SPC Final

If listeners are neutral or only moderately committed on way, you can realistically ____

hope your speech will move at least some of them toward your side

competence

how an audience regards a speaker's intelligence , expertise, and knowledge of the subject

character

how an audience regards a speaker's sincerity, trustworthiness, and concern for the well-being of the audience

How successful you are in any particular speech will depend above all on _____

how well you tailor your message to the values, attitudes, and beliefs of your audience

a receptive audience

identify with the audience, clearly state your speaking objective, tell the audience what you want them to do, ask for a show of immediate support, use emotional appeals, make action easy

positive motivation

if you do what I tell you, etc.

negative motivation

if you don't do what I'm telling you, etc fear appeal

Reasoning from specific instances

inductive reasoning

member of a small group ________ one another through _______________

influence, effective communication

When your purpose is to persuade, you must often do this as well.

inform

speakers with very high __________ do not need to use as much evidence as do speakers with ____________

initial credibility, lower credibility

small group communication is

interaction among 3 to 12 people who share a common purpose, feel a sense of belonging to a group, and influence one another

democratic leadership style

involve group members in decision-making process, seek to guide as opposed to giving commands

brainstorming in the fashion of having individual lists and then making a master list has two advantages

it encourages creativity and it encourages equal participation

when phrasing the question, make sure

it is clear and specific, to be wary if it can be answered with a simple yes or no, to avoid biased or slanted questions, you pose a single question

many speakers prefer motivated sequence to problem-solution order because

it is more detailed

If listeners are strongly opposed, your speech is a success if _____

it leads even a few to reexamine their views

value judgments

judgments based on a person's beliefs about what is right or wrong, good or bad, moral or immoral, proper or improper, , fair or unfair

emotional appeals are intended to make

listeners feel sad, angry, guilty, afraid, happy, proud, sympathetic, reverent, or the like

Fulfilling these needs might include monitoring how well group members are communicating with one another and getting along together.

maintenance needs

All public speaking teachers are good teachers. Colleen is a public speaking teacher. Therefore, Colleen is a good teacher. In the above example, the first line would be considered to be one of these.

major premise

group members can share the 3 leadership functions in group meetings:

procedural needs- "housekeeping" task needs- "focus" maintenance needs- "relationships"

However, if you say "Bicycle riding is the ideal form of land transportation.", you are making a statement about a _____________

question of value

Will the economy be better or worse next year? Who will win the Super Bowl this season?

questions of fact

Is it morally justifiable to clone human beings? Is it ethically acceptable to clone human cells in an effort to cure diseases such as AIDS or cancer?

questions of value

argument

reason for believing something (NOT a quarrel or disagreement)

deductive reasoning

reasoning from a general statement or principle to reach a specific conclusion, ex. SYLLOGISM: major premise, minor premise, and conclusion

analogical reasoning

reasoning in which a speaker compares two similar cases and infers that what is true for the first case is also true for the second

reasoning from principle

reasoning that moves from a general principle to a specific conclusion

causal reasoning

reasoning that seeks to establish the relationship between causes and effects

Colleen is a great teacher because she likes the same kind of ice cream that I do!

red herring or non sequitur

causal reasoning

relating two or more events in such a way as to conclude that one or more of the events caused the others

procedural needs

routine "housekeeping" actions necessary for the efficient conduct of business in a small group ex. deciding when and where group will meet, setting agenda of each meeting, starting meeting, taking notes, deciding where and when group will meet

satisfaction

satisfy the sense of need by providing a solution to the problem

action

say exactly what you want the audience to do and how you want them to do it

leadership is often

shared among group members

Based on this theory, responses will fall into one of three categories: latitude of acceptance, latitude of rejection, or latitude of noncommitment   

social judgment theory

resorting to a vote

solves immediate conflict, but it may not result in the best solution; a group should vote only when it has failed in every other attempt to agree on a solution

as a ________, you need to avoid fallacies in your speeches. as a ______, you need to be alert to fallacies in the speeches you hear

speaker, listener

in small-group communication, all participants are potentially ________ and ________

speakers, listeners

when you call for action in a persuasive speech, you should make your recommendations as _______ as possible

specific- tell them exactly what to do and how to do it

Whenever you give a speech on a question of value, be sure to give special thought to the ______ for your value judgment

standards

criteria

standards on which a judgment or decision can be based

for most speakers, though, ________ is necessary. and ______ is crucial whenever your target audience opposes your point of view

strong evidence, evidence

managing meetings

structure- identify goals and develop an agenda interaction- serve as a gatekeeper, make quality contributions

task needs

substantive actions necessary to help a small group complete its assigned task ex. collecting information, analyzing the issues facing the group, soliciting the views of other members, keeping group from going off on a tangent, playing devil's advocate for unpopular ideas

evidence

supporting material used to prove or disprove something

Using this type of reasoning, you need to have a major premise (like a rule) and a minor premise to reach a conclusion

syllogism or form of deductive reasoning

pathos

term used by Aristotle to refer to appeals to emotion

leadership

the ability to influence group members so as to help achieve the goals of the group

credibility

the audience's perception of a speaker's competence, trustworthiness, and dynamism

credibility

the audience's perception of whether a speaker is qualified to speak on a given topic

often a better approach than relying on emotionally charged language is to let emotional appeal grow naturally out of _______________

the content of your speech. this can be done with vivid examples.

terminal credibility

the credibility of a speaker at the end of a speech

initial credibility

the credibility of a speaker before he or she starts to speak

derived credibility

the credibility of a speaker produced by everything she or he says and does during the speech

danger with an emergent leader

the emergent leader may not be the most effective leader but merely the most assertive personality

Need

the first basic issue in analyzing a question of policy: is there a serious problem or need that requires a change from current policy?

motivation

the internal force that drives people to achieve their goals

mental dialogue with the the audience

the mental give-and-take between speaker and listener during a persuasive speech

logos

the name used by Aristotle for the logical appeal of a speaker. the two major elements are evidence and reasoning

ethos

the name used by Aristotle for what modern students of communication refer to as credibility, aka source credibility

pathos

the name used by Aristotle for what modern students of communication refer to as emotional appeal

burden of proof

the obligation facing a persuasive speaker to prove that a change from current policy is necessary

target audience

the portion of the whole audience that the speaker most wants to persuade

reasoning

the process of drawing a conclusion on the basis of evidence

transformational leadership style

the process of influencing others by building a shared vision of the future, inspiring others to achieve, developing high-quality individual relationships with others, and helping people see how what they do is related to a larger framework or system

leadership

the process of influencing others through communication

cognitive dissonance

the psychological conflict from holding two or more incompatible beliefs simultaneously

Plan

the second basic issue in analyzing a question of policy: if there is a problem with a current policy, does the speaker have a plan to solve the problem?

Practicality

the third basic issue in analyzing a question of policy: will the speaker's plan solve the problem? will it create new and more serious problems?

Elaboration-Likelihood Model (ELM) of Persuasion

theory suggests that there are two ways a person ca be persuaded: directly, by logic, reasoning, arguments and evidence presented indirectly, by peripheral strategies

a great deal of research shows that if members of a group work well together, ____________

they can almost always resolve a problem better than a single person

beliefs

things that you understand to be true or false and are usually based on evidence

leaders function

to help get tasks accomplished and to maintain a healthy social climate within the group

persuasive speeches on questions of value are almost always organized _______

topically

Persuasive speeches on questions of fact are usually organized _____

topically- each main point presents a reason why someone should agree with you

you are more likely to persuade your audience if the analogy shows a ___________

truly parallel situation

too many emotionally charged words can

undermine its impact

Ways to motivate listeners include

Using dissonance and using listener needs

symposium

a public presentation in which several people present prepared speeches on different aspects of the same topic

questions of fact

a question about the truth or falsity of an assertion

question of value

a question about the worth, rightness, morality, and so forth of an idea or action

competence

a speaker should be viewed as informed, skilled, or knowledgeable

logic

a formal system of rules for making inferences

This type of leader allows the group members complete freedom 

laissez-faire leader

attitudes

learned predisposition to respond favorably or unfavorably toward something and are the easiest to change

need

make the audience feel a need for change

Latin name of the fallacy of false cause

post hoc, ergo propter hoc ("after this, therefore because of this.")

the panel discussion is seldom used by ________, although it can work well for ________

problem-solving groups, information-gathering groups

evidence is

proof that supports the reason

These propositions address whether something is true or false

propositoins of fact

Persuasion is a ____ process

psychological

analogical reasoning is used frequently in persuasive speeches especially when the speaker is dealing with a _____________

question of policy

This type of leadership influences others by working toward a shared goal.

transformational leadership

questions of policy usually include the word ______

"should" ex. Should the electoral college be abolished? What measures should be taken to protect the US against terrorist attacks?

John Dewey's Reflective Thinking Method

1) Identify and define the problem 2) Analyze the problem 3) Generate possible solutions 4) Select the best solution 5) Test and implement the solution

every member of a small group must assume certain responsibilities which can be divided into 5 categories

1) commit yourself to the goals of your group 2) fulfill individual assignments 3) avoid interpersonal conflicts 4) encourage full participation 5) keep the discussion on track

5 steps

1) defining the problem 2) analyzing the problem 3) establishing criteria for solving the problem 4) generating potential solutions 5) selecting the best solution

classic example

1. general statement (all people are mortal) 2. minor premise (Socrates is a person) 3. specific conclusion (Socrates is mortal)

In analyzing the problem, pay specific attention to 2 questions

How severe is the problem? and What are the causes of the problem?

This is a method for groups to use to try to solve problems.

John Dewey's Reflective Thinking Model

most common approach

1st main point- establishing the standards for your value judgment 2nd main point- applying those standards to the subject of your speech

Persuasion accounts for _ % of the US GDP

26

The five levels of this include: physiological, safety, social, self-esteem, and self-actualization

Maslow's hierarchy of needs

appeal to novelty

a fallacy which assumes that something new is automatically better than something old

appeal to tradition

a fallacy which assumes that something old is automatically better than something new

slippery slope

a fallacy which assumes that taking a first step will lead to subsequent steps that cannot be prevented

consensus

a group decision that is acceptable to all members of the group

implied leader

a group member to whom other members defer because of her or his rank, expertise, or other quality

emergent leader

a group member who emerges as a leader during the group's deliberations

dyad

a group of two people

syllogism involves

a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion

brainstorming

a method of generating ideas by free association of words and thoughts

comparative advantages order

a method of organizing persuasive speeches in which each main point explains why a speaker's solution to a problem is preferable to other proposed solutions

problem-solution order

a method of organizing persuasive speeches in which the first main point deals with the existence of a problem and the second main point presents a solution to the problem

problem-cause-solution order (cause-effect)

a method of organizing persuasive speeches in which the first main point identifies a problem, the second main point analyzes the causes of the problem, and the third main point presents a solution to the problem

designated leader

a person who is elected or appointed as leader when the group is formed

appeal to misplaces authority

authority A believes P is true; therefor, P is true

Applying Fallacies. Everyone likes the Gator football team, so they must be the best college team around.

bandwagon fallacy

evidence can

enhance your credibility, increase both the immediate and long-term persuasiveness of your message, and help "inoculate" listeners against counterpersuasion

if a speaker claims that taking a first step will lead inevitably to a series of disastrous later steps, he or she needs to provide _______ or _______ to support this claim

evidence, reasoning

fear appeal

ex. vaccinating yourself so your baby doesn't get sick; fear appeals are more effective if listeners think that the threat is real; you also need to convince people they can actually make a difference

some specific ways to boost your credibility while speaking

explaining your competence, establishing common ground with the audience, and speaking with genuine conviction

evidence includes

facts, examples, hypothetical examples ("imagine"), opinions, statistics

fallacy

false reasoning that occurs when someone attempts to persuade without adequate evidence or with arguments that are irrelevant or inappropriate

some emotions evoked most often are

fear, compassion, pride, anger, guilt, reverence

as a public speaker, you have 2 major concerns with respect to reasoning

first, you must make sure your own reasoning is sound. second, you must try to get listeners to agree with your reasoning.

such conclusions are never _________

foolproof

results of things going wrong

frustration, anger, lack of solidarity, ganging up, feeling left out, groupthink

attention

gain attention of audience

When you speak on a question of policy, your goal may be either to ___________ or to ___________ from your listeners.

gain passive agreement, motivate immediate action

when you use reasoning from principle in a speech, pay special attention to your _________.

general principle. will people accept it without evidence? if not, give evidence before moving on to your minor premise, which you may also need to support with evidence

authoritarian leadership style

give orders and expect others to follow

Symptoms of this include a group's tendency to view itself as power and pressuring other towards conformity.

groupthink

________ is the most common fallacy in reasoning from _________

hasty generalization, specific instances

the minimum number for a small group is

3

logicians have identified more than _____ different fallacies

125

some ways to use emotion to persuade

use concrete examples, use emotion-arousing words, use nonverbal behavior to communicate your emotional response, use visual images to evoke emotion, use appropriate metaphors and similes, use appropriate fear appeals, consider appealing to several emotions, tap audience members' beliefs in shared myths

4 tips for using evidence

use specific evidence, use novel evidence, use evidence from credible sources, make clear the point of your evidence

visualization

visualize benefits of your plan- how will your listeners profit from your proposed policy

if your group investigates the problem as thoroughly as possible, you ______

will be in a much better position to devise a workable solution

Persuasion is something a speaker does ____ not ____ an audience

with, to

reasoning from specific instances

you progress from a number of particular facts to reach a conclusion

the strongest source of emotional power is

your conviction and sincerity

when you reason from specific instances, make sure

your sample of specific instances is large enough to justify your conclusion; the instances are fair, unbiased, ad representative; you reinforce your argument with statistics or testimony demonstrating that the instances are representative

when developing a persuasive speech, one must

ALWAYS, ALWAYS, ALWAYS consider the audience

This is a reason for believing something

Argument

Difference between ELM and Aristotle model

Aristotle believed that in addition to logical persuasive strategies, people can be persuaded by ethos and pathos

This theory holds that people can be persuaded in two ways: directly, by logic, reasoning and evidence, or indirectly by peripheral strategies.

Elaboration-Likelihood Model (ELM)

Social Judgment Theory

Social Judgment theory states that you have a statement or message and you accept it or reject it based on your cognitive map. You accept or reject a message based on one's own ego-involvement and if it falls within their latitude of acceptance

latitude of rejection

The positions being argued are NOT acceptable when juxtaposed with personal attitudes.

latitude of acceptance

The positions being argued are acceptable when juxtaposed with personal attitudes

Persuasion

The process of creating, reinforcing, or changing people's beliefs or actions; The process of changing or reinforcing attitudes, beliefs, and values

latitude of noncommitment

The subject holds no attitudes that are strongly called into play by the argument.

bandwagon

a fallacy which assumes that because something is popular, it is therefore good, correct, or desirable

small group

a collection of 3 to 12 people who assemble for a specific purpose

There must be _____ for persuasion to be needed

a disagreement

hasty generalization

a fallacy in which a speaker jumps to a general conclusion based on insufficient evidence

false cause (causal fallacy)

a fallacy in which a speaker mistakenly assumes that because one event follows another, the first event is the cause of the second

ad hominem

a fallacy that attacks the person rather than dealing with the real issue in dispute

either-or

a fallacy that forces listeners to choose between two alternatives when more than two alternatives exist

red herring

a fallacy that introduces an irrelevant issue to divert attention from the subject under discussion

the emotion rests in your ______, not in your words

audience

speech to gain passive agreement

a persuasive speech in which the speaker's goal is to convince the audience that a given policy is desirable without encouraging the audience to take action in support of the policy ex. To persuade my audience that there should be stricter safety standards on amusement park rides.

speech to gain immediate action

a persuasive speech in which the speaker's goal is to convince the audience to action in support of a given policy ex. To persuade my audience to vote in the next student election.

questions of policy

a question about whether a specific course of action should or should not be taken

the best way to define a problem is to phrase it as

a question of policy

hidden agenda

a set of unstated individual goals that may conflict with the goals of the group as a whole

problem-solving small group

a small group formed to solve a particular problem

dynamism

a speaker should be seen as energetic and charismatic

trustworthiness

a speaker should be viewed as honest and sincere

ethos

a speaker's credibility

oral report

a speech presenting the findings, conclusions, or decisions of a small group

Proposition

a statement with which you want your audience to agree: proposition of fact, value, policy

panel discussion

a structured conversation on a given topic among several people in front of an audience

creating common ground

a technique in which a speaker connects himself or herself with the values, attitudes, or experiences of the audience

persuasion and diversity

account for high context (China) or low context cultures (US), use reasoning and evidence, diversity affects how direct or indirect your appeals to action should be, and your message structure and communication style needs to be appropriate for your audience

Some experts say that you should seek _____ whenever possible because ______ reinforces belief.

action, action

Chemistry is useless subject because Dr. Smith is a terrible teache

ad hominem fallacy

laissez-faire leadership style

allow members complete freedom, do little to help the group achieve its goal

comparative advantages order is sued when your audience

already agrees that problem exists

questions of policy _______ go beyond questions of fact or value to decide whether something should or should not be done

always

invalid analogy

an analogy in which the two cases being compared are not essentially alike

fallacy

an error in reasoning

Audience _____ and _____ become more demanding in persuasive speaking

analysis, adaptation

On pg.302, the degrees of persuasion, persuasion involves ________

any movement by a listener from left to right

inductive reasoning

arrives at a specific conclusion from specific instances or examples, ex. reasoning by analogy

credibility is a(n) _______. it exists not in the speakers, but in the mind of the audience

attitude

These are learned predispositions to respond favorably or unfavorably to something and are easiest to change.

attitudes

listeners will be persuaded by a speaker for one or more of four reasons

because they perceive the speaker as having high credibility because they are won over by the speaker's evidence because they are convinced by the speaker's reasoning because their emotions are touched by the speaker's ideas or language

panelists speak

briefly, informally, and impromptu

The _____________ always rests with the speaker who advocates change (or no change in defending present policy)

burden of proof

a neutral audience

capture attention early in speech, refer to beliefs that many listeners share, relate the topic to listeners' friends and families, be realistic about what you can accomplish

Children watch more violent television today, which is why there are more instances of violence among children.

causal fallacy

Using this type of reasoning often includes a control group and an experimental group, to show that there is no doubt about the cause

causal reasoning

Participating in small groups

come prepared, analyze the problem before you suggest a solution, evaluate evidence, help summarize the group's progress, listen and respond courteously to others, help manage conflict

maintenance needs

communicative actions necessary to maintain interpersonal relations in a small group ex. how well members get along with one another, how willing members are to contribute to the group, whether members are supportive of one another

above all, credibility is affected by 2 factors

competence and character

when you use causal reasoning, be wary of the temptation to attribute _________ to ____________

complex events, single causes

Of all kinds of public speaking, persuasion is the most _____ and most _____

complex, challenging

non sequitur

conclusion does not follow from premises

supportive comments

create goodwill among group members and make everyone feel free to discuss their ideas without ridicule or embarrassment

Competence, trustworthiness, and dynamism all contribute to this.

credibility

type of leadership most groups prefer

democratic leadership

Monroe's motivated sequence

developed by Alan Monroe, a professor of speech at Purdue University, in the 1930s a method of organizing persuasive speeches that seek immediate action. the five steps of the motivated sequence are attention, need, satisfaction, visualization, and action tailor-made for policy speeches that seek immediate action

different kinds of leadership may be needed at

different times in a group

This is based on the theory that people seek to solve problems and manage stress and tension in ways that are consistent with their attitudes, beliefs and values.

dissonance theory

organizing persuasive messages

don't forget primacy and recency effects, refer to counterarguments, use certain organizational patterns such as problem-solution, cause-effect, refutation, motivated sequence

an unreceptive audience

don't immediately announce you're going to change their minds, note areas of agreement before discussing areas of disagreement, don't expect a major shift in attitude, acknowledge opposing viewpoints that listeners might have, establish credibility, consider making understanding your goal

sometimes there is no specific leader. in such a situation, members of

effective groups tend to have equal influence

Everyone likes the Gator football team, so they must be the best college team around.

either-or fallacy

one way to generate emotional appeal is to use

emotion-laden words

values

enduring concepts of right or wrong, good or bad, and are the most difficult to change

planning a group presentation

make sure everyone understands the task or assignment, use brainstorming, give members individual assignments, keep in touch frequently, develop a group outline, decide on the presentation approach (symposium, forum, panel presentation), rehearse the presentation together

one key to using emotional appeal ethically is to

make sure it is appropriate to the speech topic on a question of policy, emotional appeals may be necessary emotional appeals are usually inappropriate on a question of fact

making a group presentation

make your purpose clear, use presentation aids effectively, have a coordinator or moderator, incorporate principles and skills of effective public speaking, be ready to answer questions

benefit of problem-cause-solution order

makes it easier to check whether the proposed solution will get at the causes of the problem

challenges

may have excessive pressure to get people to conform to their point of view, one person might dominate the group, group members may rely on others and not fully contribute (social loafing)

advantages

more information available, more creative, more likely to remember discussion because you actively process information, participation usually results in members being more satisfied than if someone simply told them what to do

reflective-thinking method

most common decision-making technique for small groups, a 5-step method for directing discussion in a problem-solving small group, derived from the writings of American philosopher John Dewey

This is a five step pattern that can be used to organize a speech.

motivated sequence

3 basic issues whenever you discuss a question of policy - _______, _________, and _______

need, plan, and practicality

The situation for an informative speech is ______ and for a persuasive speech is ______

nonpartisan- speaker acts as a lecturer or teacher impartially, partisan- speaker acts as an advocate

whenever you advocate a new policy, you must be prepared to show that it is workable. How can this be done?

one way to provide assurance is to show that a plan similar to yours has been successfully implemented elsewhere

Functioning in small groups

participants know each other by name and role, there is a generous amount of interaction, each participant has some influence on others, each participant defines him/herself as a member of the group and is also defined by outsiders as a member, there is a common goal, interest, or benefit in holding membership in the group, there is leadership

Using music or a likeable spokesperson are examples of this type of strategy.

peripheral strategy

questions of value are not simply matters of _____________ or whim such as "I enjoy bicycle riding."

personal opinion

In speeches about questions of fact, the speaker is limited to ______

persuading the audience to accept a particular view of the facts

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

physiological needs at bottom, then safety needs, social needs (or belonging needs), self-esteem, self-actualization

3 dimensions that form the basis of all emotional responses

pleasure/ displeasure; arousal/ nonarousal; dominance/ powerlessness

4 special patterns are valuable for for policy speeches

problem-solution order problem-cause-solution order comparative advantages order Monroe's motivated sequence

an effective leader helps the group reach its goals by fulfilling three overlapping sets of needs

procedural needs, task needs, and maintenances needs