Spanish FTCE K-12

The "Boom" and "Post-Boom" in Latin American Literature

1960-1980s

Cristóbal Colón (1451-1506)

A navigator originally from Genoa, Italy, Colón (or Columbus, as he is known in English), sailed to the New World four times as a representative of the Spanish crown (Ferdinand II and Isabella I). His original goal was to find a route to the East. He is credited with visiting and/or colonizing the Caribbean islands of Bahamas, Haiti, Cuba, the Antilles, and the eastern coasts of Central and South America and is considered the first of the discoverers of American.

In 1839

Guatemala officially became its own country. Agriculture is the most important sector of the economy of Guatemala, especially coffee, sugar cane, and bananas.

1808-1810

Juntas and loyalists struggle over power in the capitals of Mexico, Uruguay, Chile, Venezuela, Colombia, Bolivia, Argentina, and Ecuador.

Latin American Revolutions and Post-Modernism

1900-1960's: The 20th century in Latin American politics was tumultuous. While each country has had its own political journey, some common themes and patterns emerge in the struggles of the region.

Mexican Revolution (1910-1920)

Also known as the Mexican Civil War, the Mexican Revolution was prompted by discontent with the 31-year rule of Porfirio Diaz. The landed elites sought to oust him through an election in 1910: when the election proved to be rigged against them, they rose up in arms. Francisco Madero was chosen as the leader of the new government in 1911, but the revolution spread to the middle and laboring classes, and Madero was met with disenchantment from his fellow elites on the right and from the new, poorer revolutionaries on the left. A counter-revolutionary regime, led by General Victoriano Huerta, came into power after assassinating Madero in 1913 and was ousted in 1914. At this piont, an all-out civil war began between the Constitutionalists and the revolutionaries, who were led by famous fighters Pancho Villa and Emiliano Zapata. The armed conflict lasted until 1919 and shifted from a two-sided fight to a power struggle between multiple factions. A constitution was written in 1917 and began to be enforced in 1920. The death toll of the Civil war was high-some estimates set it at 10% of the population at the time. The war had a lasting impact on Mexican society, as the government formed afterward provided a shift toward social justice and liberal economics.

Argentina

Argentina is in South America to the south of Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay, and part of Brazil. Chile is to its west. The capital is Buenos Aires, and the currecency is the peso. Several Indian groups inhabited the large territory in Pre-Colombian times. In 1561, Juan Díaz de Solís discovered the Río de la Plata, and in 1536 Pedro de Mendoza founded Buenos Aires. The region was not very important to Nueva España until 1776 when Spain established the Viceroyalty of the Rio de la Plata. Argentina stayed under the dominance of spain until 1816 when it declared its independence. In the second half of the 20th century, Argentina's politics were dominated by Juan Perón, a popular dictator, and groups who opposed him. Argentina is still haunted by the "disappearance" of dissenters that occured in the '70s and '80s under the military rule that deposed the Perones. The economy of Argentina is based on livestock, grains and oil

Panana in 1821

Became part of Colombia. Because of its interest in creating the Panama Canal, the United States was a key player in Panamanian Independence from Colombia, achieved in 1903. The USA settled the Hay-Bunau-varilla treaty with the new Panamanian republic, which gave the USA jurisdiction over the zone where the canal was to be built. The Panama Canal is a strategic holding both economically and militarily. After unrest in the 1970s, the USA agreed to gradually hand over control of the canal to Panama.

Indigenous Rights

Because of the increased contact between indigenous communities and the urban culture, indigenous rights has been a key issue in Latin American politics in the 20th century. Indigenous languages such as Náhuatl and Quechua has been granted official language status in some countries. There has been a push against the idea that the more European you look, the more status you can have, a cultural ideal since the colonization of the region. At the beginning of the 21st century, individuals of indigenous descent reached the highest political offices of their countries for the first time (for example, Evo Morales of Bolivia and Alejandro Toledo of Peru).

1822

Bolivar and San Martin meet in Ecuador and decide to join forces

Bolivia

Bolivia is in South America to the south of Brazil and Peru, to the east of chile, and to the north of Argentina and Paraguay. It is interesting to note that the country does not have access to the sea. The constitutional capital is Sucre, but the administrative capital and seat of the government is La Paz. It has declared Spanish, Quechua, and Guarani, Aymara, and 33 other indigenous languages official languages. In Pre-Colombian times, the Pukina and the Aymara inhabited the area but were under the Inca Empire. In 1530, bolivia was discovered by Gonzalo and hernando Pizarro while they were exploring what is now Peru. Bolivia was important during the colonial period because of its silver mines in Cerro Rico in Potosi. bolivia was part of teh Alto Peru until 1776 when it was incorporated to the Viceroyalty of the Rio de la Plata. In 1825, simon Bolivar declared the independence of Bolivia. A large majority of Bolivians are of indigenous heritage but has not traditionally had political or economic power. In recent years, this has begun to change, most notably with the election of Evo Morales as president. Bolivia has rich national resources, including tin, silver, and natural gas, but most of the economy can be described as subsistence. Coca is one of the major crops.

Carlos Fuentes (1928-2012)

Carlos Fuentes was a Mexican writer and diplomat. In his novels, he explores Mexican culture and looks for a way to preserve it. His novels include La region ma2s transparente, Las buenas conciencias, Cambio de piel, la Muerte de Artemio Cruz, Aura, Zona sagrada, Tierra nostra, Cumpleaños, La cabeza de hidra, Gringo viejo, Cristóbal Nonato, and La frontera de cristal. They are based in the historical and explore real themes, but do so as works of fiction, often employing magic realism. Fuentes also wrote non-fiction, essays, and short stories.

1823

Central America breaks off from Mexico and forms its own federation.

Chile

Chile is in South America to the south of Peru, the southeast of Bolivia, and the west of Argentina. The Andres run through the country. The Atacama Desert is in the north. The capital is Santiago, and the currency is the Chilean peso. in Pre-Colombian times, the Incas and the Araucanians inhabited the area. In 1536, Diego de Almagro explored the territory. In the 1540s and the 1550s, Pedro de Valdivia conquered the area. In 1778, it became it own colonial division rather than being connected to the viceroyalty of Peru. After long fights lead by Bernardo O'Higgins and Jose de San Martin, in 1818, Chile declared its independence from Spain. In the 20th century, Chile grappled with leftist and rightist politics. In 973, Gerneral Augusto Pinochet took control of the country. He was not removed from power until 198. He regime committed military violence and has faced many charges of human rights violations. The economy of Chile is based in agriculture and minerals. It is the world's largest producer of copper and has also become known for its wine. Due to the different climates in the country, tourism plays a role in the economy as well.

Colombia

Colombia is in South America, south of the Isthmus of Panama, and is the country where South America begins. It borders with Venezuela and the atlantic Ocean on the east, the Pacific Ocean on the northeast, Ecuador and Peru on the southwest, and Brazil on the southeast. The andes run through the country. The capital is Bogotá, and the currency is the Colombian peso. In Pre-Colombian times, the Chibchas, the Muiscas, and the Quechuas inhabited the area. In 1501, Rodrigo de Bastidas explored the region. Between 1524 and 1534, the Spaniards colonized the area and called it Nueva Granada. In 1821, after many battles and changes in government, Colombia, together with Ecuador and Venezuela, was organized under the name República de la Gran Colombia. In 1830, after the secession of Ecuador and Venezuela as independent nations, the territory that is today Colombia also became its own republic. It was known as Nueva Granada until 1863, when its name changed to the United States of Colombia. In the last half of the 20th century, Colombia has seen much violence from both leftist and rightist guerilla groups (FARC being the most wellknown). The drug trade allowed these groups to find funding more easily. The Colombian economy is chiefly agricultural. Most important exports are coffee, corn, rice, sugar, cotton, and bananas. Oil is also a leading import, a are illegal drugs such as cocaine.

Hernán Cortés (1485-1547)

Cortes first sailed to Cuba and Hispaniola (modern Haiti) and the Spanish colonies already established there. From Cuba he went on expedition to the mainland of North America. He is most well-known for his role there in toppling the Aztec empire and colonizing most of modern-day Mexico for Spain. He did this by allying with the Tlaxcaltecs, enemies of the Aztecs and is also known for his harsh treatment of the Aztecs and other indigenous peoples.

1898

Cuba and Puerto Rico win their independence from Spain in the Spanish-American War after several unsuccessful attempts at revolution.

David Alfaro Siqueiros (1896-1974)

David Alfaro Siqueiros was a Mexican-painter contemporary with Orozco and Rivera. He painted murals in Mexico after the Mexican Revoluiton. His murals and other works are more realistic than those of Rivera and Orozco, but they show also aspects of Pre-Colombian culture and its relationship with colonial culture in Mexico. He was very influenced by and involved in politics and his works have Marxist messages. All his works are in Mexico City. among his best known pieces are Nueva democracia, Víctimas de la guerra, victimas del fascismo, el tormento de Cuauhtémoc, el entierro del obrero sacrificado, los elementos, los mitos, and El llamado de la libertad.

Festivals and Traditions

Dia de los muertos is perhaps the most well-known Latin American festival. Many Latin American festivals revolve around Catholic feasts or holy days, but similarly to Dia de los muertos, involve a good deal of syncretism and therefore reflect local history and tradition as well. Semana santa (holy week), las posadas (on Christmas Eve) and Carnaval (Mardi Gras) are some examples of these celebrations. Many of the regions have local saints that they celebrate (La Virgen de Guadalupe, La Virgen de la Candelaria, etc.) It is also traditional for a girl to have a lavish party on her 15th birthday, called a quinceañera.

Diego Rivera (1886-1957)

Diego Rivera was a Mexican painter. He is one of the most famous muralists in the world and the most famous of the three main Mexican muralists: Rivera, Orozco, and Siqueiros. He was influenced by the Italian Renaissance but also by the Russian communist movement. After the Mexican revolution, he painted several murals in Mexico City. Mnay of his pieces include the revalorization of indigenous Mexican roots. They also include symbols and historical figures from the colonial period. HIs major works (la creacion, la leyenda de Quetzalcoatl), Historia de México: de la conquista al futuro, Sueño de una tarde dominical en la Alameda Central, la historia de la cardiología) are in Mexico City in the Palacio de Bellas Artes, the Escuela Preparatoria Nacional, the Universidad Iberoamericana, and the Palacio Nacional Other words can be found in New York and Detroit. He was married to the painter Frida Kahlo.

Latin American Cultural Practices and Perspectives

Diversity, Religion, Family and Lifestyle, Festivals and Traditions, and Language

El Salvador

El Salvador is the smallest country in the Central America. It is to the south Guatemala and the west of Honduras. The currency is the Salvadoran colón. In pre-Colombian times, it was inhabited by the Mayans, specifically the Pipils. IN the 1524, Pedro de Alvarado conquered the territory and founded San Salvador, today's capital. In 1824, it incorporated with the Provincias Unidas de Centroamérica and, in 1841, it declared its independence as a nation. El Salvador suffered a civil war between leftist guerillas and right-wing military from 1977 to 1979. A presidential regime was established in 1983. Coffee is the main agricultural product of El Salvador.

Oligarchy and Maxism

Even after the independence movements of the 19th century, many countries in Latin AMerica were marked by an oligarchical structure of government politically, economically, and culturally. The elite class (primarily of European descent) held an outsized amount of power and capital. To counter the oligarchy common in the countries of the region, Marxism presented itself as an appealing structure. Broadly speaking, many of the 20th century conflicts in Latin America have had at their root the contrasting political economic, and social views of the traditional oligarchy and of left-leaning reformers.

Frida Kahlo (1907-1954)

Frida Kahlo was a 20th century Mexican painter. She was born and died in Mexico City. She contracted polio as a child, and throughout her life she suffered because of this and other health issues, some of them caused by a bus accident when she was a teenager. After her accident, she stopped the medical studies she was pursuing and started her career as a painter. She married Mexican painter Diego Rivera. In her work, she used bright colors and simple and primitive forms deeply rooted in Mexican and Amerindian culture. Her paintings were also influenced by Surrealism. She is known mainly for her self-portraits and other depictions of the feminine form. Julie Taymor directed the movie Frida in which Salma Hayek played the role of the artist.

Military Regimes and Dictatorships

From the beginning of the revolutionary movements, the military leaders were heavily involved in the formation nad ruling of the countries of Latin America. This legacy lived on in the 20th century, and the military often involved themselves in overthrowing a government viewed as too authoritarian or too leftist. However, these military regimes often violated human rights and developed into dictatorships. SOme of the well-known Latin American military dictators of the last century included members of the Somoza family (ruled 1936-1979) in Nicaragua, Augusto Pinochet (ruled 1973-1990) in Chile, Rafael Trujillo (ruled 1930-1961) in the Dominican Republic, and Fidel Castro (ruled 1959-2008) in Cuba.

Cuban Revolution (1953-1959)

Fulgencio Batista, the military dictator of Cuba, incited the population to anger with his links to organized crime and to American industry in Cuba. Fidel Castro, sympathetic to communist politics attempted to have Batista removed by the Cuban courts and lost his case. He then organized an armed revolt in 1953. Both communists and anti-communist guerillas fought against Batista's forces at first, ultimately uniting to fight together. The United states withdrew their support for Batista in 1957-1958. IN 1959, the Cuban revolutionary forces took over major cities and the capital, Havan and began to rule. The Castro government enacted many positive social reforms such as investing in infrastructure and education and pushing back against racial discrimination. However, the government also engaged in repression of anti-communist sentiment, resulting in political and religious persecution. Castro was also interested in "exporting" revolution to other countries in Latin America and aligned himself with the USSR. This created fear of the leftist ideas among the ruling elite and/or the military in many neighboring countries and shaped USA policy in Latin America for decades.

Gabriel Garcïa Márquez (1928-2014)

Gabriel Garcïa Márquez was a Colombian who is recognized as one of the greatest narrative writers of the 20th century. In 1982, García Márquez won the Nobel Prize for Literature. The magic realism in his works examines the relationships between space and time and also exposes Colombian life and the relationship between the social and the political in everyday life. His best-known works are Cien años de soledad and El amor en el tiempo de cólera. Some of his other novels include la hojarasca, el coronel no tiene quien le escriba, el general en su laberinto, and Del amor y otros demonios.

Horacio Quiroga (1878-1937)

Horacio Quiroga was a Uruguayan writer, best known for his short stories. He lived most of his life in Argentina, and he also wrote poetry. Horacio Quiroga was influenced by Edgar Allan Poe, and his stories have elements of horror. American nature, and the supernatural. His stories in particular had great impact on later Latin American writers such as Borges and Cortázar. His main poetry work is Arrecifes de coral. His stories include El crimen del otro, Historia de un amor turbio, Cuentos de amor, de locura y de muerte, Cuentos de la selva, Anaconda, and Los desterrados. He also wrote a short novel, Pasado amor.

1826-1850:

Individual nations begin to form in Central and South America.

Isabel Allende (1942--)

Isabel Allende is writer born in Peru. Shortly after, she moved to Chile with her family, and she considers herself Chilean. Allende has primarily lived outside of Chile since the coup in 1973. In her works, Allende mixes teh fantastic with the real. Her works could be classified as of the magic realism genre and are greatly influenced by Garcia Marquez. HEr most celebrated piece is La casa de los espiritus, in which she follows a Chilean family for four generations. In the voel, Allende examines socio political issues in Chile in the postcolonial period. OTher words from Allende are De amor de la sombra, Eva Luna, Cuentos de eva Luna, El plan infinito, Paula, Hija de la fortuna, La ciudad de las bestias, and INes del alma mia. She continues to write novels today.

José Martí (1853-1895)

Jose Marti was a Cuban writer and politician. He was a hero of the Cuban independence movement. Because of his status in the movement, he was exiled from Cuba more than once. He died fighting against eh Spaniards with Cuban revolutionaries. The main themes of his works are freedom and liberalism. Marti's poetry can be considered where modernism began in Latin American poetry. Some of his well-known works of poetry are ismaelillo, Versos libres, andVersos sencillos. He also wrote newspaper articles and essays such as his "Nuestra America."

José Clemente Orozco (1883-1949)

José Clemente Orozco was a Mexican painter. Together with Rivera and Siqueiros, Orozco is one of the three mexican muralists whose work revitalized modern Mexican art. he painted murals after the Mexican Revolution, and his work shows different aspects of the human condition. Besides the revolution, he focused on Pre=Colombian culture. He was less political than Rivera, but political issues still influenced his work. In his murals, messages of social justice for the working class and for the native Indians are found. Orozco's works can be found in Mexico City, Guadalajara, Veracruz, and New York. Among his best-known pieces are Omnisciencia, Luchas proletarias, la justicia, Riquezas nacionales, Buena vida, and La independencia nacional.

José Enrique Rodó (1871-1917)

José Enrique Rodó was a Uruguayan essayist and philosopher. He is known as the best modernist prose writer. His primary message was a warning about the North American influence in Latin America. He wanted the Latin American youth to reject materialism and to embrace their culture. His best known work is Ariel, which has been taken as the intellectual guide for people from his generation.

José de San Martín (1778-1850)

José de San Martín was an Argentinian general, known as the liberator of Argentina and Chile. He fought with the Spaniards against the French in Spain's war of independence, but later he fought against the Spaniards for the independence of Latin American countries. With the help of the Chilean General Bernardo de O'Higgins, he organized the army of the Andes. San Martín unified several independence movements and helped Argentina, Chile, and Peru gain their independence. He is also known as the protector Peru.

Deposition of Peròn in Argentina

Juan Perón had an outsized influence on the politics of Argentina for a good part of the 20th century. Elected in 1946 with the support of the working classes, he improved living conditions in Argentina but restricted constitutional liberties. As Argentina's economy began to struggle in the 1950s, Peron began to rule in a more authoritarian style, lost the support of the workers, and was ultimately ousted by the military in 1955. He lived in exile in Spain, while the government that took over was unsuccessful in dealing with Argentina's economic difficulties. IN 1972 he was allowed back in the country, and successfully ran for president again in 1973. He died in 1974, and the military coup that seized power from his wife subjected the country to years of dictatorial rule.

Juan Rulfo (1918-1986)

Juan Rulfo was a Mexican writer who wrote a novel and many short stories. He is considered the most profound of the Mexican prose writers of the 40s. Rulfo was known as one of the creators of magic realism, a mingling of the very ordinary with fantasy and myth. He created historic stories based on ignorant, poor, and desolated country people. His works deal with social injustice, hard life, pain, and suffering. The magic aspects of his works include the fantastic and the supernatural, such as the use of ghosts as characters in his works. Although Rulfo wrote only two pieces, a collection of stories, El llano en llamas, and a novel, Pedro Páramo, he won several prizes.

Julio Cortázar (1914-1984)

Julio Cortázar was a very important Argentinian author who wrote stories, essays, and novels. He lived a great deal of his life in France. He had great influence in the narrative art. His work deals with reality, fantasy, and the absurd. He was a surrealist and was committed to Latin American Marxist politics. His most famous works are Rayuela, Final del juego, Bestario, Las armas secretas, Todos los fuegos el fuego, Alguien que anda por ahí, Los premios, and Nicaragua tan violentamente dulce.

South America

Known as Sudamerica o Suramerica. Begins with Colombia and includes Venezuela, Ecuador, Guyana, Suriname, Brazil, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay, Chile, and Argentina. Some well-known geographical features are the Amazon River, the longest in the world (in Peru, Brazil, Bolivia, Colombia, and Ecuador) and the mountain range of the Andes, which runs from the north of the continent to the south.

Panamá in 1513

They used the isthmus to sail to the Pacific. The territory was incorporated to the Viceroyalty of Peru and Nueva Granada.

1826

Loyalist resistance in South America is completely defeated

Mario Vargas Llosa (1936---)

Mario Vargas Llosa is a Peruvian novelist and politician. His works falls into the genre of realism. In his works, he examines the vulgarity of the human nature, not only externally but also internally. His topics are usually political in nature. IN 1990 he was a presidential candidate for Peru. IN 2010, he received the Nobel Prize for Literature. His best-known works are: Los jefes, la ciudad y los perros, Conversación en la cathedral; Pantaleón y las vistadoras, Lituma en los Andes, la guerra del fin del mundo, Historia de Mayta, el hablador, and Quién mató a Palomo Montero?

Key Political Events of the 20th Century

Mexican Revolution, Deposition of Peron in Argentina, Cuban Revolution

1821:

Mexico achieves independence and solidifies self-rule

1810:

Mexico calls for independence and armed resistance begins

Miguel Hidalgo Y Costilla (1753-1811)

Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, better known as Miguel Hidalgo, was Mexican priest and patriot. He is known as the father of the country, as the initiator of the mexican independence movement, and as "Father Hidalgo". On September 16, 1810, he gave a battle ry in Dolores Hidalgo, Guanajuato, known as "the cry Dolores" that started the Mexican war independence from Spain. He is an important figure in Mexican history, because he also ended slavery and fought for the rights of the indigenous peoples. He succeeded in establishing a national government but soon after, the Royalists executed him.

Octavio Paz (1914-1998)

Octavio Paz was a Mexican poet and essayist. He won the Nobel Prize for Literatur ein 1990. He can be classified neither as an idealist nor as a symbolist because his style of writing was very unique. The concepts he most often dealt with in his works are loneliness and existential restlessness. his most important poetry works are Libertad bajo palabra, Piedra de sol, Salamandra, Ladera este, Topoemas, Prueba del nueve, Arbol adentro, and Obra poetica. he also wrote essays, the most famous being El laberinto de la soledad, el arco y la lira, Corriente alterna, and Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz o las trampas de la fe.

Pablo Neruda (1904-1973)

Pablo Neruda was a Chilean poet with Marxist convictions. He is known as one of the most important poets of the 20th century. Neruda served as a diplomat for CHile in many parts of th world. He was friends with some of the Spanish poets from the Generation of '27. In his work, he identified with the victims of wars, social injustice, and tyranny which he witnessed around the world and in his own home country. IN 1971, Neruda won the Nobel Prize for Literature for his poetry, which includes Crepusculario, Veinte poemas de amor y una canción desesperada. España en el corazón, Residencia en la tierra, Canto general, Odas elementales, and Cantos ceremoniales.

Paraguay

Paraguay is in South America to the south of Bolivia and to the east of Argentina. The river Paraguay divides the country into east and west. It is interesting to note that the country does not have access to the sea. Paraguay has two official languages: Spanish and Guarani. The capital is Asunción, and the currency is teh guaraní. In Pre-Colombian times, the Guarani inhabited the area. Aleixo Garcia led several trips to explore the region, and in 1536, Pedro de Mendoza began colonization. Between 1735 and 1756 the Guarani rebelled against the Spaniards. In 176, the area was incorporated to the viceroyalty of the Rio de la Plata. Paraguay fought against Spain and against Argentina, and, in 1811, declared its independence. Paraguay has had many strong leaders in its history as an independent nation.

Guatemala in 1523

Pedro de Alvarado began the Spanish conquest of the the territory and quickly created a colony. Then the Capitanía General de Guatemala was formed, which had jurisdiction over all of Central America.

Peru

Peru is in South America to the south of Colombia and Ecuador, the west of Brazil and Bolivia, and to the north of Chile. The Pacific Ocean is at its west. The Andes run through the country. The capital is Lima, and the currency is the sol. The official languages are Spanish and Quechua, Aymara, and other indigenous languages in the regions where they are spoken. In Pre-Colombian times, the region was home to the earliest known American civilization, dating to c32000 B.C. Many developed cultures lived in the region, but by the 1300s, it was the Inca who had conquered a great deal of South America. Machu Picchu, a great Incan fortress city, is a famous ruin. In 152, Francisco Pizarro landed in Peru and he conquered the region in the following years. In 1542, Lima became the base for Spanish rule in South America. In 1780, the Inca Tupac Amaru rebelled against the Spaiards. In 1821, Jose de San Martin took control of the country and declared its independence. The economy of Peru is based in agriculture.

Francisco Pizarro (1471-1541)

Pizzaro had taken part in several expeditions in South America, using modern-day Panama as a launching point. It was only on his third attempt that he successfully conquered Peru and the seat of the Inca empire there, establishing a Spanish colony in the region.

Entering the World Economic Market

Prior to independence, the trade and natural resources of the colonies in Latin America were controlled by Spain. After independence, the nations had to navigate international trade on their own, as well as decide how to control and exploit their own natural resources rather than letting the USA or Europe do so. Once again, the opposing viewpoints of the oligarchy and Marxism presented two different visions for economic development.

Ruben Darío (1867-1916)

Rubén Darío was a writer from Nicaragua, and is a major figure in modernism. He is best known for his poetry, in which he displayed an emphasis in form and beauty. In his poetry, he used traditional forms (such as the sonnet) but inside those forms employed rhythm and word choice to transform them. He served as a diplomat and a journalist as well, and in his prose dealt with social and political issues of his day. His most popular works are Prosas profanas, Cantos de vida y esperanza, and Canto errante. Among his prose, the best known work is Azul.

Conquistadores

Several European men are famous (or infamous) as conquistadores, or conquerors, in Latin America--those who explored and took over portions of North, Central, and south America on behalf of their country in Europe. Below are the most well-known of the conquistadores.

Simón Bolívar (1783-1830)

Simón Bolívar is known as the liberator of Venezuela. He also helped Ecuador, Peru and the alto Peru (today's Bolivia) to obtain their independence. It is said he was the most important man of the independence wars in South America. he had vision of a united Spanish America that he was unable to bring to fruition. Besides being a general, he was an educated man and a writer. he had studied with Andres Bello and Simon Rodriguez, who taught him the ideas of freedom. He wrote several works, including Memoria dirigida a los ciudadanos de Nueva Granada por un caraqueño (1812) and Carta a Jamaica (1815). He also wrote the constitution for the Republic of Bolivia.

Sor Juan Inés de La Cruz (1651-1695)

Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz is known as one of the most important latin American authors of lyric poetry. She lived in Mexico and wrote poetry, theaters plays, and prose. Her works deal with many themes-love, philosophy, gender, religion, beauty, and more. She was nun, and she used the opportunity to live an intellectual life that otherwise might not have been afforded a woman in her era in Mexico. She is an important representative of the baroque ear, and some of her best known works are Respuesta a Sor Filotea de la Cruz (prose), Primer sueño (poetry), and El divino Narciso (theater).

Aztecs

The Aztecs were an Indian group that inhabited what is now central mexico. Before the arrival of Cortes, the Aztecs were the most powerful group in Mesoamerica. The best-known Aztec leaders were Moctezuma 1 and Moctezuma II. The capital of the empire was Tenochtitlan and their language was Nahuatl. The Aztecs had a very developed and centralized society. Their religious system is well-known. Members of their pantheon were Quetzalcoatl, the god life, Tezcatlipoca, the god of the sorcerers and the young warriors, Huitzilopochtli, the god of war and the sun, Tlaloc, god of the rain, and Coatlicue, the mother goddess. Like many Mesoamerican peoples, the aztecs used animal and human sacrifices to honor their gods.

Religion

The Catholic Church played a large role in the colonization of Latin America by Spain. Because of this legacy, the church is culturally entrenched and yet often vilified, especially during the political turmoil of the last century. Latin American Catholicism is marked by syncretism and, in the last 50 years, liberation theology with its emphasis on anti-imperialism and care for the poor. A majority of individuals in the region still identify as Catholic, although protestant Pentecostalism has spread rapidly in Latin America in recent decades as well.

Syncretism

The Catholic church was highly involved in the colonization of Latin America. While many indigenous people ultimately began to practice Catholicism, a good deal of syncretism marks the religion of Latin America. Indigenous religious practices and festivals were mixed or integrated with Catholic practices and festivals, creating unique religious traditions in regions of Latin America. One prime example of this Dia de los muertos in Mexico-the catholic practice of all Saints Days blended with indigenous traditions for honoring ancestors to become a new and uniquely Mexican celebration. The same syncretism is also evident in various art forms of the region.

Incas

The Incas were the Indians that inhabited the region that is now Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Argentina, and Chile. The Incas had a very advanced culture; its social structure was based in ayllu, or clans. Teh culture was formed around communal agriculture. The Incas extended their empire over otehr weaker or less advanced neighboring tribes. They enforced tyrannical policies and used violence to control their subjects. The most famous Inca sites are Mach Pichu, Cuzco, and Pisac. Their main gods were Inti, the sun, and Viracocha, the supreme god. They left impressive feats of architecture and engineering throughout their empire. Their language was Quechua, which is still spoken in some parts of Peru, Bolivia, and Ecuador. The Incas practiced human sacrifices at particular points in time (for example, crises, important times in agriculture).

Guatemala

The Maya inhabited the area in Pre-Colombian times.

Maya

The Maya were one of the three most important Indian groups of the Pre-Colombian world. They inhabited what today is the Yucatan in Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras, and Belize. The Maya culture was one the most advanced cultures in the Pre-Colombian world. The Maya were intellectuals, and they had an arithmetic system, a calendar, and heiroglyphic writing. The Popol Vuh is a mayan literary work. The best known historic Mayan sites are Planenque, Copan, Tikal, Uxmal, and Chichen itza. The Mayan practiced human sacrifices to appease their gods: Itzamna, the supreme god, Kinich Ahau, the sun, and Chac, the rain. Their language was Maya.

Ecuador

The Pacific Ocean is to its west. The capital of the country is Quito, and the currency is the US dollar. In Pre-Colombian times, several Indian tribes inhabited the area but were conquered by the Incas. The center of the Incan empire was in what is today the city of Quito. In 1527, Ecuador was discovered by the Spaniards, and in 1533 it was conquered by Sebastián de Benalcázar. In 1563, the Audiencia of Quito was founded, but in the 17th century the area was incorporated to the Viceroyalty of Nueva Granada. After several battles and changes in government during the 18th and 19th century, it declared its independence from Spain. The economy of Ecuador is based on agriculture and service. The country is the world's largest exporter of bananas. Oil and its products are also important for the economy of Ecuador.

Popol Vuh (16th Century)

The Popol Vuh, also known as El libro del consejo, was written by an anonymous Indian who, it is believed, was instructed by the Spaniards. The Popol vuh was written in the Mayan-Quiché language and later translated to Spanish. There is a lot of controversy regarding who wrote and who translated the book. In the book, the author compiles the Mayan myths that explain the creation of the world, the history of the Mayans, and some Mayans traditions. It is considered a very important source about the Mayan Indians of the Pre-Colombian period.

1822

The colonies in Central America join the new Mexican empire.

Panama

The currency is the Balboa. In Pre-Colombian times, it was inhabited by the Chocó, the Chibcha, and the Caribe.

1824

The last major battle for South American independence is fought in Ayacucho

In 1821

The states in the captaincy general declared their independence from Spain, and during the period from 1821 to 1838, Guatemala and the other Central american republics were part of the Provincias Unidas de Centroamérica.

Boom

This refers to a group of Latin American writers in the 1960's to 1970's whose works reached European audiences to a greater extent than in previous generations. The works produced during the Boom are modernist in style, sometimes employing multiple voices. The writers used both urban and rural settings and educated and colloquial language. They were not afraid to deal with political and social turmoil, and mixed history and fantasy in addressing the themes confronting Latin American society in their time.

Independence Movements and Modernism in Latin America: 1750-1900

Timeline of Independence Movements: In two bursts of activity, Spain's colonies in the New World asserted, fought for, and won their independence. this was triggered by a variety of factors. The creole population (individuals born in Latin America to European parents) were disenchanted with being ruled from afar. Happenings in the Napoleonic Wars gave the colonies a taste of freedom of trade, and they wanted more of this. The Enlightenment ideals that had already spurred several revolutions found voices in Spain's colonies as well. Following is a brief summary timeline of the Latin American independence movements. Not noted are the multiple starts and stops of the movements--the failed attempts prior to these successful independence movements:

1813-1822:

Under the command of Simon Bolivar, another revolutionary army fought for control of the northern region of south America

Urbanization

Urbanization has brought great change and new challenges to Latin America in the 20th century. As more individuals moved from subsistence farming in rural areas to the urban centers, issues such as housing, poverty, and infrastructure came to the surface. Additionally, urbanization increased the contact between indigenous cultures/languages and the "dominant" culture/language. This increased contact has both highlighted the discrimination present in Latin America and allowed from some demarginalization of indigenous people groups.

Uruguay

Uruguay is in South America between Argentina and Brazil, in the area of the Río de la Plata. The capital is Montevideo, and the currency is the Uruguayan peso. In Pre-Colombian times, several groups of Indians inhabited the area, most notably the Charrúa, who rebelled against the Spaniards who wanted to conquer the region. In 1516, Juan Díaz de Solís discovered the Río de la Plata, and shortly after the area we know today as uruguay was explored. Sebastián Gaboto founded the first settlement in 1527, but it was destroyed by the indigenous peoples. In 1680, the Portuguese founded a colony that was given to the Spaniards in 1777. Montevideo was occupied by the British in 1806 and beseiged by Brazilian troops in the 1840s. After fighting against the Spaniards and the Portuguese and different changes in government, Uruguay declared independence in 1825. Uruguay's economy is primarily agricultural and pastoral.

Venezuela

Venezuela is in South America, north of Brazil and east of Colombia. Guyana is to its east and the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean are to its north. The capital is Caracas, and the currency is the bolivar. The Arawaks and the Caribs inhabited the area in Pre-Colombian times. Venezuela was discovered in the expeditions of Alonso de Ojeda and Amerigo Vespucci. Caracas was founded in 1567, and the area became important due to is exports of cocoa. It was part of the Viceroyalty of Nueva Granada, and the audiencia de Caracas was formed in 1786. In 1811 it declared its independence. Simón Bólivar, teh South American liberator was born in Venezuela. Venezuela has some of the worlds' largest oil reserves, a fact which has driven much of the politics in Venezuela. In the 21st century, Venezuelan president Hugo Chavez attracted much attention with his attempts toward socialism and nationalism. The economy of Venezuela primarily exports oil and its products.

Family and Lifestyle

While Latin America has undergone significant ubranization, there are still many distinctions between rural and urban life, with urban lifestyles very similar to those around the world and rural lifestyle more similar to the culture in previous generations. Traditional family values (strong father, caregiving mother, clos extending family) are still common in Latin American countries, though there is a rise in single parenthood and in opportunities outside the home for women. Community is valued, and celebrations are an important part of family and community life.

Language

While Spanish is spoken throughout Latin America, several indigenous languages are still spoken as well. Quechua has over 6 million speakers in the Andean region, and other prominent languages include Mayan, Guarani, Nahuatl, and Aymara. These languages have gained official recognition in the last decades and are being used (often for the first time in centuries) in publication and education.

Relationships Between Indigenous Cultures/Peoples and Europeans

While each region or colony had its own unique governance, some consistent themes arise in examining the relationship between the indigenous cultures of Latin America and the European colonizers. European diseases, which had not yet been encountered by the indigenous populations, caused significant mortality during and after the conquests. The conquests were armed conflicts and therefore many atrocities were visited on the indigenous peoples by the Europeans. Much indigenous agriculture went on unhindered, especially in rural areas--the colonial powers were most interested in governing and exploiting natural resources and ruling city centers. The led to a divide that is still felt today in Latin America between the European ruling class in the urban centers and the rural indigenous farmers. When compared to the English colonial powers in North America, the Spanish were more open to having romantic and marital relationships with the indigenous population, which created a complex hierarchical system of ethnicity. Ultimately, while the indigenous peoples were not systematically separated and/or killed as in the United States, they were still economically and culturally marginalized by the Europeans.

Diversity

While it is convenient to talk about Latin America as one region, it is important to note that what we call Latin America is not monolithic or homogeneous in cultural practices and perspectives. Each region and/or country has its own heritage which includes European and indigenous influences and unique social and political history and structure.

Domingo Faustino Sarmiento (1811-1888)

an Argentinian writer. He was also president of Argentina from 1868 to 1874. He was also interested in education and worked as a pedagogue. One of his main interests was education. In 1845, he wrote his novel Facundo, o Civilizacion i barbarie. Other works by Sarmiento include De la educacion popular. Las ciento y una, conflictos y armonias de las razas de America, Mi defensa, and Recuerdos de provincia.

Jorge Luis Borges (1899-1986)

is one of the best-known writers in the Spanish language. He was born in Argentina but lived in Europe for some time. Besides writing poetry, essays, and stories, he was a professor of English literature at the Universidad de Buenos Aires. Borges was a leader in a literary movement called ultraism, which sought to break from the structures of the past (unlike modernism). His works are fantastic and deal with metaphysical problems. His most famous works of poetry are Fervor de Buenos Aires, Luna de enfrente, and Cuaderno de San Martin. Some of this best-known short stories and collections are HIstoria universal de la infamia. "El jardín de los senderos que se bifurcan", Ficciones, El Aleph, and Historia de la eternidad.

1810-1817:

revolutionary troops led by José de San Martin combined with other regional forces to win military victories against Spanish troops in the southern region of South America.

Ernesto Sábato (1911-2011)

was an Argentine writer and literary critic. He studied physics in his country and then attended the Sorbonne University in Paris and worked at the Curie Institute and later at MIT. After World War II he stated to write and to be politically involved in the events of his country. He also started to paint. he translated some scientific books and wrote numerous essays and articles on literature science, metaphysics, and politics. He is internationally recognized for his novels El tùnel, Sobre héroes y tumbas, and Abaddón el exterminador. After the military regime of the 1970s and 1980s had lost its power, Sábato was tapped to conduct the investigation into the human rights violations they committed. His second son Mario, a film director and screenwriter, directed the movie El poder de la tinieblas, which is based on the section Informe sobre ciegos from Sobre héroes y tumbas.

Panamá in 1501

was discovered by Rodrigo de Bastidas y Colón, and Vasco Nuñez de Balboa established the first colony in 1510.