) -Gathering qualitative documents (can be public and private documents) -Gathering qualitative audiovisual and digital materials: indlues social media materials, photographs, website pages, text messages, and other materials

Some Interview Guidelines:

-The main thing to keep in mind when gathering information/data through qualitative interviews is to obtain concrete, detailed descriptions of participants' experiences. -We call this thick descriptions. -Be sure to get thick descriptions of external experiences: (the environment, the situation, the other actors). -And get a thick description of internal states: (Emotions, feelings, cognitive reactions). (This is really an exercise of microsociology: we do not care about wider political concerns, but a specific situation.) -Requires a density of detail not provided in an ordinary conversation.

Preparing for Data Collection:

-You need a substantive frame for the interview, looking at the potential topics you want to cover in your interview (called a substantive framework); it's important because the abstract helps you organize your thoughts (what you want to cover) -The set of topics explored, taken together, constitutes the substantive frame of the study. -Researchers can also carry out and use a pilot study (a small part of a full-scale study) to help establish and narrow down the substantive framework. The substantive frame should be part of the research proposal.

What are Characteristics of an Elemental Memo for Qualitative Data Analysis?

1. Detailed analysis of specific matter 2. Built out of selective codes and coding 3. Stream of conscious Analysis through writing process

Data Analysis Procedures in Qualitative Research:

1. Organize and prepare the data for analysis. This involves transcribing interviews, typing up field notes and sorting and arranging the data. Organize and prepare this data because you are getting ready to look at this data: how will you organize it? 2. Read the data. This provides a general sense of the information. 3. Code the data. This is a process of organizing the data by bracketing chunks and writing a word or phrase representing what's going on. 4. Generate a description and themes. This includes a detailed description/information about people, places, or events: one has to connect themes and categories into a storyline or theoretical model. 5. Representing the description and themes: will you represent them in narratives? Illustrations? Visuals? Figures? How will you show what is happening with the data? How are you going to make it streamlined so anyone can understand?

Unique Features of Focus Groups:

1. Other participants get to listen to individual responses 2. Responses may not be independent of each other 3. As participants share opinions etc. with each other, synergy may develop (possibly richer data). 4. Participants may end up somewhere different from what would happen in solo qualitative interview 5. Downside: Answers may be limited by groupthink (Result: distorted data)

The Basics of Qualitative Analysis:

1. Outline 2. Axial coding (generating themes and patterns) 3. Selective coding (representing themes and patterns) 4. Writing memos Evaluating the data and the analysis

Steps in the Data Analysis Process 3.C Axial Coding (Generating Themes and Patterns):

1. 2nd stage of coding analyze open codes for purpose of generating themes and patterns Sort out less productive and less useful codes; focus on productive codes 2. Elaborate on productive codes: some codes are dropped while others are collapsed into more abstract concepts These abstract codes and overarching ideas will be central to later analysis 3. John Lofland and Lyn Lofland suggest some common types of patterns: 1. Frequencies: regularity with which an experience is shared across informants Many parents reported being confused by their child's behavior 2. Magnitudes: experience that has huge impact, although may not be common Jane reported that having to quit her job to take care of her child had an extremely detrimental effect on much needed family income 3. Types: variation of experiences that can be sorted into different categories Parents reported receiving much support: financial, emotional, and practical 4. Processes: common steps or stages of an experience Parents first experienced confusion, then loss, and finally acceptance of their child 5. Structure: essential parts of an experience Parents experienced stigma, both felt (internalized shame) and enacted through the judgment of others

Continuing and Concluding the Focus Group Discussion:

1. After opening statements, introduce the first substantive topic from the guide: -Examples: "One thing I've heard several people mention is ____. I wonder what the rest of you have to say about that?" "Later in the discussion, "I recall that some of you mentioned something a little different earlier, and I wonder how things like ____ fit into the picture?" 2. Provide a clear indication of the session ending. -Example: "Any final thoughts that have occurred to you that you would like to say?"

What are Characteristics of a Sorting Memo for Qualitative Data Analysis?

1. Built out of elemental memos 2. Presents themes in the analysis 3. Make sense of the data 4. Higher level of abstraction

What are Characteristics of an Integrating Memo for Qualitative Data Analysis?

1. Built out of sorting memos 2. Explains connections and relationships among the sorting memos 3. Brings order to the whole project 4. Tells a coherent and comprehensive story in theoretical context

Collecting Information (Ethnography):

1. Field Notes (just as in pure observation) 2. Guide: Member of group who can help and even be a partner in the data collection process 3. Loosely Structured Interviews: 4. Formal Interviews: Pre-arranged; get information on participants' feelings and interpretations; focus on specific behaviors 5. Informal Interviews: inquiries made curing casual or side conversations

Description of Focus Groups

1. Focus group research asks questions and promotes focused and direct conversation among a group; group dynamic is involved...often depending on what you're after, some focus groups will focus on 1,2,3,4 questions they want to answer, while others have a more conversational style 2. Questions are usually on a specific topic-to get thoughts, feelings, reactions, feelings, and opinions. 3. Rule of thumb: groups: 6-10 individuals; could have more than one focus group; and is a 1-2 hour conversation. Best for: 4. Explanatory research Generating new ideas and solutions to problems Applied research (Focus groups are great for learning about a topic we know nothing about, asking people affected by it, such as roadwork by schools or something)

Philosophy of Focus Group Research:

1. Focus group studies should be grounded in interpretivist/constructivist philosophy 2. Primary goal: to understand things from the perspective of the participants as fully as possible (meanings, feelings, perceptions, and experiences). 3. Emphasis on a deeper understanding of a few people, never generalize. 4. Develop a rapport with participants; encourage trust between participants, create a chemistry between interviewer and participants.

Determining the Interview Content for Focus Groups:

1. Goal: Cover topic while generating observations and data that satisfy the four criteria 2. Interview guide should be the same used for each focus group 3. The interview guide should be a natural progression across topics: -Organize based on questions, or... -Organize around a set of topics -The interview content and structure should be very much like individual qualitative interviews

Moderating the Focus Group:

1. Introduce the general topic-don't go into details, or do a soliloquy about the topic-because this might confuse the participants and restrict what they might say. 2. Then, briefly articulate the ground rules: one person speaking at a time, no side conversations, everyone participates with no one dominating. 3. Finally, be sure to state that you are there to learn from them (the participants).

Research Questions:

1. Issues related to community, subculture, workplace, or organization Group processes, shared cultural experiences, changes in opinions or behaviors 2. At an applied level: identifying areas of need, imagining new possibilities, and explaining why something doesn't work the way experts predicted. 3. Also suitable for getting people's reaction to different versions of a policy or program and for evaluation. 4. Not good for understanding individuals' experiences or emotions in great depth, individuals' attitudes, behaviors of which group members are unaware, very private issues, demographic trends, or patterns of behavior across large populations. 5. Not good for cause and effect or relationships between variables.

Defining Qualitative Analysis:

1. It's the nonnumerical examination and interpretation of observations (of data) for the purpose of discovering underlying meanings, themes, and patterns. 2. Data include what researchers hear in qualitative interviews, informal interviews, and other conversations that researchers hear in ethnographies, and conversations in focus group discussions. 3. Data also include what researchers see in pure observations, ethnographies, and group dynamics in focus groups.

Steps in the Data Analysis Process 3.B Open Coding (Initial Coding)

1. Open codes (1st stage of coding)-Codes researchers develop as they read through the transcripts and field notes 2. Coding the Data -interview statement: "I knew I was different. I caught colds very easily and my resistance was very low, so I knew that generally speaking my health wasn't as good as everybody else's, but I tried to do all the things that everybody else was doing." 3. Codes -Self-perception -Awareness of difference -Identifying self through ill health -Comparing health to others'

What is the Data that are Actually Being Observed in Qualitative Analysis?

1. Qualitative interview: transcribed recordings of individual interviews 2. Observation: field notes that researcher takes while observing behavior 3. Ethnography: both field notes of observations made, and recordings (and notes) of informal interviews and conversations. 4. Focus groups: transcribed recordings of the focus group discussions, and perhaps notes of any group dynamics that the researcher finds important

Evaluating the Quality of the Data and Analysis (Interviews)-Qualitative Validity (1):

1. Qualitative validity: a piece of research that uses a qualitative approach (in this case, interviews) has validity when researchers constantly checks for accuracy by employing and documenting certain procedures

4 Criteria for Conducting Effective Focus Group:

1. Range: interview should cover a maximum range of relevant topics.-you want to cover new topics that your respondents want to talk about 2. Specificity: interviews should extract data about personal experiences that are as specific as possible. 3. Depth: Interview should foster interaction that explores participants' feelings in some depth. 4. Personal Context: Interview should attend to personal context from which individual remarks arise.

What are the two ways interview guides can be structured?

1. Semi-structured-where you ask specific questions and then maybe in between prompting further questions, where the probing isn't as important as the question. 2. Loosely structured-there are suggestions for questions, and the questions flow from the participant responses. Please include this (a short interview guide) in your proposal (if this is the medium that you choose).

Advantages of Focus Groups:

Advantage of focus groups (compared to interview method): 1. One can observe group interaction Group interaction provides direct evidence of similarities and differences in opinions and experiences. 2. Interviews have the advantage that the interviewer has more control and has more time to gain in-depth information from each individual and concentrated amount of data (quick, easy, efficient). 3. Focus groups require greater attention to the role of the researcher, provide less depth and details about opinions and experiences of participants.

Third Step in the Qualitative Data Analysis Process:

Coding the Data 1. A Priori Coding (Initial Coding) -Brainstorm possible issues before analysis -Need a priori (that is conceived beforehand) knowledge (from prior personal knowledge or from the literature review) 2. Open Coding (Initial Coding) -Open codes (1st stage of coding) -Codes researchers develop as they read through the transcripts and field notes -Coding with little preconceived notions of what you might expect to find. 3. Axial Coding (Generating Themes and Patterns) 4. Selective Coding (Representing Themes and Patterns and Negative Case)

Some basics about qualitative research:

Consistent with constructivist/interpretivist and transformative/social justice philosophies of social science research Theoretical approach: inductive method Sampling method: non-probability sampling Conceptualization begins during or after data collection

How to Code All Qualitative Data:

Don't forget to code all your data: interview transcript, field notes, and any other text that are included in your data (e.g. qualitative documents and digital materials). 1. Process of organizing data from the typed transcripts and typed field notes 2. Bracket off phrase, sentence, or whole paragraph and write a code word or code words that is shorthand for the meaning of the piece of data 3. There are many different types of codes 4. From codes, themes can be developed.

Choosing a Research Site for Ethnographic Studies:

Evaluation on the basis of... 1. Appropriateness Can I get rich data from observation, interviews, and examination of materials? Access 2. Investigator relationship to setting (Martian vs. Convert); Ascriptive status of researcher and researched; large setting (will I miss too much as a solo researcher?) 3. Ethics Am I heightening the risk of participants through this research? Immediate Risks Am I putting myself at risk? 4. Personal Consequences Upon completion of the published report: Will I feel a sense of betrayal to the group?

Evaluating the Quality of the Data and Analysis (Interviews)-Member Checking (2):

Member checking: Determines accuracy of findings by taking report back to research participants and determine whether themes or findings are accurate from their POV 1. Using thick, rich descriptions—very detailed 2. Clarify bias that researcher brings to the study—how interpretation might be shaped by their background (Gender, culture, SES origin) 3. Negative cases 4. Use external auditor to review entire project

First Step in the Qualitative Data Analysis Process:

Preparing the data for analysis: 1. Transcribe interviews word for word and type out field notes 2. Transcriptions of interviews and field notes done concurrently with with data collection 3. For ethnographies and focus groups, be sure to keep track of who the speaker is as the data is prepared for analysis

Evaluating the Quality of the Data and Analysis (Interviews)-Qualitative Reliability (3):

Qualitative reliability: a piece of qualitative research has reliability when researchers can show that they have used careful and consistent procedures throughout the process: 1. Check transcripts to make sure they do not contain obvious mistakes made during transcription 2. Make sure there is no drift in the definition of codes or a shift in the meaning of the codes during the process of coding 3. Cross-check codes with another researcher: A. intercoder agreement: An agreement based on whether 2 or more coders agree on codes used for the same passage in the transcript

Second Step in the Qualitative Data Analysis Process:

Reading the Data 1. Provides a general sense of information and the opportunity to reflect on the overall meaning 2. What general ideas are informants saying? What ideas are emerging from the field notes? 3. What is the impression of the overall depth, credibility, and use of the information? 4. A good qualitative researcher after accumulating this data might take notes about these questions in margins of transcripts. These notes down the road might be useful for the research study.

Substantive Frame (Example):

Research question: -How do high school students decide on which college to attend? (Decision-making process). -Topics (Substantive Frame) to Consider: A. Initial motivations to attend college B. Deciding on colleges C. The application process D. Waiting for replies from colleges and universities E. Accepting the offer -As the researcher, I want to know what they go through internally and externally.

Steps in the Data Analysis Process 3.D Selective Coding (Representing Themes and Patterns)

Test whether your intuitions are backed up by the data. How? Start by creating a 2x2 table, then... Selective coding: 1. Comb through data to find everything in the transcript that supports patterns and themes you see emerging. 2. Copy and paste direct quotations in "Support" column of your table Comb through data and look for negative cases that do not support, contradict, or are an exception to the pattern. Copy and paste direct quotations in "Negative Cases" column

From Substantive Frame to Interview Guide:

The interview guide is comprised of: -A list of areas to be covered in the interview -For each area, a listing of topics and/or questions that together suggest a line of inquiry. -The guide functions for the interviewer as a prompter for an actor: -The researcher wants to allow both participant and interviewer to be as relaxed and conversational as possible, not just a survey ticking off answers.

Data Collection: Semi-Structured Interview Guide (Example):

Topic: -Initial motivations to attend college Deciding on college Sending out applications -Waiting for replies from colleges and universities -Accepting the offer ++ set of questions pertaining to each topic

What Are the Two Types of Open (Initial) Coding in Qualitative Data Analysis?

Two Types of Open Code (1st stage of coding): These are codes researchers develop as they read through the transcripts and field notes. Must code with little preconceived notions of what you might expect to find 1. Analyst constructed: codes researchers develop on their own 2. Indigenous: codes that an informant produces during the course of the interview (something they say that tip you off and brings their experiences onto the page).

What are the 3 kinds of observation sites that determine whether you need informed consent for the site?

• 3 kinds of sites: ◦ Public place (few or no restrictions on who may be there) - informed consent not needed ◦ Semi-private places (open to not just anyone—usually there for a common purpose) -informed consent needed (of the manager or person of authority) ◦ Private places (must have "invitation") - informed consent needed (of the people you are observing)

What is the Observer Role?

• Complete participant: researcher conceals role as researcher; advantage is "unbiased" experiences with participants; disadvantage is that researcher needs a gatekeeper; also, difficult to take field notes • Participant observer: role of researcher is known by at least one other person in the group, or the entire group. Can record information as it occurs. Disadvantage—increased possibility of bias • Complete observer (non participant observer): researcher observes without participating. Advantage: highly focused on behavior. Observe range of behaviors, not just the ones that involve researcher. Disadvantage: might be seen as intrusive—individuals uncomfortable when watched closely

Sampling for observational studies:

• Sampling strategy for observation site(s) • Appropriateness: choose site or sites that will best help answer your research question • Therefore, use purposive sampling: do research on the possible sire; read articles about similar topics and find out how they sampled; rely on prior experiences and knowledge • But also consider other factors that will go into your decision: ◦ Access: are participants and gatekeepers willing to cooperate? ◦ Feasibility: time and money to spend time at the site to carry out the observations

Choosing a Field Site for Observation:

• Your research question will usually determine the kind of site • The site will determine whether you will need informed consent of those observed • Depending on the size of the group, or whether you think your presence as a researcher in the group will significantly influence behavior, could obtain informed consent from leader or gatekeeper

Some Basics About Observational Research

• a method in which researcher carefully watches people, usually in a natural setting (i.e., not manipulated as in experimental design) • Goal: learn about patterns of interaction and behavior • Usually want to obtain qualitative data that can be interpreted • Usually, attention on small group to understand subtleties of interactional and behavioral patterns • The Researcher takes detailed notes of what they see and sometimes hear. These are called field notes — that's the method of data collection • Examples: ◦ Interactions between teachers and students, male or female behavior at a sports bar, interactions between salespeople and their customers, doctor-patient interactions (usually via video), interactions between restaurant servers and patrons

Observation: Some Reminders

• the observation method is consistent with qualitative approach and the constructivist/ interpretivist philosophy of social science research • But, can be used quantitatively as a small part of a larger research project • Use observations if you want to answer questions about human behavior and social interaction in a natural setting and in common (or even uncommon) situations • Begin the research question with "how...?"

When would the observation method be appropriate?

• when your research question calls for an examination of any one or more of these: ◦ Interactional patterns between 2 or more individuals ◦ Nonverbal behaviors (such as bodily gestures or facial expressions) ◦ Routine behaviors ◦ Behavior that individuals would not want to admit engaging in (e.g., discriminatory behavior; criminal behavior) ◦ Behavior that individuals might be unaware of ‣ Inappropriate for studying emotional states ‣ Not good for cause and effect

Full Observational Field Notes Characteristics:

•Basically a running record of observations (individuals, physical setting, researcher's own thoughts, perceptions, analytic ideas, emotions and feeling) •Write promptly •Record time whenever possible •Be concrete •Style: be sure to be descriptive rather than analytical

Data Logging in Observation: Field Notes

•Before full field notes are taken, other kinds of note taking are useful •Mental notes: orient to people and physical properties of the site; preparation for what researcher will witness later during actual field research • Jotted notes: -Memories -Taken inconspicuously -Fuller jottings: elaboration of brief, jotted notes