Sports Psychology Chapter 1

highlights of this era in sports psychology 1978-00

- 1979- journal of sport psychology now called sport and exercise psych established - 1980- USA Olympic developed sport pscyh advisory board - 1984- USA TV coverage of Olympic games emphasized sports psych - 1985- USA Olympic committee hires first full time sport psychologist - 1988- the USA Olympic team accompanied by an officially recognized sport psychologist for the first time

control element of the scientific method

- Important for this to be emphasized over diff conditions acc to the scientific method - Key variables or elements in the research (e.g. changes in self-esteem) while others are ctrled (e.g. the person doing the teaching) so the primary relationship is not influenced

the scientific method

- Process of learning about the world via a systematic, ctrled, empirical and critical filtering of knowledge acquired through experience. - When science is applied to psych goals include describing, explaining, predicting and allowing for behavior ctrl • Example dr. jenn Jackson wants to study how edu affects kids self esteem. She does this by defining self esteem and movement edu and from there determines what age groups and children she wants to study and then goes on to expl why she expects movement edu and self esteem to be related such as the kids wouls get recognition and praise for learning new skills. In the end Dr Jones research is really about prediction and ctrl: she wants to show that using movement edu in similar cond consistently affects kids self esteem in the same way and to test such things science has evolved gen research guidelines

k) Dorothy harris

- Professor Penn State advanced the cause of women and sport psychology - Helped establish the PSU grad program in sport psych - Her accomplishments included: • Being the first American and first woman member of the international soc of sport psych • First woman to be awarded the Fulbright fellowship in sport psych • First woman pres of the USA soc of sport psych and phys activity

studies v. experiements

- Studies • Involve investiogators obserbation or assessment of factors without changing the environment in any way • Example: studies comparing the effectiveness of goal setting, imagery and self talk in improving athletic performance may use qritten questionaires given to samples of H.S. cross country runners just before a race. Researchers could compare techniques used by fastest 20 runners with those used by slowest 20 runners & researchers wouldn't be chanign or manipulating any factors but instead observe if faster runners reported using paritucular mental skills (e.g. imagery) but researchers wouldn't know whether goal setting, imagery and self talk caused runners to go faster or if running faster stirred runners to go faster or if running faster stirred runners to set more goals. - Major difference btw experiences and studies • Determining causal relationships is the main advantage conducting expereimenets has over conduction of studies While Experiements • In an experiement investigators manipulate variables along with observing them and then examine how changes in 1 variable affect changes in other variables

a) Systematic approach

- The scientific method dictates this approach to study a question which involvs standardizing cond (e.g. one may assess kids self esteem under identical cond with a carefully designed measure)

various issues the field of sports psych fought with from around 1978-00

- defining training stands for those in the area- - Development of ethical stand -- Establishing licensure -- Development of full time positions for the increasing #s of ppl entering the field.

empirical element of the scientific method

- i.e. the scientific method is based on observation - objective evidence needs to support beliefs and this evidence needs to be open outside of evaluation and observation

critical element of the scientific method

- scientific method is this b/c it involves rigorous evaualtion by researchers and other scientists - when analysis of ideas is critical along with work helps to ensure reliable conclusions

theory

- ultimate goal of a scientist - set of interrelated facts which present a systematic view of a phenomenon in order to describe, expl and predict its future occurences. - Allows scientists to organize and expl large nos of facts in patterns which help others understand them or theories that turn to practice

H) Understanding present and future trends in sports psych

1) 10 current and planned for future trends in sports psych include: a) More ppl becoming interested in the acquirement of training in psychological skills and applied work - Consulting and service opportunities more plentiful than prev - More sports psychologists are helping athletes and coaches achieve their goals - Exercise psychology has opened new service opportunities to help ppl enjoy exercises benefits. b) Greater emphasis on counseling and clinical training of sports psychologists - Greater need for more training in counseling and clinical psych - Ppl wanting to assume roles in sport ad exercise consulting need to understand not only sport and exervise science but aspects of counseling and clinical psychology - Grad programs being developed in counseling and clinical psych which emphasize sport and exercise psych c) Ethics and competence issues receive greater emphasis. - Problems which have accompanied the vast growth in sport and exercise consulting (e.g. unwaulified ppl may call themselves sports psychologists and unethical ppl may promise more to coache. Athletes and exercise professionals than possible or someone with no training in sports psych my claim to and promise that buying their imagery tape will make an 80% free throw shooter out of a 20% one) - AASP has begun a certificate program or sport and exercise psychology consultants to encourage stronger ethics in this field. - Ethical standards for sports and exercise psychology have also been developed - Six general principles/guidelines of the AASP ethical guidelines for sports and exercise psych • Competence- sport psychologists work to maintain the highest standards of competence when they work and recognize the limitations in their expertise. If sports psychologists have little knwolwedge of team and group dynamics e.g. it would be unethical to lead others to believe that they don't have this knowledge or work with a team • Integrity-sport and exercise psychologists show high integrity in science, teaching and consulting and don't falsely advertise and clarify their roles (e.g. tell athletes they will be involved in team selection) with teams and organizations • Professional and scientific responsibility-sport and exercise psychologists always place best interest of their client first (e.g. it would be unethical to study aggression in sport via purposefully instructing a group of subjects to start fighting with the opposing team even if much could be learned via doing so. Conductors of research additionally responsible for safeguarding public from unethical professionals. If sports psychologists witness professionals making false claims (e.g. a person can eat all they want and burn off all their extra fat) the sport psychologist is ethically bound to pt out the misnfo and professionally confront the offender or report them to a professional organization. • Respecting ppls rights and dignity - Sports psychologistys respect the fundamental rights (e.g. principles of confidentiality and privacy) of the ppl they work with and don't pbuliclcy identify ppl they consult with unless they have permission to do so - They show no bias on the basis of such factors as race, gender and SES • Concern for others welfare - Sports psychologists look out to contribute to the welfare of those that they work with which is why an athletes psychological and physical well being always come before a win • Soc responsibility - Sport and exercise psychologists contribute to knowledge and human welfare while simultaneously protecting participants interests at all times. - Example: exercise psycholoigsts wouldn't offer exercise programs designed to reduce depression to a group of experiemental participants without without making the same program available to ctrl group subjects at the end of the experiement bc offering treatment to an experiemental group wouldn't be socially responsible and additionally would be unethical. - Back to the 10 trends: - Starts now: PE sport and exercise leaders should be informed consumers that can discriminate btw legit useful info and fads or gimmicks and they must also be familiar with ethical standards in this area. d) Specilizations and new subspecialities have developed - Over the last 30 yrs knowledge in sport psych has exploded - Unlike their forerunners today sports psychologists cannot be experts in every area - Sport psych and motor learning or motor ctrl (acquisition of and ctrl of skilled movements as a result of practice) have become separate sport science areas - Additionally subspecilaizations within sport & exercise psych have begun to emerge • Exercise psych most visible growth area but other new speializations which attraxt considerable interest include youth life skills, development via sport and the psych of performance excellence (applying sport psych performance enhancement principles to other settings including music, arts and business) and this trend is expected to cont on e) Tension cont to exist btw practioners of academic and applied sport psych - Textbook-pbased on philosophy that sport psych will best develop with = emphasis on research and professional practice but not all sport psychologists hold this way. - Tension has developed btw academic (research) and applied sports psych consultants which each group believing the others activities are less crucial to the development of the field. - Such tension is certainly undesirable but not unique - Disagreement exists in the broader field of psych but sports psych needs to continue working to overcome this destructive thinking f) Qualitative research methods are receiving more attention - 90s- reflected change in how sports and exercise psychologists conduct research - While traditional quantitative research is still being conducted, many investigators now broadening how they do research via qualitative nonnumeric methods • These methods consist of data collection via observation or interviews instead of analyzing numbers or rating statistically with researchers analyzing respondents words snd stories or narration for trends patterns which have been developed in this field. g) Applied sports psychologists have more work opportunities than prev but only limited chances at full time positions. - On the other hand there are more opportunities for them to work with teams and consult with many athletes - Many consultants work pt time with elite amateur athletes via many national sport governing bodies (NGBs) like the U.S tennis association - Many universities have full time sports psychology consultants serving V athletes - Many professional teams employ sports psychologists - Few full time consultant positions in existence - Ppl need advanced grad training to become qualified sports psych specialists and therefore ppl shouldn't expect to quickly obtain FT consulting positions with high profile teams and athletes simply based off having a degree in sport psych

C) Essential for both eudcaitonal sports psychologists & clinical sports psychologists

1) Both clinical and educational sport and exercise psychologist specialists need to have a thorugh knowledge of psychology and exercise and sports science 2) The AASP began certified consultant program:a To qualify for this certification as a sport and exercise consultant ppl need to have advanced training in psychology and sprt sciences b) This requirement designed to protect the public from unqualified ppl professing to e sport and exercise psychologists

Cognitive behaviorial orientation

1) Emphasizes an athlete or exercisers cognitions or thoughts and behaviors believing thought to be central in determining behavior 2) Sports psychologists using this orientation may develop self-report measures to assess self-confidence, anxiety, goal orientations, imaqgery and intrinsic motivation. 3) Psychologistws then see how these assessments are linked to dhanges in athletes or exercisers behavior a) Example: groups of junior tennis leaders who became burned ourt or not burned out were surveyed using battery of psychological assessments. In comparison with non burned out tennis burned out tennis players were found to be less motivated & more withdrawn as well as more perfectionist personality tendencies and used diff coping strategies for stress (linking the tennis players thoughts & behaviors via examining the athletes burned out statuses) 4) The cognitive ehavioral orientation to sport and exercise psych assumes that ehavior is determined via both environmental and cognitive factors with thoughts and interpretations playing an especially important role.

Educational sport psychology specialists

1) Have extensive training in sports and exercise sciences, PE and kinesiology 2) Understand the psychology of human movement specifically as it relates to sport and exercise contexts 3) Often have taken advanced graduate training psych and counseling 4) Not trained to treat individuals with emotional disorders but licensed psychologists 5) Can be thought of as mental coaches that through group and individual sessions educate athletes and exercise about psychological skills and their development 6) Some issues they address include issues related to anxiety management, confidence development and improved communication 7) When encountering athletes with emoitnal disorders they refer them to either licensed clinical psychologists or preferably clinical sports psychologists for treatment

teaching role within sports psychology

1) Many sports and exercise psychology specialists teach college courses like applied sport psychology

professional practice knowledge

1) Refers to knowledge from experience a) Example: someone may spend a lot of time helping exercisers, athletes, and PE students enhance their performance and well being while simutaneosuly picking up a good deal of practical understanding or info b) Knowledge in this field comes from many sources and ways of knowing including: - The scientific method - Systematic observation - Single case study - Shared public experiences - Introspection (examination of ones thoughts and feelings) - Intuition (immediate apprehension of knowledge lacking a conscious rational process c) Example: John Rodgers is the coach for the Hebrew Academy Yeshiva Highschool Lions volleyball team and he develops his coaching skills in diff ways before the season he uses introspection on how he wants to coach this yr, during team tryouts he does a systematic observation of the new players as they serve, hit and scrimmage. Additionally while coaching he may conduct case studies, share public experience, and often use intuiton. B 2) Guided trial and error learning regardless of if you work in PT, coach, teach are an exercise leader or certified athletic trainer you use knowledge to develop strategies and evualate their effectiveness. a) With experience exercisers and sport science proffessionals become more proficient and more knowledgeable in practical ways 3) Has major strengths and limitations 4) Tends to be more holistic than derived from scientific knowledge and reflects the complex interplay of psychological, physical, technical , strategic and soc factors 5) Unlike science professional practice knowledge usually absorbs novel or innovative practices and coaches, teachers, exercise leaders and trainers enjoy using new techniques. 6) Plus b/c practical theories don't have to wait to be scientifically verified so they can be used immediately. 7) On the downside, professional practice produces fewer and less precise expl than science can 8) More affected by bias than science and less objective 9) Tends to be less reliable and definitive than scientifically based knowledge 10) Teachers tend to know which methods work but don't know why they do which can be problematic if the teachers want to use this method in new situations or revise it to help particular students

Consulting role

1) Some sports psychologists do consulting work with individual athletes or athletic teams to help them develop psychological skills to enhance their competitive performance and training 2) Olympic committees and some major universities often employ full time sports psychology consultants 3) Many sports teams and athletes use consultants pt time for psychological skills training 4) Many sports psychology consultants work with coaches through clinics and workshops 5) Some work in the fitness industry via designing exercise programs to max participation and promote psychological and physical well being 6) Some consultants work as adjuncts to support sports medicine or PT clininics and psychological services to injured athletes

Integration of scientific and professional practice knowledge

1) Taking an active approach to sport & exercise psych a) Required to actively develop knowledge to use sport and exercise psych in the field b) Necessary for practioners to blend scientific of sport and exercise psych with professional practice knowledge reading about sports psych or being involved in a sports related profession like coaching is simply not enough c) Important to integrate scientific knowledge with ones professional experiences and temper them with ones own insights and intuiton d) Taking an active approach means an application of scientific principles to ones practice environment and necessary for one to relate to ones own life whether they be athlete, exerciser or PE student or all 3 2) Recognizing sport and exercise psych as an Art a) Social science b) Humans involved in sports and exercise think and manipulate their environment making behavior more dffficult but ntot impossible to predict 3) Coach doc councilman leg olumpic swim coach and key proponent of scientific approach to coaching summed up the need to consider individuality when he idnivated thay coaches coach by using gen principles, the sience of coaching and the art of coaching, the art of coaching enters as ppl recognize when and inw ha situations to idnvidiaulize gen pricniples 4) Theis same scie3nce to practice guiding principle holds true in sport and exercise psychology and interestingly some investigators have vegun to study contextual intelligence or the ability of ppl to understand and read the contexts which they work and its development which has implications for better understanding how we learn the art of professional practice. 5) In conclusion- the science of coaching focuses on the use of general pricinples, the srt of coaching recognizes when and how to individualize these gen principles

Social-psychological orientation

1) When used sport and exercise psychologists assume behavior is determined by complex interactions btw the environment (especially the social environment) and the personal makeup of the athlete or exerciser. 2) Those that use the social psychological approach tend to examine how indiivudals social environment influences ones behavior and how the behavior influences the social psychological environment Example: sport psychologists with a social psychological orientation may examine how leaders style and strategies foster group cohesion and influence participation in exercise programs 3) Ppl with social psychological orientations focus on how behavior is determined by complex interactions btw ones environment and their personal makeup

A) Clinical sport psychologists in the sports psych field

1)Have extensive training in psychology to help them detect and treat individuals with emotional disorders (e.g. suicidal tendencies) 2) Are licensed by state boards to treat those with emotional disorders 3) Have received additional training in sport and exercise psychology and sport sciences 4) Needed b/c just as in the normal pop athletes and exercisers can develop severe emotional disorders and req special treatment 5) Eating and substance abuse disorders are 2 areas which clinical sport psychologists can often help sports and exercise participants

I) Specializing in sport psychology

A) Sports psychologists pursue various careers from conducting research to teaching and consulting. In a research role...... 1) Primary function of participants in any scholarly field is the advancement of knowledge within the field through research a lot of times done in a university • Example: may study what motivates kids to be involved in youth sports programs 2) Today sports and exercise psychologists are members of multidisciplinary research temas which study problems such as the psychology of athletic injuries 2) Today sports and exercise psychologists are members of multidisciplinary research teams which study problems such as the psychology of athletic injuries.

sport and exercise psychology worldwide

A) Thrives worldwide with sports psych specialists working in ovr 70 diff countries most of whom live in N. America and Euro and large increases in activity have also occurred in Latin America, Asia and Africa in the past decade B) In Russia and Germany: Sports psych began working at the same time as coelman Griffith began his work at U Ill. 1) Example: pioneering work of Russian sport psychologist avksenty puni recently been disseminated ot English speaking audiences and provides fascinating glimpses of individuals 50 yr career and his theorizing on psych prep for athleric competition focusing on realistic goals, uncompromising effort, optimal emotional arousal, high tolerance for sistractions and stress and self reg has been groundbreaking and way ahead of the work done in N.America at the time. C) International soc of sport psych (ISSP) established in 1965 to promote and disseminate info about sport psych worldwide a) ISSP has sponsored 12 world congresses of sport psych focusing on topics including human performance, personality , motor learning, wellness and exercise & coaching psych that have been instrumental in promoting awareness of and interest in the field & since 1970 has sponsored the international journal of sport psych. c) Ferrucccio Sntonelli the first president of the ISSP were a lot of international dev of sport psych comes from he ws also the ed of ISSP

what types of questions do sports psychologists ask?

By: - a) Understanding the effects of psychological factors on physical or motor performance. For example: how does anxiety affect a basketball accuracy when shooting free-throws? b) Understanding the effects of physical activity participation on ones psychological development, health and well being • Example: do young athletes learn to overly aggressive from pariticpating in youth sports? c) Sport and exercise psychologists look to understand and help many ppl from elite athletes to childrens, the physically and mentallyd usabled, senior citizens and average pariticpants to help them achieve max pariticipation, peak performance, personal satisfaction and development via pariticpation

bridging the gap between science and practice

Important for sports psychology professionals to be able to integrate sports psych textbook info with working professionally with athletes and exercisers. The way this is done is through combo of scientific textbook knowledge with practical experience.

highlights in contemporary sports psychology

Journal of psychology of sport and exercise developed & published in euro - 2009 international soc of sport pscyhoology conference in morocco has more than 700 participants from 70 countries & Concerns emerge about the best ways to prepare and educate students - Exercise psych flourishes especially in university enviroments driven by external funding possibilities and its utility in facilitating wellness and holding down healthcare costs - Strong diverse and sustained research programs in sports and exercise psych become strong and evident worldwide - Increased interest in applied sport psych continues

Gen research guidelines of the scientific method

That the scientific method does this things systematically, controlled, empirically, and through a theory

Psychophysiological orientation

a) Believes that the best way to study behavior during sports and exercise is by examining the physiological processes of the brain and their influences on physical activity. b) These psychologists tend to assess heart rate, brain wave activity and muscle action potentials, determining relationships btw these psychophysiological measures and sport and exercise behavior • Example: when biofeedback techniques are used to train elite marksmen to fire btw heartbeats to improve accuracy. - Psychophysiological sport and exercise psychologists study behavior via its underlying psychophysiological processes which occur in the brain

5) The multidisciplinary science and practice in sport and exercise psychology focused era 1978-2000

a) During this time huge growth in sports psych worldwide b) Sport psych field becomes more accepted and respected by the public c) Interest in applied issues characterized this period along with the growth and development of exercise psych as a speciality area for researchers and practioners d) Sport and exercise psych becomes separated from other psychologically trlted exercise and sport science specilizations of motor learning and ctrl and motor development e) More and better research conducted during this period and this research was in turn met with increased respect and acceptance in related fields such as psych f) Alternative forms of qualitative and interpretive research emerged and became more well accepted as this period drew to a close f) Alternative forms of qualitative and interpretive research emerged and became more well accepted as this period drew to a close h) Students and professors with backgrounds in gen pych entered this field in greater numbers i) Training in this field took a multidisciplinary perspective as students took more counseling and psych related course work i) Training in this field took a multidisciplinary perspective as students took more counseling and psych related course work

2) Griffith era (1921-38)

a) First person in USA to devote signifigant portion of his career to sport psychology b) Today regarded as the father of American sport psychology c) U of Ill psychologist that worked in the dep of phys welfare d) Developed the first lb in sport psych e) Helped initiate 1 od the first coaching schools in the USA ) Wrote 2 books psych of coaching and psych of athletics g) Conducted series of studies on the Chicago cubs - 1921-31- Griffith published 25 research articles about sport psychology - 1925- U of Illinois research in athletics lab established and Griffith appointed director

3) Prep for the future era (1939-65)

a) Franklin Henry at UC Berkeley largely responsible for the fields scientific development and devoted his career to the scholarly study of the psychological aspects of sport and motor skill acquistion and trained many energetic Phys Educators who later become university professors and intiated systematic programs b) Some of his students became adminstrators who reshaped PE curriculums and developed sport and exercise science or the field of kinesiology as it is today.

4) Establishment of academic sport psychology (1966-77)

a) Mid 1960s- PE became an academic discipline now known as kinesiology or exercise and sport science and sport psych became a separate component within this discipline distinct from motor learning. b) Motor learning specialists focused on how ppl aquire motor skills (not necc sports skills) and on conditions of practice, feedback and timing i) Contrast: sports psychologists studied how psychological factors like anxiety, self esteem and personality influence sport and motor skill performance an dhow participation in sport and PE influences psychological development like personality and aggression j) Applied sport psychology consultants began working with athletes and teams bruce Ogilvie of san jose state u bein gone of the first to do this and often called the father of usa applied sports psych. Concurrent with the increased interest in the field the first sport psych socieites establ in the usa

highlights of the early years era of sports psychology

a) Scripture conducts data based studies of athletics at yale and examines reactions and movement times along with transfer of phys training b) 1897-normal triplett conducts the first soc psych and sport psych exerpiemeent studying the effects of others on cyclists performance c) E.W scripture of yale: describes personalithy traits that he believes can be fostered via sport participation

6) Contemp sport and exercise psych (2001-2012)

a) Sports psychology becomes and continues to be a vibrant and exciting field with a brihg tfuture but ome serious issues need to still be addressed

Early yrs of sports psychology (1893-1920)

a) USA sport psychology began in the 1890s b) Normal triplett psychologists form Indiana U wanted to understand why cyclists sometimes rode faster when they raced in groups or pairs than riding solo c) Verified that his initial observations were correct when he studied cycling racing record d) Conducted an exepriemenet where young kids were to reel in fishing lns as fast as they could and found that kids reeled in more ln when they worked with other kids e) Triplets experiement allowed him to make more reliable predictions of when bike racers would have better performances

choosing from many sport psych and exercise professions

can be done via many approaches including the psychophysiological orientation, the social-psychological orientation, the cognitive behavioral orientation, an understanding of present and future trends in sports psychology,

Scientifically derived knowledge

done through the scientific method

the social facilitation theory

ex. Of a theory which post norman trippletts first reelwinding experiement with children psychologists began to study how the presence of audiences affect performance but the results were inconsistent b/c sometimes ppl performed better in front of an audience and others they performed worse. • Zajonc saw a pattern in this seemingly random results and formulated a theory after noticing that when ppl performed simple takss that they knew well an audience pos influenced their performance but when ppl performed unfamiliar or complex tasks audiences harmed their performance. • In this theory zajonc contended that audeinces created arousal in performers, which hurt performance on difficult tasks that have not been learned or learned well and helped them perform well learned tasks. • Zajoncs theory increased our understanding of how audiences influence performance at many lvls (stduetns and porfessionals) and many sport and exercise situations he consolidated many seemingly random occurences into 1 theory basic for performers, coaches and teachers to remember and apply them for various circumstances.

experiemental and control groups

example: runners may be divided into 2 groups an experiemental fgroup which would receive in how to set goals, use imagery and pos self talk while the members of the ctrl group may not receive any psychological skills training and if the experiemental group outperformed te ctrl group (with other factors thay may affect the ctrl of the relationship) the reason or casue of this MB known and a causal relationship would be demonstrated. Also both consist of unbiased data, is reductionistic, over emphasizes the limitations of science, and has internal validity

f) E.W. Scripture

i) Early pioneer of sports psychology ii) Yale psychologist who was interested in taking a more scientific data based approach to the study of psychology iii) Saw sports as a great way to demonstrate the value of his new scientific psychology and with his students conducted a # of lab studies on reaction and muscle movement times of fencers and runners and trandfer of phys training iv) Discussed early research examining of how sport might develop character in participants v) Worked closely with Yale professor William Anderson 1 of the first PE teachers in the USA

reductionistic aspect of the scientific method

• Another name for scientific knowledge • When scientific knowledge becomes to complex to study all the variables of a situation at once when researchers may select isolated variables which are of most critical interest • When a problem is reduced to smaller more manageable pts however, our understanding of the bigger picture mb compromised or diminished

internal validity

• Limitiation of science b/c it overemphasizes this • When science favors the extent which results of an investigation mb attributed to the treatment used, usually judging studies by how well known scientists conform to the rules of scientific methodoly and how systematic and ctrled they were in conducting the study • Overemphasis in this area may cause scientists to overlook ext validity or whether issues have true signifigance or real world utility - External validity • Without thi theories with internal validity don't count for much

negative aspects of the scientific method

• Scientific method is slow and conservative bc reliability mb judged by others • Takes time to be systematic and ctrled- more time than most practitioners have • Scientific breakthroughs tend to come post yrs of research which is why it isn't always practical to insist science guides all eelements of practice

unbiased data

• To collect this is one of the goals of the scientific method • Are facts that pseak for themselves and aren't influenced by sicentist's personal feelings