SPC2608- Final Exam

Enhancing Credibility

-explain competence -establish common ground -speak expressively, with conviction

Practicing recorded speeches

-gauge what audience will see -record & review practice sessions

Fallacies

-hasty generalization -false cause -invalid analogy -bandwagon -red herring -ad hominem -either-or -slippery slope -appeal to tradition -appeal to novelty

Practicing real-time speeches

-practice with computer & software -use screen-recording function -update software & operating system

Kinds of Online Speeches

-recorded online speech -real-time online speech

Technology of real-time speeches

-select software appropriate for speech, audience, occasion -master software program

Elements of Visual Environment

-setting -lighting -framing -eye contact -personal appearance

Appealing to Emotions

-use emotional language -develop vivid examples -speak with sincerity and conviction

Adapt Nonverbal Communication

-use well-planned, deliberate gestures -use controlled, confident eye movements

5 Steps of Motivated Sequence

1. Attention- Gain attention 2. Need- Show need for change 3. Satisfaction- Provide solution 4. Visualization- Enhance solution by visualizing benefits 5. Action- Urge action for solution

Emotional Appeals

Appeals intended to evoke sadness, anger, happiness, pride, etc.

Reasoning

drawing conclusions based on evidence

Comparative Advantage

each main point explains why one solution is preferable to other Example: -Specific Purpose: To persuade my audience that our city should build a rapid bus system instead of a new highway. -Central Idea: A rapid bus system will be cheaper and more effective than a new highway. -Main Points: I.Research models show that we will save a million dollars if we build a rapid bus system instead of a new highway. II.Research models also show that a rapid bus system will reduce traffic congestion more than a new highway.

Questions (issues) of ______, ______, and ______.

fact, value, policy

Mental Dialogue

mental give & take between speaker and listener -listener assesses delivery, credibility, language use etc. of speaker and responds accordingly

Policy Issues

need, plan, practicality

Visual Environment

on-screen elements seen by audience during online speech

Credibility

perception of speaker's competence and character

Ethics and Persuasion

-ethical goals -ethical methods

Logos

-Aristotle's name for logical appeals -evidence and reasoning

Casual Reasoning Guidelines

-Avoid fallacy of false cause -Do not assume events have only one cause

Specific Instances Guidelines

-Avoid hasty generalizations -Qualify argument when necessary *Are 3 examples enough to justify a point? Are those examples typical examples of your argument? -Reinforce argument with statistics, testimony

Methods of Persuasion

-Building credibility -Using evidence -Reasoning -Appealing to emotions

Analogical reasoning

-Comparing two similar cases -What is true for first case is also true for second -Cases must be essentially alike Example: "If you're good at tennis, you will probably be good at Ping-Pong."

Passive Agreement

-Convinces audience policy is desirable -Avoids encouraging action to support policy Example: -Specific Purpose: To persuade my audience that there should be stricter privacy standards on companies that offer personal genetic testing.

Special Nature of Online Environment

-Distinct relationship with audience -Different dimensions of speech communication process

Types of Credibility (phases)

-Initial: before speech -Derived: produced during speech -Terminal: at the end of speech

Commemoration guidelines

-Inspire audience -Heighten appreciation -Adjust content, delivery to fit situation -Use language creatively

Special Occasion Speech Types

-Introduction -Presentation -Acceptance -Commemoration

Ethical Emotional Appeals

-Make appropriate to topic -Don't substitute for evidence, reasoning

Policy Organization

-Problem-solution -Problem-cause-solution -Comparative advantages -Monroe's motivated sequence

Motivated Sequence Example

-Specific Purpose: To persuade my audience to take class notes by hand instead of on a computer. -Central Idea: You can learn more and get better grades if you take class notes by hand rather than with a computer. -Attention: Many of us use a computer to take notes in lectures and other classes. -Need: Despite the popularity of computers, using them to take class notes can reduce learning. -Satisfaction: You can avoid these problems by taking notes by hand. -Visualization: Taking notes by hand will improve your learning and your grades. -Action: So I encourage you to leave your laptop at home and put pen to paper instead.

Types of reasoning

-Specific instances -Principle -Causal -Analogical

Reasoning from Principle Guidelines

-Use a major premise that listeners will accept -Provide evidence for the minor premise

Tips for Evidence

-Use specific evidence -Use novel evidence -Use credible evidence -Make clear point of evidence

Policy issue- Practicality

-Will plan solve problem? -Will plan create new problems?

Remember audience

-adapt effectively to remote audience -engage in mental dialogue -keep public in public speaking

Adjust pacing

-alter what appears on-screen with visual aids -use brisk tempo akin to other online content

Introduction Guidelines

-be brief -be accurate -adapt to occasion, audience -build sense of anticipation

Online Speaking Guidelines

-control visual environment -adapt nonverbal communication -adjust pacing -remember audience -practice

Real-time online speech

-delivered with special software -remote audience gathered for live viewing -Example: online job interview, ZOOM

Recorded online speech

-delivered, recorded, uploaded to internet -used in blended or online courses -similar to in-class speech -Example: TED-talks

Back-up plan

-distribute outline -move to audio-only conference call -share via document collaboration program -move to recorded format -reschedule

Online Environment

-elements of internet that influence online speech -includes remote audience, factors of technology, forms of interference, etc.

Degrees of Persuasion

1. Strongly Opposed (furthest left) 2. Moderately opposed 3. Slightly opposed 4. Neutral 5. Slightly in favor 6. Moderately in favor 7. Strongly in favor (furthest right) -persuasion involves any movement by a listener from left to right

Problem-Solution

A text structure that presents a problem and offers solutions to solve the problem. -Main point #1= documents existence of problem -Main point #2= presents solution to problem Example: -Specific Purpose: To persuade my audience that the U.S. Congress should pass legislation that will reduce lead levels in the nation's water supply. -Central Idea: Because lead in the water supply is a serious problem in the United States, Congress should pass legislation reducing lead levels in our water. -Main Points: I.Lead in our nation's water supply is a serious problem. II.Solving the problem requires action by the federal government.

Ethos

Aristotle's name for credibility

Pathos

Aristotle's name for emotional appeal

Slippery Slope

Assuming first step will lead to later steps that can't be prevented -Example: "Now that everyone is texting, posting on social media, and sending video messages, it's only a matter of time before people forget how to write complete sentences and the whole English language falls apart."

Appeal to Novelty

Assuming something new is automatically better than old -Example: "Our church should adopt the updated New International Version of the Bible because it is 400 years newer than the King James Version."

Appeal to Tradition

Assuming something old is automatically better than new -Example: "I don't see any reason to abolish the electoral college. It has been around since the adoption of the U.S. Constitution in 1787, and we should keep it as long as the United States continues to exist."

Ad hominem

Attacking person rather than dealing with real issue -Example: "The head of the commerce commission has a number of interesting economic proposals, but let's not forget that she comes from a very wealthy family."

Bandwagon

Because something is popular, it is good or correct -Example: "The governor must be correct in his approach to social policy; after all, the polls show that 60 percent of the people support him."

Persuasion

Creating, reinforcing, changing people's beliefs or actions

Question of Value

Deals with worth, rightness of idea or action Example #1: -Specific Purpose: To persuade my audience that elephant trophy hunting is legally and morally wrong. -Central Idea: Elephant trophy hunting violates international accords and our duty to treat animals humanely. -Main Points: I.Elephant trophy hunting violates international accords on species conservation. II.Elephant trophy hunting violates what moral philosopher Immanuel Kant says is our duty to treat animals humanely. Example #2: "If marijuana is legalized, the moral standards of our country will be changed forever."

Causal Reasoning

Establishing relationship between causes & effects Example: "Because that patch of ice was there, I fell and broke my arm."

Motivated Sequence

Five-step sequence for speeches that seek immediate action

Either-Or

Forcing choice between two alternatives when more than two exist -Example: "The government must either raise taxes or eliminate services for the poor."

Red Herring

Irrelevant issue diverting attention from actual subject -Example: "How dare my opponents accuse me of political corruption at a time when we are working to improve the quality of life for all people in the United States."

Policy issue- Need

Is there a problem that requires change from current policy?

Hasty Generalization

Jumping to conclusion based on insufficient evidence -Example: "College dropouts always make excellent business leaders. Just look at Mark Zuckerberg, Bill Gates, and Steve Jobs. They all dropped out and went on to create powerful companies."

False Cause

Mistakenly assuming that because one event follows another, first event causes second -Example: "When a team from the NFC wins the Super Bowl, economic growth during the next year is stronger than when a team from the AFC wins the Super Bowl. Therefore, if we want economic growth, we should root for a team from the NFC to win this year's Super Bowl."

Reasoning from Principle

Moving from general principle to specific conclusion Example: -Major Premise: All people are mortal. (major premise) -Minor Premise: Socrates is a person. (minor premise) -Conclusion: Therefore, Socrates is mortal. (conclusion)

Specific Instances

Moving from particular facts to general conclusion Example: "My P.E. course last term was easy. My roommate's P.E. course was easy. My brother's P.E. course was easy. Therefore, P.E. courses are easy."

Commemoration

Speech paying tribute to person, group, institution, idea

Evidence

Supporting materials used to prove or disprove something

Policy issue- Plan

What is speaker's plan to solve the problem with current policy?

Problem-Cause-Solution

a method of organizing persuasive speeches in which the first main point identifies a problem, the second main point analyzes the causes of the problem, and the third main point presents a solution to the problem Example: -Specific Purpose: To persuade my audience that action is required to deal with the problem of childhood obesity. -Central Idea: Childhood obesity is a serious problem that can be controlled by changes in diet and exercise. -Main Points: I.Childhood obesity is a major problem in the United States. II.There are two major causes of the increase in childhood obesity. III.Solving the problem requires dealing with both causes.

Effective framing

center of image on screen -not too close, not too far away

Immediate Action

convinces audience to act in support of policy Example: -Specific Purpose: To persuade my audience to donate to the Wounded Warrior Project.

Question of Fact

deals with truth or falsity of assertion Example #1: -Specific Purpose: To persuade my audience that an earthquake of 9.0 or above on the Richter scale will hit California in the next ten years. -Central Idea: There are three good reasons to believe that an earthquake of 9.0 or above on the Richter scale will hit California in the next ten years. -Main points: I.California is long overdue for a major earthquake. II.Many geological signs indicate that a major earthquake may happen soon. III.Experts agree that an earthquake of 9.0 or above could strike California any day. Example #2: "Marijuana has been a gateway drug for many people in this country."

Acceptance

speech giving thanks for gift, award, recognition

Introduction

speech introducing main speaker to audience

Presentation

speech presenting gift, award, some recognition

Target Audience

the portion of the audience that the speaker most wants to persuade

Invalid Analogy

two cases being compared are not essentially alike -Example: "Employees are like nails. Just as nails must be hit on the head to get them to work, so must employees."

Question of Policy

whether course of action should or should not be taken Example: "Marijuana should [or should not] be legalized."