SOCL 302 Exam 4

We must question claims that provide no credibility

"Our statistics prove it!" -We must learn what methods were used, how they were applied, and whether finals interpretations square with the evidence

Front matter and back matter

(p. 274) Front matter, beginning: Executive summary Back matter: Appendixes

Measures of Central Tendency

1. Mean 2. Median 3. Mode

Fundamentals of Qualitative Methods

1. Observation 2. Intensive interviewing 3. Focus groups 4. Case study

Ethics in qualitative research

1. Voluntary participation 2. Subject well-being 3. Identity disclosure 4. Confidentiality

Goal of literature review

A good literature review is the foundation for a good research proposal -The goal is to integrate the results of your separate article reviews and develop an overall assessment of the implications of prior research Should accomplish three goals: 1. Summarize prior research 2. Critique prior research 3. Present pertinent conclusions

Bar Chart

A graphic for qualitative variables in which the variables distribution is displayed with solid bars separated by spaces -Good for displaying the distribution of variables measured in discrete categories (religion, marital status, etc)

Histograms

A graphic for quantitative variables in which the variable's distribution is displayed with adjacent bars -No necessary gaps

Key Informant

An insider who is willing and able to provide a field researcher with superior access and information, including answers to questions that arise in the course of the research -Is an knowledgable insider who knew the group's culture and was willing to share access and insights with the researcher

Secondary Data Analysis

Analysis of data collected by someone other than the researcher or the researcher's assistant -The GSS Data Analysis used in the reading over voting

Articles usual length

Around 30 pages

Reporting research

Communicating your discovery to a larger audience: social scientists, government officials, teachers, the general public

Two approaches for analyzing qualitative

Deductive: Hypothesis-testing appraoch Inductive: Exploratory approach

Summary statistics

Describe particular features of a distribution and facilitate comparison among distributions

A methodological plan

Details just how you will respond to the particular mix of opportunities and constraints you face

First step in data analysis is to..

Discover the variation in each variable of interest

Data set

Displays data for each case on one line with each variable in column

Managing personal dimensions

Field researchers can not help but be affected on a personal and emotional level -The researcher has a role to play -There is no formula for successfully managing the personal dimension of research, instead it flows from the researcher's own personality

Mixed participation role

Has clear ethical advantages p. 186

Base Number (N)

The total number of cases in a distribution

Golden rule of good writing...

Writing is revising!

Null hypothesis

Ho There is no difference between variables or no relationship between variables If p<0.05 then our result is stat signif and we reject Ho -on the other hand- If p>0.05 (more) than our result is not stat signif and we *fail* to reject Ho

A statement of limitations

Is where you review weaknesses of the proposed research and present plans for minimizing their consequences

Important when addressing nonacademic audience...

Make the findings and conclusions engaging and clear

One problem with the mode occurs when a distribution is...

1. Bimodal 2. Unimodal

A good research proposal

1. Helps you plan your study 2. Can get your study funded

Jottings

Brief notes written in the field about highlights of an observation period

Standard deviation

The distance from the mean that covers a clear majority of cases Is the square root of the average squared deviation of each case from the mean -Preferred measure of variability in many cases, particularly when the variable is normally distributed

Intensive interviewing

-Relies on open-ended questions -Follow the content of the response rather than a fixed interview schedule -Ask follow up questions -Ask "grand tour" questions -Interviews continue until a saturation point is reached -Must build rapport

General rules for creating a codebook

1. All surveys should be given an ID number (top right corner) 2. There should be dummy variables: two categories, category one is the category of interest Example: MALE interest 1=male, 0=female

Proposal components

1. An introductory statement of the research problem 2. A literature review 3. A methodological plan 4. A budget 5. An ethics statement 6. A statement of limitations

Three features that are important to describe the shape of the distribution

1. Central Tendency 2. Variability 3. Skewness (lack of symmetry) -All three can be represented in a graph or in a frequency distribution

Similarities in qualitative methods

1. Collection is primarily qualitative 2. Begins with exploratory research questions 3. Focus on previously unstudied processes and unanticipated phenomena 4. Have an orientation to social context 5. Focus on human subjectivity and meaning 6. Use of idiographic causal explanation 7. Reflexive research design 8. Sensitivity to the subjective role of the researcher

Roles of the observer

1. Covert observer (uses systematic observation) 2. Complete observer 3. Covert participant 4. Overt participant or true participant observer

Cases that a researcher may choose

1. Critical case 2. Typical case 3. Deviant case (p. 188) *Studying more than one case or setting almost always strengthens the causal conclusions and makes the findings more generalizable

Ease the burden of writing by...

1. Draw on research proposal and on project notes 2. Refine your word processing skills on the computer 3. Seek criticism

Three qualitative methods that illustrate flexibility

1. Ethnography 2. Netnography 3. Ethnomethodology

Analyzing data ethically

1. Inspect the shape of a distribution to assure that it is not misleading and there is not skewness 2. Consider the axes you plan to choose when creating a graph 3. Inspect the ungrouped distribution 4. Test hypotheses formulated in advance of data collection 5. Be honest about limitations of using survey data to test causal relationships p. 174

Research report should include

1. Introductory statement of the research problem 2. Literature review 3. Methodology section 4. A findings section 5. Discussion section 6. Conclusion section 7. Bibliography (maybe an appendix)

Three qualitative strategies

1. Participant observation 2. Intensive interviewing 3. Focus groups

Measures of variation

1. Range 2. Variance 3. Standard Deviation -Tells us the shape of the distribution

When you try to publish

1. Send manuscript to one peer-reviewed journal at a time -Thoroughly review and follow their guidelines before sending -Have a few journals in mind to send to, consider the prestige and acceptance rate 2. Editor sends out to 3 anonymous reviewers for blind-review (your name in not in the manuscript) -Accept(rare), deny(most common), and Revise and resubmit 3. Initial review process is 3 months -If you get revise and resubmit one usually has 3 months to do so -Can get multiple revise and resubmits -From time accepted to published ranges from months to a year

Bimodal

A distribution in which two nonadjacent categories have about the same number of cases and these categories have more cases than any others -Has two categories with a roughly equal number of cases and clearly more cases than the other categories

Unimodal

A distribution of a variable in which only one value is the most frequent

Frequency Polygon

A graphic for quantitative variables in which a continuous line connects data points representing the variables distribution, represents the number of percentages of cases with each value (p. 160) -This page includes spotting problems in work

Gamma

A measure of association that is sometimes used in cross tabular analysis -Used with ordinal variables -Value of gamma ranges from -1 to +1 -A gamma of zero indicates that there is no relationship between the two variables

Correlation Coefficient

A measure of association, denoted as "r" Ranges from -1 to +1 -Absolute value tells you the strength of the relationship (one is perfect and zero is no correlation) The sign (- or +) tells the nature of the relationship: positive or negative

Gatekeepers

A person in a field who can grant researchers access to the setting -Should be honest and should identify what the participants can expect from the research, without necessarily going into detail about the researcher's hypotheses or research questions

Participant observation

A qualitative method for gathering data that involves developing a sustained relationship with people while they go about their normal activities -Seeing the world as the research subject sees it and understanding subjects' interpretations of that world

Intensive (depth) interview

A qualitative method that involves open-ended, relatively unstructured questioning in which the interviewer seeks in-depth information of the interviewee's feelings, experiences, and perceptions -Relies on open ended questions to develop a comprehensive picture of the interviewee's background, attitudes, and actions -To listen to people as they describe how they understand the worlds in which they live and work

Focus groups

A qualitative method that involves unstructured group interviews in which the focus group leader actively encourages discussion among participants on the topics of interest -Collections of unrelated individuals, convened by a researcher and then led in group discussion of a topic for 1 to 2 hours -Resulting information is qualitative and relatively unstructured -Group brought together by the researcher, discuss questions from1-2 hours, researcher guides discussion Although weak in producing reliable, generalizable results, focus groups can be indispensable for developing hypotheses and survey questions, for investigating the meaning of survey results, and for quickly assessing the range of opinion about an issue

Ethnomethodology

A qualitative research method focused on the way that participants in a social setting create and sustain a sense of reality -Construct the social world in which they live

Systematic Observation

A researcher must use this to develop a standard form on which to record variation-- Develop a form to record observed behaviors in a setting -From random sample of time and places Variables of interest here may be: frequency of some behavior(s), the particular people observed, the weather or other environmental conditions, the number and state of repair of physical structures

Complete participation role

A role in field research in which the researcher does not reveal his or her identity as a researcher to those who are observed -They "go native" -Operates as a fully functioning member of the setting -This researcher is covert or secret -They must write up notes from memory -Ethical issues are have been at the forefront of the debate over the strategy of covert participation

Complete observation

A role in participant observation in which the researcher does not participate in group activities and is publicly defined as a researcher Must be aware of reactive effects-- which are the changes in an individual or group behavior that are due to being observed or otherwise being studied -If it is not "natural" for someone to be present

Theoretical Sampling

A sampling method recommended for field researchers by Glaser and Strauss in 1967 -Drawn in a sequential fashion, with settings or individuals selected for study as earlier observations or interviews indicate that these settings or individuals are influential -When they focus their investigation on particular processes that seem to be important and select instances to allow comparisons or checks with which they can test their perceptions

Variance

A statistic that measures the variability of a distribution as the average squared deviation of each case from the mean -Takes each cases distance from the mean, then square that number, and take the average of all such numbers -Takes into account the amount by which each case differs from the mean -Not interpretable but used in significance tests

Normal distribution

A symmetric distribution shaped like a bell and centered around the population mean, with the number of cases tapering off in a predictable pattern on both sides of the mean -Mean, median, and mode all equal zero here -Symmetric but the tails are asymptotic

Measure of association

A type of descriptive statistic that summarizes the strength of an association

Extraneous Variable

A variable that influences both the independent and the dependent variables so as to create a spurious association between them that disappears when the extraneous variable is controlled -Ruling these out helps to strengthen the conclusion-- that it is not spurious

Netnography

AKA cyberethnography and virtual ethnography The use of ethnographic methods to study online communities -similar to ethnography but these can focus on communities that are physically distant and dispersed -can keep both observational and reflective notes, but can also return to review the original data, posted text (traditional ethnographer can't do this)

Results of these tests

All tests have a p-value or a probability value -This means that the probability that the test result is a real result we would find in the population and not simply due to chance -We are willing to take a 5% chance that we are wrong (p<0.05)

Top Journals in Sociology

American Journal of Sociology American Sociological Review Social Forces -Each sub discipline has it's own top journal

Chi-square

An inferential statistic used to test hypothesis about relationships between two or more variables in a cross-tabulation Example: p<.05 ---which means that the probability that the association was due to chance is less than 5 out of 100 (5%)

Formulas for these tests...

Are different but the results are interpreted the same way Examples of these tests: ANOVA Test of correlation coefficient T-test for independent or dependent samples Regression Analysis

Controlling for a third variable

Cross tabulation can be used to study the relationship between three or more variables -The single most important reason for introducing a third variable is to see whether a bivariate relationship is spurious

Distribution

How cases are distributed across attributes of the variable How do we do this? -With graphs and charts -Measures of central tendency -Measures of variability

An ethics statement

Identifies human subjects issues in the research and how you will respond to them in an ethical fashion

Data Definiton Program

Identifies the variables that are coded in each column or range of columns, attaches meaningful labels to the codes, and distinguishes values representing the missing data

A great place to look for articles is...

In the reference of other articles

Variables in crosstab

Independent is in the columns, dependent is in the rows -must always calculate percentages within levels of the independent variable -Adding numbers *down the columns (p. 170)

Establishing and maintaining a partnership

Interviewees should be treated with respect, as knowledgable partners whose time is valued -A commitment to confidentiality should be stated and honored

Entering the field

Is a critical stage in a participant observation project -Field researchers must be very sensitive to the impression they make and the ties they establish when entering the field

Statistic

Is a numerical description of a population usually based on a sample of that population -A numerical description of some feature of a variable in a sample a larger population -Frequency distributions, graphs, measures of central tendency and variation, and reliability testing

APA Style

Is used in sociology and the best resource to use is Purdue Owl Example: Citations included: Title is uppercase but all else in lower case

An introductory statement

Is where you clarify what it is that you are interested in studying

A literature review

Is where you explain how your problem and plans build on what has already been reported in the literature on this topic -Looking back on other people's research, asking questions like: how can I improve this?

A budget

Is where you present a careful listing of the anticipated costs

Codebook

Is your survey with codes written for variable names and numeric indicators for each possible response

Top Family Journal

Journal of Marriage and Family (15% accepted/published)

Qualitative Methods

Methods, such as participant observation, intense interviewing, and focus groups, that are designed to capture social life as participants experience it rather than in categories the researcher predetermines. These methods typically involve exploratory research questions, inductive reasoning, an orientation to social context, and a focus on human subjectivity and the meanings participants attach to events and to their lives -Examples of research activities: participant observation, intensive interviewing, and focus groups

Double Blind Review

Neither authors nor reviewers know who each other are -Manuscript doesn't have author's information on it

Field Notes

Notes that describe what has been observed, heard, or otherwise experienced in a participant observation study. These notes are usually written after the observational session. -Primary means for recording participant observation data -Brief notes serve as memory joggers -It helps to maintain a daily log -Must be complete, detailed, and true

Frequency distributions

Numerical display showing the number of cases and usually the percentage of cases (the relative frequencies) corresponding to each value or group of values of a variable -Displays the number, percentage, or both corresponding to each of a variable's values

Quartiles

Points in a distribution corresponding to the first 25% of the cases, the first 50% of the cases, and the first 75% of the cases

Field research

Research in which natural social processes are studied as they happen and left relatively undisturbed -Combines various forms of qualitative research

Steps to looking up information

Research using WKU Libraries: 1. Database 2. S for Sociology 3. Epsco --or other 4. Search topic 5. Check peer-reviewed 6. Add key words (Example: Parents) this helps to decrease the number of articles 7. Click the title to go to the full text

Observation

Sees the world as the research subjects see it

Cross tabulation

Show the relationship between two or three variables and how those variables are associated with each other -Display the distribution of one variable within each category of another variable (bivariate distribution) -A bivariate (2 variable) distribution showing the distribution of one variable for each category of another variable; can also be elaborated using three or more variables

Descriptive Statistics

Statistics used to describe the distribution of and relationship among variables -Measures of central tendency and measures of variation are both descriptive statistics -Crosstabs are also descriptive statistics

Inferential Statistics

Statistics used to estimate how likely it is that a statistical result based on data from a random sample is representative of the population from which the sample is assumed to have been selected -The degree of confidence that can be placed in generalizations from a sample to the population from which the sample was created -All based on the normal curve and probability theory

Mean

The arithmetic, or weighted, average computed by adding up the value of all the cases and dividing by the total number of cases -Higher numbers pull up and lower numbers pull a mean down -For ordinal, interval, or ratio level measurement (p. 165) -Some will say that a mean is not accurate if there is an outlier but that is not true; it is accurate for what it is measuring, it just may not be the best way to describe the data in that case

Skewness

The extent to which cases are clustered more at one or the other end of the distribution of a quantitative variable rather than in a symmetric pattern around its center. Skew can be positive (a right skew) with the number of cases tapering off in the positive direction, or negative (left skew) with the number of cases tapering off in a negative direction

Variability

The extent to which cases are spread out through the distribution or clustered around just one variable

Statistical significance

The mathematical likelihood that an association is not due to chance, judged by a criterion the analyst sets (often that the probability is less than 5 out of 100 or p<.05) -The relationship is actually there, there is not a chance of occurrence

Central Tendency

The most common value (nominal level) or the value around which cases tend to center (for quantitative variables)

Mode (probability range)

The most frequent value in a distribution -Also termed the probability average because being the most frequent value, it is the most probable -Used much less often the other two measurements -But in some cases the mode is very appropriate to use

Saturation point

The point at which subject selection is ended in intensive interviewing because new interviews seem to yield little additional information

Median

The position average, or the point, that divides a distribution in half (50th percentile) -To figure the median we array a distribution's values in numerical order and find the value of the case that has an equal number of cases above and below it -The median finds the average of the two middle values by dividing in two -determined by identifying the value corresponding to a cumulative percentage of 50

Data Cleaning

The process of checking data for errors after the data has been entered into the computer file -data must be checked closely for errors

Elaboration analysis

The process of introducing a third variable into an analysis to better understand, to elaborate, the bivariate relationship under consideration -Additional control variables can also be introduced

Interquartile range

The range in a distribution between the end of the 1st quartile and the beginning of the 3rd quartile ; helps avoid outliers

Percentage

The relative frequency, computed by dividing the frequency of cases in a particular category by the total number of cases and multiplying by 100

Ethnography

The study and systematic recording of human cultures -Long standing traditional method of anthropological studies -Refers to participant observation by a single investigator immersing in the group for a long period of time -Can be termed as naturalistic, seeks to describe and understand the natural social world as it really is

Range

The true upper limit in a distribution minus the true lower limit -The range can be altered drastically by an outlier, therefore it is not a good summary measure for most purposes -The simplest measure of variation

Peer Reviewed Academic Article

These hold more weight in the research field than other things (books, websites)

Graphs and frequency distributions are...

Two most popular display formats

Quantitative Data Analysis

Using numbers to discover and describe patterns in your data -This is the most elementary use of social statistics Statistical techniques used to describe and analyze variation in qualitative measures

Successful report must be...

Well organized and clearly written -Outline a report before writing it