Sociology Set #1

Studying sociology can provide people with this wide knowledge and a skill set that can contribute to many workplaces such as

An understanding of social systems and large bureaucracies The ability to devise and carry out research projects to assess whether a program or policy is working The ability to collect, read, and analyze statistical information from polls or surveys The ability to recognize important differences in people's social, cultural, and economic backgrounds The ability to prepare reports and communicate complex ideas The capacity for critical thinking about social issues and problems that confront modern society (Department of Sociology, University of Alabama)

Robert Merton (1910-2003)

Another noted structural functionalist who pointed out that social processes often have many functions.

Group

Any collection of at least two people who interact with some frequency and who share some sense of aligned identity.

Personal troubles

Are private problems experienced within the character of the individual and the range of their immediate relation to others. Mills identified that we function in our personal lives as actors and actresses who make choices about our friends, family, groups, work, school, and other issues within our control. We have a degree of influence on the outcome of matters within this personal level.

Latent functions

Are the unsought consequences of a social process. Unintended and unrecognized consequences of a particular structure. Latent functions of your college years include meeting new people, participating in extracurricular activities, or even finding a spouse or partner. Another latent function of education is creating a hierarchy of employment based on the level of education attained. Latent functions can be beneficial, neutral, or harmful.

Larger social or public issues

Are those that lie beyond one's personal control and the range of one's inner life. These pertain to broader matters of organization and process, which are rooted in society rather than in the individual. Nationwide, students come to college as freshmen who are often ill-prepared to understand the rigors of college life. They haven't often been challenged enough in high school to make the necessary adjustments required to succeed in college.

Social facts

Aspects of social life that shape a person's behavior. These can include the laws, morals, values, religious beliefs, customs, fashions, rituals, and all of the cultural rules that govern social life. These all may contribute to changes in the U.S. family structure. The laws, morals, values, religious beliefs, customs, fashions, rituals, and all of the cultural rules that govern social life (Durkheim 1895). Each of these social facts serves one or more functions within a society.

Grand theories

Attempt to explain large-scale relationships and answer fundamental questions such as why societies form and why they change.

Culture

Culture refers to the group's shared practices, values, and beliefs. Culture encompasses a group's way of life, from routine, everyday interactions to the most important parts of group members' lives. It includes everything produced by a society, including all of the social rules.

Theories vary in scope

Depending on the scale of the issues that they are meant to explain.

Intersectional theory

Examines multiple, overlapping identities that include black, Latina, Asian, gay, trans, working class, poor, single parent, working, stay-at-home, immigrant, and undocumented women, among others. This synthesis of analytical categories takes into consideration the various lived experiences of a more diverse range of women. Utilizes multiple identities (such as race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, economic class, etc.) as important to understanding inequality

Antipositivism

He and other like-minded sociologists proposed a philosophy of social researchers would strive for subjectivity as they worked to represent social processes, cultural norms, and societal values. This approach led to some research methods whose aim was not to generalize or predict (as is traditional in science), but to systematically gain an in-depth understanding of social worlds.

Symbolic interactionism basic premises:

Humans interact with things based on meanings ascribed to those things. The ascribed meaning of things comes from our interactions with others and society. The meanings of things are interpreted by a person when dealing with things in specific circumstances.

Comte's Law of Three Stages:

1. Theological stage 2. Metaphysical stage 3. The scientific or positivist stage

Auguste Comte

A Frenchman who coined the term sociology, from the Latin socius (companion or associate) and the Greek term logia (study of speech). He believed sociology could unify other sciences and improve society. The French Revolution, which began in 1789, greatly impacted Comte, as did the Industrial Revolution in Europe (1760-1840). Questions related to economic class, social status, urbanization, and the dangers of factory work raised new issues about society and social interaction.

Verstehen

A German word that means to understand in a deep, empathetic way. In seeking verstehen, outside observers of a social world—an entire culture or a small setting—attempt to understand it from an insider's point of view. Introduced by Max Weber.

Class consciousness

A common group identity as exploited proletarians and potential revolutionaries. Awareness that one is a proletarian, a worker, and has an understanding of solidarity in a class struggle against the bourgeoisie

The sociological imagination

A concept established by C. Wright Mills (1916-1962) provides a framework for understanding our social world that far surpasses any common sense notion we might derive from our limited social experiences. Mills was a contemporary sociologist who brought tremendous insight into the daily lives of society's members.

Paradigms

A few theories provide broad perspectives that help explain many different aspects of social life Philosophical and theoretical frameworks used within a discipline to formulate theories, generalizations, and the experiments performed in support of them.

Society

A group of people who live in a defined geographic area, who interact with one another, and who share a common culture.

Symbolic interactionism

A micro-level theory that focuses on meanings attached to human interaction, both verbal and non-verbal, and to symbols. A theoretical perspective through which scholars examine the relationship of individuals within their society by studying their communication (language and symbols)

Patriarchy.

A system of seemingly "natural" male control A set of institutional structures (like property rights, access to positions of power and sources of income) that are based on the belief that males (patri means "father") are and should be dominant

Dramaturgical analysis

A technique sociologists use in which they view society through the metaphor of theatrical performance, including role improvisation.

Double consciousness

A term used to describe an individual whose identity is divided into several facets.

Hypothesis

A testable proposition (About society) derived from a theory.

Stigma

An attribute that is deeply discrediting

Constructivism

An extension of symbolic interaction theory which proposes that reality is what humans cognitively construct it to be. We develop social constructs based on interactions with others, and those constructs that last over time are those that have meanings which are widely agreed-upon or generally accepted by most within the society.

Manifest Functions

Intended or obvious consequences of a particular structure

Looking-glass self

Introduced by Charles Horton Cooley Describes how a person's self of self grows out of interactions with others, and he proposed a threefold process for this development: 1) We see how others react to us. 2) We interpret that reaction (typically as positive or negative). 3) We develop a sense of self based on those interpretations. "Looking-glass" is an archaic term for a mirror, so Cooley theorized that we "see" ourselves when we interact with others. Concept that the development of self occurs through interactions with others, based on our understanding of how others perceive us.

One criticism of the structural-functional theory is that

It can't adequately explain social change. Also problematic is the somewhat circular nature of this theory; repetitive behavior patterns are assumed to have a function, yet we profess to know that they have a function only because they are repeated. Furthermore, dysfunctions may continue, even though they don't serve a function, which seemingly contradicts the basic premise of the theory. Many sociologists now believe that functionalism is no longer useful as a macro-level theory, but that it does serve a useful purpose in some mid-level analyses. Criticized for focusing too much on the stability of societies. The paradigm cannot explain the persistence of social behaviors that serve no function.

Conflict theory has been criticized because

It tends to focus on conflict to the exclusion of recognizing stability. Many social structures are extremely stable or have gradually progressed over time rather than changing abruptly, as conflict theory would suggest.

Micro-level theories

Look at very specific relationships between individuals or small groups.

Conflict theory looks at society as a competition for limited resources.

Looks at society as a competition for limited resources. This perspective is a macro-level approach most identified with the writings of German philosopher and sociologist Karl Marx (1818-1883), who saw society as being made up of two classes, the bourgeoisie (capitalist) and the proletariat (workers), who must compete for social, material, and political resources such as food and housing, employment, education, and leisure time. Social institutions like government, education, and religion reflect this competition in their inherent inequalities and help maintain the unequal social structure. In the economic sphere, Marx focused on the "mode of production" (e.g., the industrial factory) and "relations of production" (e.g., unequal power between workers and factory owners). The bourgeoisie owns and controls the means of production, which leads to exploitation due to the profit motive. In this arrangement, proletarians have only their labor to sell, and do not own or control capital.

Conflict Theory

Macro The way inequalities contribute to social differences and perpetuate differences in power. How society defines sources of inequality. A theory that examines society as a competition for limited resources.

Structural Functionalism

Macro or mid The way each part of society functions together to contribute to the whole. Focuses on how large structures fit together.

False consciousness

Marx's term for the proletarian's inability to see her real position within the class system, a mis-recognition that is complicated by the control that the bourgeoisie often exerts over the media outlets that disseminate and normalize information. These are just some of the structural constrains that prevent workers from joining together in what Marx called class consciousness. Proletarians are unable to identify and understand their own class position and exploitation

Symbolic Interactionism

Micro One-to-one interactions and communications

Feminist

One who believes that females should be equal to males

Social institutions

Patterns of beliefs and behaviors focused on meeting social needs, such as government, education, family, healthcare, religion, and the economy.

Theological stage

People took religious views of society.

Metaphysical stage

People understood society as natural (not supernatural).

People with transferable skills are

People whose knowledge and education can be applied in a variety of settings and whose skills will contribute to various tasks. Studying sociology can provide people with this wide knowledge and a skill set that can contribute to many workplaces

Sociological imagination

Pioneer sociologist C. Wright Mills described it as an awareness of the relationship between a person's behavior and experience and the wider culture that shaped the person's choices and perceptions. It is a way of seeing our own and other people's behavior in relation to history and social structure. A key premise is the concept that the individual and society are inseparable. It is impossible to study one without the other.

Macro-level theories

Relate to large-scale issues and large groups of people

Differences in suicide rates might be explained by

Religion-based differences

Sociological theory

Seeks to explain social phenomena

Structural-functional theory/Functionalism,

Sees society as a structure with interrelated parts designed to meet the biological and social needs of the individuals in that society. Functionalism grew out of the writings of English philosopher and biologist, Hebert Spencer (1820-1903), who saw similarities between society and the human body. He argued that just as the various organs of the body work together to keep the body functioning, the various parts of society work together to keep society functioning (Spencer 1898).

Dysfunctions

Social processes that have undesirable consequences for the operation of society. In education, examples of dysfunction include getting bad grades, truancy, dropping out, not graduating, and not finding suitable employment.

Social solidarity

Social ties within a group

The scientific or positivist stage

Society would be governed by reliable knowledge and would be understood in light of the knowledge produced by science, primarily sociology.

Macro-Level

Sociologists using macro-level analysis look at trends among and between large groups and societies. A macro-level analysis might research the ways that language use has changed over time or in social media outlets.

Micro-Level

Sociologists working from the micro-level study small groups and individual interactions. A micro-level study might look at the accepted rules of conversation in various groups such as among teenagers or business professionals.

Three paradigms have come to dominate sociological thinking, because they provide useful explanations:

Structural functionalism Conflict theory Symbolic interactionism

Sociology

Study of groups & group interactions. societies & societal interactions. The scientific study of social behavior and human groups.

Manifest functions

The consequences of a social process that are sought or anticipated. A manifest function of college education, for example, includes gaining knowledge, preparing for a career, and finding a good job that utilizes that education.

Feminist theory

The critical analysis of the way gender affects societal structures, power, and inequality

Power elite

The dominant individuals and groups within the military, business world, governments, and other institutions who are at the top of the power hierarchy

Communication

The exchange of meaning through language and symbols—is believed to be the way in which people make sense of their social worlds.

Figuration

The process of simultaneously analyzing the behavior of individuals and the society that shapes that behavior. An application that makes this concept understandable is the practice of religion. While people experience their religions in a distinctly individual manner, religion exists in a larger social context.

Positivism

The scientific study of social patterns. He believed that using scientific methods to reveal the laws by which societies and individuals interact would usher in a new scientifically oriented "positivist" age of history. In this view, rational claims are seen as scientifically and systematically verifiable, and are opposed to metaphysical and or supernatural explanations. Comte also believed in the potential of social scientists to improve society. He held that once scholars identified the laws that governed society, sociologists could address problems such as poor education and poverty.

Reification

The term used to describe this mistaken tendency, where one treats an abstract concept as though it has a real, material existence. It is important to remember that culture is produced by the people in a society, and therefore sociologists take care not to treat the concept of "culture" as though it were alive in its own right.

Proletariat

Those who labor in the means of production (workers) and who do not possess or control capital, as the bourgeoisie does.

Bourgeoisie

Those who owned the means of production (i.e. factory owners in the Industrial Revolution).

Conflict Theory views society

Through the lens of power differentials & how different groups are affected & treated differently based on education, race, ethnicity, & gender.

social dysfunction

any social pattern that may disrupt the operation of society

Sociological theory is

constantly evolving and should never be considered complete. Classic sociological theories are still considered important and current, but new sociological theories build upon the work of their predecessors and add to them (Calhoun 2002).

Qualitative sociology

seeks to understand human behavior by learning about it through in-depth interviews, focus groups, and analysis of content sources (like books, magazines, journals, and popular media).

Quantitative sociology

uses statistical methods such as surveys with large numbers of participants. Researchers analyze data using statistical techniques to see if they can uncover patterns of human behavior.