Study Set 45

Bretton Woods Conference, 1944

formally known as the United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference, was the gathering of 730 delegates from all 44 Allied nations at the Mount Washington Hotel, situated in Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, United States, to regulate the international monetary and financial order after the conclusion of World War II.

"pivot state" status

"pivot state" status − that is, their ability to hedge between major powers to maintain their freedom of action

(1) Compare and contrast Peacekeeping with Collective Security. (2) Discuss the problems/limitations of peacekeeping. (3) Analyze two particular operations and discuss these in some detail. (Be sure to relate to previous points discussed.) (4) In your view has peacekeeping been successful, Why or Why Not?

(1) Compare: Both are committed to maintaining peace. Both are international. Contrast: Collective Security explicitly includes military force as a means for maintaining security, while Peacekeeping only implicitly includes military force as a last resort and in cases of self-defense. Collective Security is a response to a threat to or breach of peace, whereas Peacekeeping takes place post-conflict in order to preserve and maintain peace. (2)

(1) Define what are Regional Organizations? (2) What are the four classifications of Regional Organizations and cite examples of each? (3) Discuss four arguments advocating an expanded role for regional organizations. (4) Which of these arguments do you find the most compelling in justifying regional organizations?

(1) Regional organizations are characterized by boundaries and demarcations characteristic to a defined and unique geography, such as continents, or geopolitics, such as economic blocks. They have been established to foster cooperation and political and economic integration or dialogue amongst states or entities within a restrictive geographical or geopolitical boundary. (2) 1. Multipurpose Organizations: Example: The Organization of American States (OAS) 2. Alliance: Example: North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) 3. Functional: Example: African Union 4. UN Regional Commissions: Example: Economic Commission for Europe (3) 1. There is a natural tendency toward regionalism based on the homogeneity of interests, traditions, and values within small groups of neighboring states 2. Political economic and social integration is more easily attained among a lesser number of states within a limited geographic area than on a global basis 3. Regional economic cooperation provides more efficient economic units than the smaller states, and these larger units can compete successfully in world markets 4. Local threats to the peace are more willingly and promptly dealt with by the governments of that area than by disinterested states at greater distances from the scene of conflict. (4) #4 is the most compelling argument in justifying regional organizations. This is due to the fact that conflicts dealt with by regional alliances tend to show less suspicion because everyone in the region is more in tune with the problems facing each country in the geographical and geopolitical area.

(1) Discuss the significance of the UN as a forum especially for smaller nations. (2) How is membership in the UN and its specialized agencies determined? (3) Be sure to discuss to what extent politics is involved in this process. (4) Cite examples to illustrate your points. (5) Conclude by discussing how amendments to the UN charter can be made.

(1) Since the United Nations was founded, there have been many changes in the way that the UN operates - but perhaps none is more significant than the growth in its membership. In 1945 there were 51 members. Today the number has reached 192. Now Small states now make up the majority of the UN membership - 100 in total. Of the 192 member states 100 countries are members of the special grouping in the UN called the Forum of Small States. Small countries have one very significant comparative advantage - if they choose to use it. Their small size usually means much greater ease of internal consultation, and much greater openness and flexibility. (2) Chapter II of the United Nations Charter deals with membership of the United Nations organization. A country can only be admitted to the UN after the UN General Assembly votes to do so upon the recommendation of the UN Security Council. Assent is required of the (P5) members of the Security Council. Each of the United Nations' 16 specialized agencies has its own membership procedure. As such, the process and criteria for admitting new members vary depending on the organization. However, in 11 specialized agencies, U.N. membership gives a state access to membership in the agency without requiring its admission to be approved by the current membership. (3) Although individual Countries don't play a large role in determining U.N. membership, Member countries' have sought to influence policy on membership through legislation advocating or opposing the membership of various countries and entities—including Israel, South Africa, and the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO). (4) In the mid- 1990s, Congress enacted two separate laws that prohibit funding to U.N. entities that admit the PLO as a member. The United States currently withholds its assessed and voluntary contributions to the U.N. Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), which admitted Palestine as a member in 2011. (5) Amendments to the United Nations Charter can be made by a procedure set out in Chapter 18 (XVIII) of the UN Charter. Charter amendments require the consent of all five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council. Major changes to the Charter-defined structure of the UN have also been made without formal amendment of the text. For example, the Soviet Union's permanent seat in the UN Security Council was assumed by Russia.

(1) Identify and discuss the significance of the Universal Declaration of human rights. (2) Discuss some of its major provisions and themes. (3) Address its limitations. (4) To what extent do you think it has been effective?

(1) The UN Declaration of Human Rights represents the first global expression of rights to which all human beings are inherently entitled. The Declaration was drafted by representatives of all regions of the world and supposedly encompassed all legal traditions. (2) Some major provisions include: -The Right to Life - No Slavery - No Torture - The Right to Trial - We're Always Innocent Till Proven Guilty - The Right to Privacy - The Right to Seek a Safe Place to Live - Right to a Nationality (3) Limitations of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights include: - Obscurity of the basis of the rights proclaimed - The vague but sweeping language of many provisions - Suggestion of a principle of equality with no clear content or limits (4) According to a report by Amnesty International (IA), half of the world's government continues to imprison people solely due to their beliefs, race, gender or ethnic origin. Another one-third of the world's governments tortured their prisoners, and these governments include developed and developing countries. There is no denying there have been grave human rights abuses ever since the Universal Declaration of Human Rights was adopted in 1948. However, you can't deny the good intentions behind the Declaration and surely the Declaration has set an example for other regional organizations.

(1) Define the Universalist approach to international organizations. (2) Discuss four arguments advocating a universalist approach to international organizations. (3) Conclude by contrasting the universalist and regionalist approaches.

(1) The Universalist approach states that only a universal organization can provide an adequate check on the power of a large state that can often dominate the other members of a regional arrangement (2) 1. World interdependence has created an increasing number of problems that require global solutions. Political, economic, and social problems reach across regional boundaries 2. Regional resources are often inadequate to resolve the problems of states within the region 3. Since peace is indivisible only a world organization can deal effectively with threats to the peace that may, if unchecked, spread beyond local or regional limits 4. Regions are imprecise and impermanent. No agreement can be reached on a system of regions into which the globe can be conveniently divided (3) - Opponents of the Regional Approach state, "sanctions against an aggressor are usually ineffective if applied on a regional bases because of sources of aid to the aggressor from outside the region", while proponents of Universalism say that the universalist approach solves this problem by inclusivity of every country. - Opponents of the Regional Approach say that Regional Organizations are imprecise and impermanent. They say, "No agreement can be reached on a system of regions into which the globe can be conveniently divided", while proponents of Universalism say that this is conveniently dealt with by creating a universal organization representative of every country. - Opponents of Regionalism say that "Regional alliances provide the basis for rivalries and competition for military supremacy among regions leading to greater possibilities for major wars", while proponents of Universalism say that under the all-inclusive umbrella of the indiscriminate international community there is no room for rivalry or competition.

San Francisco Conference, 1945

(April 25-June 26, 1945), international meeting that established the United Nations. The basic principles of a worldwide organization that would embrace the political objectives of the Allies had been proposed at the Dumbarton Oaks Conference in 1944 and reaffirmed at the Yalta Conference in early 1945.

SALT II Treaty

- SALT II was a series of talks between United States and Soviet negotiators from 1972 to 1979 which sought to curtail the manufacture of strategic nuclear weapons - a continuation of the SALT I talks and was led by representatives from both countries - was the first nuclear arms treaty which assumed real reductions in strategic forces to 2,250 of all categories of delivery vehicles on both sides - banned new missile programs, so both sides were forced to limit their new strategic missile types development - the principal U.S. objectives as the SALT II negotiations began were to provide for equal numbers of strategic nuclear delivery vehicles for the sides, to begin the process of reduction of these delivery vehicles, and to impose restraints on qualitative developments which could threaten future stability - In May of 1986 President Reagan stated that "the United States must base decisions regarding its strategic force structure on the nature and magnitude of the threat posed by Soviet strategic forces and not on standards contained in the SALT structure"

Baghdad Pact/CENTO

- The Central Treaty Organization (CENTO) was formed in 1955 by Iran, Iraq, Pakistan, Turkey, and the United Kingdom through the Baghdad Pact - With the withdrawal of Iran, the secretary-general of CENTO, announced on March 16, 1979 that he would call a meeting of the pact's council in order to formally dissolve the organization. - The organization's headquarters was initially located in Baghdad (Iraq) - U.S. pressure and promises of military and economic aid were key in the negotiations leading to the agreement -modeled after the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), CENTO committed the nations to mutual cooperation and protection, as well as non-intervention in each other's affairs - its goal was to contain the Soviet Union (USSR) by having a line of strong states along the USSR's southwestern frontier - unlike NATO, CENTO did not have a unified military command structure

Geo-economics

- The study of the economic trends and conditions of the world's countries and how they are related; economics considered on the broadest global scale. EXAMPLE SENTENCES: "A period of fixation with a new era of 'geoeconomics' illustrated the contrary viewpoint that the new economic balance of power was more closely knit than ever before." "The emergence of geoeconomics as the main determinant of interstate relations requires the availability of adequate naval power to secure sea lines of communication against interference or interdiction by hostile navies." "It is a book to be read by anyone who is interested in the emerging field of geoeconomics for money makes the world go around, but most people know little about it." - The economic policies or conditions of a country as seen in a global perspective.

European Parliament

- Three main roles of the European Parliament: debating and passing European laws, scrutinizing other EU institutions and making sure they are working democratically, and debating and adopting the EU's budget - is the directly elected parliamentary institution of the European Union (EU) - together with the Council of the European Union (the Council) and the European Commission, it exercises the legislative function of the EU - along with the European Commission, the European Parliament has legislative power but not the ability to formally propose legislation - the Parliament is composed of 751 (previously 766) members, who represent the second largest democratic electorate in the world (after the Parliament of India) - controls budgetary actions for the European Union - members of the European Parliament are elected every five years - adopts the EU's annual budget with the Council of the European Union - parliament has a committee that monitors how the budget is spent - the number of MEPs (Members of the European Parliament) for each country is roughly proportionate to its population - has three places of work: Belgium, Luxembourg and France

Counterforce

- a "counterforce" strategy is one that targets enemy military forces - a counterforce target is one that has a military value, such as a launch silo for intercontinental ballistic missiles, an airbase at which nuclear-armed bombers are stationed, a homeport for ballistic missile submarines, or a command and control installation - the intent of a counterforce strategy (i.e., attacking counterforce targets with nuclear weapons) is to disarm an adversary by destroying its nuclear weapons before they can be launched, thereby minimizing the impact of a retaliatory second strike - a counterforce strike is against an adversary's military - a counterforce target is an element of the military infrastructure, usually either specific weapons or the bases which support them - a counterforce strike is an attack which targets these elements whilst leaving the civilian infrastructure - the countervalue targets - as undamaged as possible - an ideal counterforce attack would kill no civilians - Counterforce is a type of attack which was originally proposed during the Cold War

Pax Americana

- a state of relative international peace regarded as overseen by the US (or the UK). - Pax Americana is primarily used in its modern connotations to refer to the peace among great powers established after the end of World War II in 1945, also called the long peace. In this modern sense, it has come to indicate the military and economic position of the United States in relation to other nations. For example the Marshall Plan, which spent $13 billion to rebuild the economy of Western Europe, has been seen as "the launching of the pax americana." Example: "At the same time as these regional trade talks advance, the world is moving from Pax Americana to a multipolar system that balances different powers."

Multinational Corporations

- are organizations that are owned or control productions of goods or services in one or more countries other than the home country - usually, an MNC is a large corporation which produces or sells goods or services in various countries - the problem of moral and legal guiding behaviors of MNC's, given that they are effectively "stateless" actors - MNC's plays an important role in globalization - MNC's are criticized for reducing competition and free enterprise, raising capital in host countries but exporting the profits, exploiting countries for their natural resources, limiting workers' wages, and eroding traditional cultures - In August of 2003 the UN approved guidelines for multinational corporations, bringing together a range of legal obligations for companies drawn from existing human rights, labour and environmental standards - The Transnationality Index was developed by the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, which rates MNC's by three ratios: the ratio of foreign assets to total assets, the ratio of foreign sales to total sales, and the ratio of foreign employment to total employment

Collective Security

- can be understood as a security arrangement, political, regional, or global - each state in the system accepts that the security of one is the concern of all - therefore, they altogether commit to a collective response to threats, and breaches to peace - is more ambitious than systems of alliance security in that it seeks to encompass the totality of states within a region or indeed globally - Collective Security is also intended to address a wide range of possible threats - the first large scale attempt to provide collective security in modern times was the establishment of the League of Nations - Collective Security contrasts with self-help strategies of engaging in war for purely immediate national interest - Collective security selectively incorporates the concept of both balance of power and global government - The 1945 United Nations Charter does not represent a complete system of collective security, but rather a balance between collective action and continued operation of the states system

Regional Development Banks

- consist of several regional institutions that have functions similar to the World Bank group's activities - shareholders usually consist of the regional countries plus the major donor countries - established with the stated purpose of providing investment capital for developing business and industry in a particular region - to qualify for a RDB loan a company does not have to use pre-existing assets for collateral; instead the project becomes collateral and the bank partners with the borrower to monitor successful project execution and loan repayment - the best-known of these regional banks cover regions that roughly correspond to United Nations regional groupings Some examples include: the Inter-American Development Bank, the Asian Development Bank, and the African Development Bank

Maastricht Treaty

- created the European Union and led to the creation of the single European currency, the euro - one of the obligations of the treaty for the members was to keep "sound fiscal policies, with debt limited to 60% of GDP and annual deficits no greater than 3% of GDP." - established the three pillars of the European Union: European Community (EC) pillar, Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) pillar, and the Justice and Home Affairs (JHA) pillar - the creation of the pillar system was the result of the desire by many member states to extend the European Economic Community to the areas of foreign policy, military, criminal justice, and judicial cooperation - the structure greatly limited the powers of the European Commission, the European Parliament and the European Court of Justice -The signing of the Treaty of Maastricht took place in Maastricht, Netherlands in February of 1992

Warsaw Pact

- in 1949, the prospect of further Communist expansion prompted the United States and 11 other Western nations to form the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). The Soviet Union and its affiliated Communist nations in Eastern Europe founded a rival alliance, the Warsaw Pact, in 1955 - was a collective defense treaty among eight communist states of Central and Eastern Europe in existence during the Cold War - the Warsaw Pact was in part a Soviet military reaction to the integration of West Germany into NATO in 1955 - in March 1954, the USSR, fearing "the restoration of German Militarism" in West Germany, requested admission to NATO - the strategy behind the formation of the Warsaw Pact was driven by the desire of the Soviet Union to dominate Central and Eastern Europe - the eight member countries of the Warsaw Pact pledged the mutual defense of any member who would be attacked - the Warsaw Pact remained intact until 1991 - in 1990, East Germany left the Pact and reunited with West Germany; the reunified Germany then became a member of NATO - the rise of non-communist governments in other eastern bloc nations, such as Poland and Czechoslovakia, throughout 1990 and 1991 marked an effective end of the power of the Warsaw Pact

Strategic Arms Limitations Talks (SALT)

- in January 1967, President Lyndon Johnson announced that the Soviet Union had begun to construct a limited Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) defense system around Moscow. The development of an ABM system could allow one side to launch a first strike and then prevent the other from retaliating by shooting down incoming missiles. Johnson therefore called for strategic arms limitations talks (SALT) - Negotiations commenced in Helsinki, Finland, in November 1969 - the two rounds of bilateral talks and corresponding international treaties involved the United States and the Soviet Union on the issue of armament control - the two rounds of talks and agreements were SALT I and SALT II. - SALT I led to the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty and an interim agreement between the two countries - SALT II resulted in an agreement in 1979, the United States chose not to ratify the treaty in response to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, which took place later that year - the United States eventually withdrew from SALT II in 1986 - first suggested by U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson in 1967, strategic arms limitation talks were agreed on by the two superpowers in the summer of 1968, and full-scale negotiations began in November 1969.

SALT I Treaty

- in a Treaty on the Limitation of Anti-Ballistic Missile Systems, they moved to end an emerging competition in defensive systems that threatened to spur offensive competition to still greater heights - SALT I froze the number of strategic ballistic missile launchers at existing levels - provided for the addition of new submarine-launched ballistic missile (SLBM) launchers - one clause of the treaty required both countries to limit the number of sites protected by an anti-ballistic missile (ABM) system to two each - Negotiations lasted from November 1969, until May 1972 - meetings began in Helsinki - SALT I is considered the crowning achievement of the Nixon-Kissinger strategy of détente

Regional Organizations

- international and regional organizations differ in that the membership of regional organizations is characterized by boundaries and demarcations characteristic to a defined and unique geography, such as economic blocks - they have been established to foster cooperation and political and economic integration or dialogue amongst states or entities within a restrictive geographical or geopolitical boundary - they both reflect common patterns of development and history that have been fostered since the end of World War II - most ROs tend to work alongside well-established multilateral organizations such as the United Nations - examples of ROs include the African Union (AU), European Union (EU), the Organization of American States (OAS) - cooperation with regional organizations has long been a touchstone of the work of the United Nations, as recognized in Chapter VIII of the UN Charter

Universal Declaration of Human Rights

- is a declaration adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 10 December 1948 - arose directly from the experience of the Second World War - warns that people whose rights are violated may "be compelled to have recourse, as a last resort, to rebellion against tyranny and oppression" - in the early 1990s, a number of Asian states argued that the principles in the Universal Declaration and other human rights documents represented Western values that were being imposed on them and that the West was inter- fering in their internal affairs with its own definition of human rights. - represents the first global expression of rights to which all human beings are inherently entitled - the Universal Declaration of Human Rights Drafting Committee was chaired by Eleanor Roosevelt

Mutual Assured Destruction

- is a doctrine of military strategy and national security policy in which a full-scale use of high-yield weapons of mass destruction by two or more opposing sides would cause the complete annihilation of both the attacker and the defender - assumes that each side has enough nuclear weaponry to destroy the other side; and that either side, if attacked for any reason by the other, would retaliate without fail with equal or greater force - the primary application of this doctrine started during the Cold War in which MAD was seen as helping to prevent any direct full-scale conflicts between the United States and the Soviet Union - proponents of MAD as part of U.S. and USSR strategic doctrine believed that nuclear war could best be prevented if neither side could expect to survive a full-scale nuclear exchange as a functioning state - Secretary-General Ban-Ki Moon stated about the Cold War in 2010, "Our human destiny was suspended on a flimsy thread, a doctrine called mutually assured destruction"

Alliances

- is a pact, coalition or friendship between two or more parties, made in order to advance common goals and to secure common interests - is a Political agreement between countries to support each other in disputes with other countries - a formal agreement between two or more states for mutual support in case of war - contemporary alliances provide for combined action on the part of two or more independent states and are generally defensive in nature - are typically formalized by a 'treaty of alliance' - Alliances arise from states' attempts to maintain a balance of power - in a system composed of a number of medium-size countries, such as that in Europe, no single state is able to establish a lasting hegemony over all the others - Their have been a broad range of alliances formed between government and non-government A great example is the United Nations Public-Private Alliance for Rural Development, which recognizes that reducing rural poverty is a key to achieving the Millennium Development Goals

(1) Define and discuss the regime of colonialism. (2) What factors fostered its growth in the 19th and 20th centuries? (3) Discuss the attempts to weaken colonialism after W.W.I, and how effective was it? (4) What major efforts has the modern United Nations made in ending colonialism? (5) What problems still remain?

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European Union (EU)

- is a politico-economic union of 28 member states that are located primarily in Europe - the EU operates through a system of 7 supranational institutions and intergovernmental negotiated decisions by the member states, which includes the European Commission, the European Central Bank, and the European Parliament - the EU traces its origins from the European Coal and Steel Community - the EU has developed a single market through a standardised system of laws that apply in all member states - EU policies aim to ensure the free movement of people, goods, services, and capital - in 2012, the EU was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for "contributing to the advancement of peace and reconciliation, democracy, and human rights in Europe" - after World War II, moves towards European integration were seen by many as an escape from the extreme forms of nationalism that had devastated the continent - the 8th European Parliament election in May 2014 saw euroskeptic parties gain a larger voteshare than previous elections - to become a member, a country must meet the Copenhagen criteria

Arab League

- is a regional organization of Arab countries in and around North Africa, the Horn of Africa, and Southwest Asia - It was formed in Cairo in March of 1945 with six members including: Egypt, Iraq, and Syria - currently, the League has 22 members, although Syria's participation has been suspended - the League's main goal is to "draw closer the relations between member States and co-ordinate collaboration between them, to safeguard their independence and sovereignty, and to consider in a general way the affairs and interests of the Arab countries" - it has served as a forum for the member states to coordinate their policy positions, to deliberate on matters of common concern, and even settle some Arab disputes - each member state has only one vote in the League Council - the Arab League has also played a role in shaping school curricula, advancing the role of women in the Arab societies, promoting child welfare, encouraging youth and sports programs, preserving Arab cultural heritage, and fostering cultural exchanges between the member states - the first major action was the joint intervention, allegedly on behalf of the majority Arab population that was being uprooted as the State of Israel emerged in 1948

Lome Conventions

- is a trade and aid agreement between the European Community (EC) and 71, first signed in February 1975 in Lomé, Togo. - the first Lomé Convention, in April 1976, was designed to provide a new framework of cooperation between the then European Community (EC) and developing African, Caribbean, and Pacific (ACP) countries - the focus of cooperation between EU Member States and ACP countries is on economic/trade-policy cooperation and development cooperation - the main objective of development cooperation is reducing poverty - as part of trade cooperation, the EU has made a number of the goods exported by ACP countries duty free and also ACP countries have been granted permission to retain their tariffs on goods from the EU - the convention was renegotiated and renewed three times - Lomé development aid was dispersed primarily through the European Development Fund -In June of 2000 the Lomé Conventions were replaced by the so-called Cotonou Agreement, which entered into force in April of 2003

African Union

- is a union consisting of 54 African states - Morocco left in 1984 and CAR was suspended after the 2012-13 Central African Republic conflict - The AU was established in 2001 - The AU replaced the Organisation of African Unity (OAU) - the most important decisions of the AU are made by the Assembly of the African Union, chaired by the President of Mauritania - The AU's secretariat, the African Union Commission, is based in Ethiopia - objectives of the AU include: achieving greater unity and solidarity between the African countries, encouraging international cooperation, and promoting peace, security, and stability on the continent - The AU's first military intervention in a member state was the deployment of peacekeeping forces to Burundi in May of 2003 to oversee the implementation of the various agreements - AU troops were also deployed in Sudan for peacekeeping in the Darfur conflict

Benelux Agreement

- is a union of states comprising three neighbouring countries in midwestern Europe: Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg - ultimately BEU is striving towards full economic integration - this effort takes the form of coordinated planning and subsequent action in foreign trade, monetary policy, finance, transportation, and tourism - BEU allows the free movement of agricultural and finished goods, labor, and capital across its members' borders - in areas of social reform the Union has done away with passport restrictions and labor permits - BEU is governed by a Committee of Ministers which is comprised of at least three ministers from each member country - the importance of the BEU has diminished over the years as the economies of its member countries have become integrated into the European Union - despite its lesser stature today, the Benelux Economic Union played a vital role in the decades following World War II in rebuilding and modernizing the Benelux countries

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)

- is an intergovernmental military alliance based on the North Atlantic Treaty which was signed in April of 1949 - the organization constitutes a system of collective defense - the combined military spending of all NATO members constitutes over 70 percent of the global total - members' defense spending is supposed to amount to 2 percent of GDP - Article 5 of the North Atlantic treaty, requiring member states to come to the aid of any member state subject to an armed attack, was invoked for the first and only time after the 11 September 2001 attacks - NATO has twenty-eight members, mainly in Europe and North America - the United States accounts for three fourths of NATO's defense spending - the Permanent Members form the North Atlantic Council (NAC), a body which meets together at least once a week and has effective governance authority and powers of decision in NATO - the meetings of the North Atlantic Council are chaired by the Secretary General of NATO - NATO's military operations are directed by the Chairman of the NATO Military Committee

Non-Governmental Organizations

- is any non-profit, voluntary citizens' group which is organized on a local, national or international level - NGOs may be funded by governments, foundations, businesses, or private persons - some may have charitable status, while others may be registered for tax exemption based on recognition of social purposes - others may be fronts for political, religious or other interest groups - India is estimated to have the highest number of NGOs, over 2 million - was first coined in 1945, when the United Nations (UN) was created - The UN, itself an inter-governmental organization, made it possible for certain approved specialized international non-state agencies to be awarded observer status at its assemblies and some of its meetings - today, according to the UN, any kind of private organization that is independent from government control can be termed an "NGO", provided it is not-for-profit, non-criminal and not simply an opposition political party - One advantage that NGO's have: they are not hindered by short-term financial objectives - Public surveys reveal that NGOs often enjoy a high degree of public trust

Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)

- is an intergovernmental organization that was created at the Baghdad Conference in September of 1960 - is an international organization and economic cartel whose mission is to coordinate the policies of the oil-producing countries - the goal is to secure a steady income to the member states and to collude in influencing world oil prices through economic means - OPEC is headquartered in Austria - OPEC was formed at a time when the international oil market was largely dominated by multinational companies - OPEC's 'Policy Statement' states that there is a right of all countries to exercise sovereignty over their natural resources - In the 1980s, the price of oil was allowed to rise before the adverse effects of higher prices caused demand and price to fall. The OPEC nations, which depended on revenue from oil sales, experienced severe economic hardship from the lower demand for oil and consequently cut production in order to boost the price of oil - OPEC has twelve member countries: six in the Middle East, four in Africa, and two in South America - OPEC is a swing producer and its decisions have had considerable influence on international oil prices. For example, in the 1973 energy crisis some OPEC members refused to ship oil to western countries that had supported Israel in the Yom Kippur War, which Israel had fought against Egypt and Syria. This refusal caused a fourfold increase in the price of oil, which lasted five months

Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD)

- is an international economic organisation of 34 countries - founded in 1961 to stimulate economic progress and world trade - a forum for countries committed to democracy and the market economy - a platform for countries to compare policy experiences - seeks answers to common problems, identifies good practices and coordinates domestic and international policies of its members - originated in 1948 as the Organisation for European Economic Co-operation (OEEC) - most OECD members are high-income economies with a very high Human Development Index (HDI) and are regarded as developed countries - The OECD's headquarters is in Paris, France - was originally formed to administer American and Canadian aid in the framework of the Marshall Plan for the reconstruction of Europe after World War II - its mandate covers economic, environmental, and social issues

International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)

- is an international organization that seeks to promote the peaceful use of nuclear energy - serves as an intergovernmental forum for scientific and technical cooperation in the peaceful use of nuclear technology and nuclear power worldwide - seeks to inhibit its use for any military purpose, including nuclear weapons - was established as an autonomous organization in July of 1957 - Though the IAEA was established independently, it reports to both the United Nations General Assembly and Security Council - has its headquarters in Austria - has two "Regional Safeguards Offices" located in Canada and Japan - the IAEA encourages the development of peaceful applications of nuclear technology - provides international safeguards against misuse of nuclear technology and nuclear materials - promotes nuclear safety and nuclear security standards and their implementation - the IAEA does much of its work with the Security Council - Some scientists say that the 2011 Japanese nuclear accidents have revealed that the nuclear industry lacks sufficient oversight

Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty

- is an international treaty whose objective is to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons and weapons technology - promotes cooperation in the peaceful uses of nuclear energy - furthers the goal of achieving nuclear disarmament and general and complete disarmament - opened for signature in 1968, the Treaty entered into force in 1970 - In May of 1995 the Treaty was extended indefinitely - more countries have adhered to the NPT than any other arms limitation and disarmament agreement - a total of 190 states have joined the Treaty - North Korea announced its withdrawal in 2003 - Four UN member states have never joined the NPT: India, Israel, Pakistan and South Sudan - the treaty recognizes five states as nuclear-weapon states: the United States, Russia, the United Kingdom, France, and China - The NPT is often seen to be based on a central bargain: "the NPT non-nuclear-weapon states agree never to acquire nuclear weapons and the NPT nuclear-weapon states in exchange agree to share the benefits of peaceful nuclear technology and to pursue nuclear disarmament aimed at the ultimate elimination of their nuclear arsenals"

Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons

- is an international treaty whose objective is to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons and weapons technology - promotes cooperation in the peaceful uses of nuclear energy - furthers the goal of achieving nuclear disarmament and general and complete disarmament - opened for signature in 1968, the Treaty entered into force in 1970 - In May of 1995 the Treaty was extended indefinitely - more countries have adhered to the NPT than any other arms limitation and disarmament agreement - a total of 190 states have joined the Treaty - North Korea announced its withdrawal in 2003 - Four UN member states have never joined the NPT: India, Israel, Pakistan and South Sudan - the treaty recognizes five states as nuclear-weapon states: the United States, Russia, the United Kingdom, France, and China - The NPT is often seen to be based on a central bargain: "the NPT non-nuclear-weapon states agree never to acquire nuclear weapons and the NPT nuclear-weapon states in exchange agree to share the benefits of peaceful nuclear technology and to pursue nuclear disarmament aimed at the ultimate elimination of their nuclear arsenals"

Peacebuilding

- is an intervention that is designed to prevent the start or resumption of violent conflict by creating a sustainable peace - addresses the root causes or potential causes of violence - creates a societal expectation for peaceful conflict resolution and stability - as the United Nations and governments began using the term, it has taken on different meanings - common to all definitions is the agreement that improving human security is the central task of peacebuilding - In 2007, the UN Secretary-General's Policy Committee defined peacebuilding as follows: "Peacebuilding involves a range of measures targeted to reduce the risk of lapsing or relapsing into conflict" - Peacebuilding strategies must be coherent and tailored to specific needs of the country concerned - the United Nations participates in many aspects of peacebuilding, including through the UN Peacebuilding Commission (PBC), the UN Peacebuilding Fund (PBF), and the UN Peacebuilding Support Office (PBSO) - the World Bank and International Monetary Fund focus on the economic and financial aspects of peace building - the EU's European Commission describes its peacebuilding activities as conflict prevention and management

European Union Commission

- is the executive body of the European Union - responsible for proposing legislation, implementing decisions, upholding the treaties and day-to-day management of the EU - operates as a cabinet government, with 28 members of the Commission - there is one member per member state, though members are bound to represent the interests of the EU as a whole rather than their home state - the Members of the Commission and their "cabinets" (immediate teams) are based in the Berlaymont building of Brussels. - established in 1958 - served as the High Authority of the European Coal and Steel Community - the members are proposed by their member state governments - Article 17 of the Treaty on European Union lays out several responsibilities for the commission: - develop medium-term strategies - draft legislation and arbitrate in the legislative process - represent the EU in trade negotiations - make rules and regulations, for example in competition policy - draw up the budget of the European Union - and to scrutinise the implementation of the treaties and legislation.

Court of Justice (European Union)

- is the highest court in the European Union in matters of European Union law - settles legal disputes between EU governments and EU institutions - individuals, companies or organisations can bring cases before the Court if they feel their rights have been infringed by an EU institution - it is tasked with interpreting EU law and ensuring its equal application across all EU member states - The Court was established in 1952 and is based in Luxembourg - It is composed of one judge per member state - currently 28 - the Court is helped by nine 'advocates-general' whose job is to present opinions on the cases brought before the Court. - the working language of the court is French

United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)

- its purpose is to contribute to peace and security by promoting international collaboration through education, science, and culture -its purpose is to further universal respect for justice, the rule of law, and human rights along with fundamental freedom proclaimed in the United Nations Charter -it is the heir of the League of Nations' International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation -UNESCO has 195 member states and nine associate members. - UNESCO's aim is "to contribute to the building of peace, the eradication of poverty, sustainable development and intercultural dialogue - was formed in November of 1945

Crimes Against Humanity

- offenses that constitute a serious attack on "human dignity" or "grave humiliation" or "degradation of human beings" - First use: on May 24, 1915, the Allied Powers, Britain, France, and Russia, jointly issued a statement explicitly charging Turkey's government of committing "crime against humanity" - they are not isolated or sporadic events, but are part either of a government policy or of a wide practice of atrocities tolerated or condoned by a government or a de facto authority - murder; massacres; dehumanization; extermination; human experimentation and extrajudicial punishments are some examples of 'Crimes Against Humanity' - the systematic persecution of one racial group by another, such as occurred during the South African apartheid government, was recognized as a crime against humanity by the United Nations General Assembly in 1976 - the United Nations has been primarily responsible for the prosecution of 'crimes against humanity' since it was chartered in 1948 - the UN has delegated several crimes against humanity cases to the ICC - the ICC acting without a UN referral lacks the broad jurisdiction to prosecute crimes against humanity

Functional International Organizations

- proponents of functionalism argue that dealing with functional matters provides the actors in the international community the opportunity to successfully cooperate in a non-political context - the objective of functionalism towards global peace is achieved through functional cooperation by the work of international organizations - the activities of functional international organizations involve taking actions on practical and technical problems rather than those of military and political nature - substantive functions of functional international organizations include human rights, international communication, health, the law of the sea, the environment, education and information, international relief programs, refugee support, and economic development - unctionalists focus on common interests and needs shared by states - Functionalism is a pioneer in globalisation theory and strategy - the benefits rendered by the functional agencies would attract the loyalty of the populations and stimulate their participation and expand the area of integration

Treaty of Rome

- proposed the progressive reduction of customs duties and the establishment of a customs union - proposed to create a common market of goods, workers, services and capital within the EEC's member states - proposed the creation of common transport and agriculture policies and a European social fund - established the European Commission - created the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) - designed to help reconstruct the economies of the European continent, prevent war in Europe and ensure a lasting peace - the treaty came into force in January of 1958 and the Common Market more strictly became the European Economic Community (EEC) whereby trade by member states within the EEC was free of tariffs (the theory being that costs would be kept down and the people within the EEC would benefit, thus improving their standard of living)

Strategic Triad

- refers to a nuclear arsenal which consists of three components: traditionally strategic bombers, intercontinental ballistic missiles, and submarine-launched ballistic missiles - the purpose of having a three-branched nuclear capability is to significantly reduce the possibility that an enemy could destroy all of a nation's nuclear forces in a first-strike attack - only the United States and Russia have maintained nuclear triads for most of the nuclear age - the triad also gives the commander in chief the possibility to use different types of weapons for the appropriate strike - China and India are emerging Triad powers - Israel is a suspected Triad Nuclear power - After President George W. Bush and Russian President Vladimir Putin announced plans to reduce their countries' nuclear warheads, a former Clinton administration official told the Washington Post: "We're breaking what had been an effective sound barrier in the arms control world, which is the 2,000 number. That had always been the holy grail—if you go below 2,000 [the theory went] you'll lose the strategic triad."

Peacekeeping

- refers to activities that tend to create conditions that favor lasting peace - within the United Nations there is a general understanding that peacekeepers, monitor and observe peace processes in post-conflict areas - such assistance may come in many forms, including confidence-building measures, electoral support, and economic and social development - accordingly, UN peacekeepers (often referred to as Blue Helmets) can include soldiers, police officers, and civilian personnel - the United Nations is not the only organization to implement peacekeeping missions. Non-UN peacekeeping forces include NATO and the EU (EUFOR RCA) - the Nonviolent Peaceforce is one NGO widely considered to have expertise in general peacemaking by non-governmental volunteers or activists - since 1948, about 130 nations have contributed military and civilian police personnel to peace operations - as of March 2008, 113 countries were contributing a total 88,862 military observers, police, and troops

Hague Conferences

- term for the International Peace Conference of 1899 (First Hague Conference) and the Second International Peace Conference of 1907 (Second Hague Conference) - Both were called by Russia and met at The Hague, the Netherlands - neither succeeded in the main announced purpose of effecting a reduction in armaments, but a number of declarations and conventions respecting the laws of war were adopted and were later ratified by many states - more heed was given to conventions respecting the rights of neutral shipping (particularly respecting contraband) and the protection of noncombatants - a substantial achievement was the founding by the First Hague Conference of the Permanent Court of Arbitration - at the second conference the United States failed in its effort to secure the establishment of a world court - a third conference, scheduled for 1916, was canceled because of World War I - in the attempt to formulate certain rules of international law, the Hague Conferences furnished an example for both the League of Nations and the United Nations.

Organization of American States (OAS)

- the OAS's members are the 35 independent states of the Americas - is an inter-continental organization founded in 1948 for the purposes of regional solidarity and cooperation among its member states - headquartered in Washington, D.C. - the goal in creating the OAS was: "to achieve an order of peace and justice, to promote their solidarity, to strengthen their collaboration, and to defend their sovereignty, their territorial integrity, and their independence" - Article 2 defines eight essential purposes which includes: strengthening peace and security of the continent, promoting and consolidating representative democracy, providing for common action on the part of all states in the event of aggression - The OAS has made major efforts to reinvent itself over the course of the 1990s and with this has come new priorities including: strengthening democracy, working for peace, and fighting the drugs trade

United Nations Regional Commissions

- the United Nations has five regional commissions which focus on programmes at the regional and local level - this includes the 'United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (ECE)' and the 'United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (ECA)' - both of the above were established to encourage economic cooperation among its member states - ECA has 53 member states and ECE has 56 member states - each has subdivisions of committees purposed with tackling specific sectors

Universalism

- the United Nations' Universal Declaration of Human Rights can be read as assuming a kind of moral universalism - the drafting committee of the Universal Declaration did assume, or at least aspired to, a "universal" approach to articulating international human rights - linguist and political theorist Noam Chomsky states: "if we adopt the principle of universality: if an action is right (or wrong) for others, it is right (or wrong) for us - is the position that some system of ethics, or a universal ethic, applies universally, that is, for "all similarly situated individuals", regardless of culture, race, sex, religion, nationality, sexual orientation, or any other distinguishing feature - the source or justification of a universal ethic may be thought to be, for instance, human nature, shared vulnerability to suffering, the demands of universal reason, what is common among existing moral codes, or the common mandates of religion

Pawn

- the definition of a pawn is a person or thing manipulated and used by others, or a game piece in the game of chess. "A person unwittingly used in a scheme and taken advantage of by others is an example of a pawn." - a person used to advance another's purposes - A person or an entity used to further the purposes of another: an underdeveloped nation that was a pawn in international politics. - (colloquial) Someone who is being manipulated or used to some end, usually not the end that individual would prefer. Though a pawn of the gods, her departure is the precipitating cause of the Trojan War.

Washington Naval Conference, 1922

- the primary objective of the conference was to restrain Japanese naval expansion in the waters of the west Pacific - secondary objectives were intended to ultimately limit Japanese expansion, but also to alleviate concerns over possible antagonism with the British - led to an effective end to building new battleship fleets and those few ships that were built were limited in size and armament - was a military conference called by President Warren G. Harding and held in Washington from 1921 to 1922 - it was the first international conference held in the United States - the first arms control conference in history - held at Memorial Continental Hall in downtown Washington - resulted in three major treaties: Four-Power Treaty, Five-Power Treaty, and the Nine-Power Treaty

Terrorism

- the word "terrorism" is politically loaded and emotionally charged - Since 1994, the United Nations General Assembly has repeatedly condemned terrorist acts using vague and often imprecise descriptions in order to avoid partial treatment - The Counter-Terrorism Implementation Task Force (CTITF) was established by the Secretary-General of the UN in 2005 to help counter terrorism - The United Nations adopted a Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy by General Assembly resolution 60/288 in 2006 - a simple definition is as follows: 'the use of violence and intimidation in the pursuit of political aims' - The United Nations has offered several definitions of Terrorism - The Security Council has encouraged States to unilaterally define terrorism in national law, permitting wide and divergent definitions - Part of a definition provided by the UN in 1992 read as follows, 'an anxiety-inspiring method of repeated violent action, employed by clandestine individual, group or state actors'

Sanctions

- under Chapter VII of the Charter, the Security Council can take enforcement measures to maintain or restore international peace and security. Such measures range from economic and/or other sanctions not involving the use of armed force to international military action - the use of mandatory sanctions is intended to apply pressure on a State or entity to comply with the objectives set by the Security Council - sanctions thus offer the Security Council an important instrument to enforce its decisions - the universal character of the United Nations makes it an especially appropriate body to establish and monitor such measures. - the range of sanctions has included comprehensive economic and trade sanctions and/or more targeted measures such as arms embargoes, travel bans, financial or diplomatic restrictions - a great number of States and humanitarian organizations have expressed concerns at the possible adverse impact of sanctions on the most vulnerable segments of the population - In April of 2000, the members of the Security Council established an Informal Working Group on General Issues of Sanctions to develop general recommendations on how to improve the effectiveness of United Nations sanctions

Anti-Apartheid Campaign

- was a British organization that was at the centre of the international movement opposing South Africa's system of apartheid and supporting South Africa's non-whites. -originally known as the Boycott Movement - was founded in 1960 to campaign for the eradication of apartheid. - it demanded sanctions and for the total isolation of apartheid South Africa. - the Anti-Apartheid Movement was instrumental in initiating an academic boycott of South Africa in 1965 - in 1966 the AAM formulated a strategy whereby they would shift toward spearheading "an international campaign against apartheid under the auspices of the United Nations. AAM's proposed strategy was approved by the UN Special Committee on Apartheid and then by the General Assembly

United Nations Congo Operation (ONUC)

- was a United Nations peacekeeping force in Congo that was established by United Nations Security Council Resolution 143 in July of 1960 - the mission was a response to the Congo Crisis - ONUC was the UN's first peacekeeping mission with muscle, yet ONUC has been described as a "pyrrhic victory at best - ONUC's intention was an unprecedented role for a UN peacekeeping force, as it was not self-evidently peacekeeping in nature - the UN Force stayed in the Congo between 1960 and 1964, and underwent a transition from a peacekeeping presence to a military force - ONUC's main goals stayed consistent throughout the ordeal, including withdrawing Belgian military personnel and providing military assistance to ensure internal stability - the first troops reached Congo on 15 July, many airlifted in by the United States Air Force

START Treaty

- was a bilateral treaty between the United States of America and the USSR on the Reduction and Limitation of Strategic Offensive Arms - the treaty was signed in July of 1991 and entered into force in December of 1994 - negotiated the largest and most complex arms control treaty in history - its final implementation in late 2001 resulted in the removal of about 80 percent of all strategic nuclear weapons then in existence - the START proposal was first announced by United States President Ronald Reagan - continued negotiation of the START process was delayed several times because US agreement terms were considered non-negotiable by pre-Gorbachev Soviet rulers

Crisis in the Democratic Republic of Congo

- was a period of political upheaval and conflict between 1960 and 1965 - began almost immediately after the Congo's independence from Belgium - the crisis ended, unofficially, with the entire country under the rule of Joseph Mobutu - around 100,000 people are believed to have been killed during the crisis - a nationalist movement in the Belgian Congo demanding the end of colonial rule led to the country's independence in June of 1960. Minimal preparations had been made and many issues had been left unresolved. Almost immediately following their independence a mutiny broke out in the army and violence erupted between black and white civilians - amid continuing unrest and violence, the United Nations deployed peacekeepers

Rush-Bagot Agreement

- was a treaty between the United States and Britain limiting naval armaments on the Great Lakes and Lake Champlain, following the War of 1812 - it was ratified by the United States Senate on April 16, 1818 - the treaty provided for a large demilitarization of lakes along the international boundary, where many British naval arrangements and forts remained - stipulated that the United States and British North America could each maintain one military vessel as well as one cannon on Lake Ontario and Lake Champlain.

Rio Treaty, 1947

- was an agreement signed on 1947 in Rio de Janeiro among many countries of the Americas - the treaty provides that no member can use force without the unanimous consent of the other signatories, but that other measures against aggressors may be approved by a two-thirds majority - the treaty was initially created in 1947 and came into force in 1948 -the treaty was invoked during the Cuban missile crisis - In 2001, the United States invoked the Rio Treaty after the September 11 attacks -the treaty has been denounced by Mexico, Nicaragua, Bolivia, Venezuela, and Ecuador -it differs from previous inter-American treaties in that it is a regional treaty within a larger international organization

United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD)

- was established in 1964 - is the principal organ of the United Nations General Assembly dealing with trade, investment, and development issues - UNCTAD goals: "maximize the trade, investment and development opportunities of developing countries" - the primary objective of UNCTAD is to formulate policies relating to all aspects of development including trade, aid, transport, finance and technology - the conference ordinarily meets once in four years - the permanent secretariat is in Geneva - it was argued in UNCTAD that to promote exports of manufactured goods from developing countries, it would be necessary to offer special tariff concessions to such exports - The creation of UNCTAD was based on concerns of developing countries over the great disparity between developed nations and developing nations - was established to provide a forum where the developing countries could discuss the problems relating to their economic development - UNCTAD grew from the view that existing institutions like WTO, IMF, and the World Bank were not properly organized to handle the particular problems of developing countries

Identify and Discuss Three Similarities in the Origins of the League of Nations and the United Nations

1. Both organizations were the products of major conflicts. 2. Both organizations were based on ideas and experiences from a variety of sources, however both were promoted primarily by American Presidents. 3. Both primarily represented the principles and ideas acceptable to the major powers. However the UN Charter was debated and some changes were initiated by smaller states.

Discuss Four Elements of Measuring National Power

1. Geography 2. Natural Resources • Food • Raw Materials • Industrial Capacity • Technology • Leadership • Quantity and Quality of the Armed Forces • Population ◦ Distribution ◦ Trends • National Character/National Morale • Quality of Society and Government as a means of gaining domestic support • Quality of Diplomacy

Conditions of Balance of Power

1. Need about 4 or 5 states for system to work. 2. Equality of power 3. Common way of measuring power 4. Stability of power 5. Usefulness of war: Wars not total in nature. 6. Shared values: other actors essential.

Conditions for Maintaining a Balance of Power

1. Need about 4 or 5 states for system to work. 2. Equality of power 3. Common way of measuring power. 4. Stability of power 5. Usefulness of war: Wars not total in nature. 6. Shared values: other actors essential.

Discuss Three General Ways Power can be Exercised

1. Persuade 2. Incentive 3. Threat, coercion.

Principles of Balance of Power

1. Suspicion of increase in power by other nations. 2. Always ally with the weaker state. 3. No permanent alliances 4. Moderation toward opponents. 5. Alliances not ideological.

bond vigilante

A bond vigilante is a bond market investor who protests monetary or fiscal policies he considers inflationary by selling bonds, thus increasing yields. In the bond market, prices move inversely to yields. When investors perceive that inflation risk or credit risk is rising they demand higher yields to compensate for the added risk.[2] As a result, bond prices fall and yields rise, which increases the net cost of borrowing. The term references the ability of the bond market to serve as a restraint on the government's ability to over-spend and over-borrow.

borehole

A borehole is a narrow shaft bored in the ground, either vertically or horizontally. A borehole may be constructed for many different purposes, including the extraction of water or other liquids (such as petroleum).

Zero-sum game

A situation in which a gain by one person or side must be matched by a loss by another person or side

Geo-economic Insight

Although wars rage from Damascus to Donbas, the main battlefield is economic rather than military; sanctions are taking the place of military strikes, competing trade regimes are replacing military alliances, currency wars are more common than the occupation of territory, and the manipulation of the price of resources such as oil is more consequential than conventional arms races. The world is witnessing what Edward Luttwak called the rise of geo-economics, a contest defined by the "grammar of commerce but the logic of war".

Alliances

Are probably the oldest forms of international organization. Tends to be a small group. Usually these have some military or defense connotations.

Geo-economics Insight

As global leadership breaks down, regional hegemons are empowered and, in turn, are better equipped to box in countries in their peripheries. Thus, not only does the periphery's dependence on the core not necessarily grant it stability or sustainability, it also tarnishes the silver lining of increased autonomy in a world with less global leadership. So where does this trend go from here? How it applies to Brazil and its Latin American periphery and Nigeria and its West African neighbours will demand close attention in the years to come. The rate of this hollowing out and the second-order impacts remain to be seen. What is happening now is only the early stage.

What are the different types of microbes?

Bacteria, Archae, Fungi, Protozoa, Algae, Viruses, and Multicellular animal parasites.

Functionalist Theory

Believe that as cooperation in the spheres of economics and other social cooperation expand habits of interaction and cooperation will spill over into the political arena.

Bodymind (or mindbody)

Bodymind (or mindbody) is a concept that the physical body and the mind should be thought of as a single integrated unit, in contrast to dualist conceptions of a separate body and mind.

Boko Haram

Boko Haram ("Western education is forbidden") or the Islamic State's West Africa Province (Iswap), is a jihadist group based in northeastern Nigeria, also active in Chad, Niger and northern Cameroon. The group is led by Abubakar Shekau. Estimates of the group's membership varies between 7,000 and 10,000 fighters. The group initially had links to al-Qaeda, but in 2014 it expressed support for the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant before pledging formal allegiance to it in March 2015.

Bokononism

Bokononism is a religion invented by Kurt Vonnegut and practiced by many of the characters in his novel Cat's Cradle. Many of the sacred texts of Bokononism were written in the form of calypsos.

Bold Reasoning

Bold Reasoning (1968-1975) was an American thoroughbred racehorse. He is best known as being the sire of the 1977 Triple Crown winner, Seattle Slew.

Boredom

Boredom is an emotional state experienced when an individual is left without anything in particular to do, and not interested in their surroundings. The first recorded use of the word boredom is in the novel Bleak House by Charles Dickens, written in 1852, in which it appears six times, although the expression to be a bore had been used in print in the sense of "to be tiresome or dull" since 1768. The French term for boredom, ennui, is sometimes used in English as well.

Boreout

Boreout is a management theory that posits that lack of work, boredom, and consequent lack of satisfaction are a common malaise affecting individuals working in modern organizations, especially in office-based white collar jobs. This theory was first expounded in 2007 in Diagnose Boreout, a book by Peter Werder and Philippe Rothlin, two Swiss business consultants. According to Peter Werder and Philippe Rothlin,[1] the absence of meaningful tasks, rather than the presence of stress, is many workers' chief problem. Boreout consists of three elements: boredom, lack of challenge, and lack of interest. These authors disagree with the common perceptions that a demotivated employee is lazy; instead, they claim that the employee has lost interest in work tasks. Those suffering from boreout are "dissatisfied with their professional situation" in that they are frustrated at being prevented, by institutional mechanisms or obstacles as opposed to by their own lack of aptitude, from fulfilling their potential (as by using their skills, knowledge, and abilities to contribute to their company's development) and/or from receiving official recognition for their efforts.

Boring

Boring is drilling a hole, tunnel, or well in the earth. Examples include "earth boring" and "ice boring"

How are microbes named and classified?

Each organism has two names: the Genus and specific ephiphet. The first letter of the Genus is always capitalized. Both the Genus and the specific ephiphet are underlined or italicized. Can be abbreviated after first time...example: Escheria coli = E.Coli . The name may describe the location of the microbe (example: E.Coli often live in the colon).

Report: Geo-economics: Seven Challenges to Globalization by The World Economic Forum

Economic sanctions are usually a double-edged sword. The country applying sanctions hurts its own businesses that trade with or invest in the target country. US companies have had to stay away from Iran, German machine-builders have had to reduce their exports to Russia, and French shipyards have suffered through the freezing and potential cancellation of the sale of Mistral ships to Russia. Sanctions can also provoke counter-sanctions. In 2014, Russia retaliated against Western measures by banning food imports from the countries that had joined sanctions against Moscow.

(1) Choose one regional organization; (2) identify how it came into existence; (3) what are its major institutions; (4) what problems exist within the organization. (5) Conclude to what extent do you think the organization is successful in promoting its stated aims?

European Union [regional organization] (1) The EU traces its origins from the European Coal and Steel Community (the founding members of which include: Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and West Germany; in 1957, the six countries signed the Treaty of Rome, which extended the earlier co-operation within the European Coal and Steel Community and created the European Economic Community, establishing a customs union; the Maastricht Treaty established the European Union under its current name in 1993 (2) The EU operates through a system of 7 supranational institutions. The institutions are: European Commission Council of the European Union European Council Court of Justice of the European Union European Central Bank Court of Auditors European Parliament (3) The European Union faces three big challenges: - the stagnating euro zone economy - the Ukraine/Russia crisis, which he described as the gravest threat to continental security since the Cold War - and the risk that Britain will quit the European Union. However the problems are not mutually exclusive. In fact, the problems are all linked. (Conclusion) The European Union played a very important role in transforming post-communist countries into democratic states with functioning market economies and the rule of law. The massive transfer of institutional and legal know-how from member states to candidate countries, which was guided by the European Commission and other institutions, is in many ways a historically unprecedented event. The EU provided a benign international environment for democracy building in Czechoslovakia, and, after 1993, for Czechoslovakia's successor states—the Czech Republic and Slovakia. All former Soviet satellites that joined the EU in 2004 underwent one of the most rapid and amazing modernizations of institutions in history. They all emerged from communism with authoritarian political systems, state-controlled economies, and inefficient bureaucracies. Between the mid-1990s these economies were transformed from controlled economies into modern market economies, and the undemocratic and inefficient political institutions were transformed into democratic ones. These are just a few examples.

UN Intervention, Korea

Following the invasion of South Korea by North Korea, twenty-one member nations of the United Nations (UN) committed themselves to support South Korea which was not yet a member nation.

Geo-economic Insight

Geo-economics is both the antithesis and the greatest triumph of economic globalization. It is the overwhelming dependence of all countries on the global economy, which makes the threat of shutting them out so effective. And after two decades of coming together, many countries are focusing on the challenges of interdependence as well as on its benefits. The United States craves energy independence, China wants to stimulate domestic consumption, Germany wants to protect itself from the economic decisions of its neighbours, and Russia is trying to hedge against Western markets and the US-led dominated financial system.

Geopolitics

Geopolitics is the study of the effects of geography (human and physical) on international politics and international relations. Geopolitics is a method of studying foreign policy to understand, explain and predict international political behaviour through geographical variables. These include area studies, climate, topography, demography, natural resources, and applied science of the region being evaluated. Geopolitics focuses on political power in relation to geographic space. In particular, territorial waters and land territory in correlation with diplomatic history. Academically, geopolitics analyses history and social science with reference to geography in relation to politics. Outside of academia, geopolitical prognosis is offered by a variety of groups including non-profit groups (such as government departments and think-tanks[3]) as well as by for-profit private institutions (such as brokerage houses[4] and consulting companies[5]).Topics of geopolitics include relations between the interests of international political actors, interests focused to an area, space, geographical element or ways, relations which create a geopolitical system.

What Is Globalization?

Globalization is a process of interaction and integration among the people, companies, and governments of different nations, a process driven by international trade and investment and aided by information technology. This process has effects on the environment, on culture, on political systems, on economic development and prosperity, and on human physical well-being in societies around the world. Globalization is not new, though. For thousands of years, people—and, later, corporations—have been buying from and selling to each other in lands at great distances, such as through the famed Silk Road across Central Asia that connected China and Europe during the Middle Ages. Likewise, for centuries, people and corporations have invested in enterprises in other countries. In fact, many of the features of the current wave of globalization are similar to those prevailing before the outbreak of the First World War in 1914. But policy and technological developments of the past few decades have spurred increases in cross-border trade, investment, and migration so large that many observers believe the world has entered a qualitatively new phase in its economic development. Since 1950, for example, the volume of world trade has increased by 20 times, and from just 1997 to 1999 flows of foreign investment nearly doubled, from $468 billion to $827 billion. Distinguishing this current wave of globalization from earlier ones, author Thomas Friedman has said that today globalization is "farther, faster, cheaper, and deeper." This current wave of globalization has been driven by policies that have opened economies domestically and internationally. In the years since the Second World War, and especially during the past two decades, many governments have adopted free-market economic systems, vastly increasing their own productive potential and creating myriad new opportunities for international trade and investment. Governments also have negotiated dramatic reductions in barriers to commerce and have established international agreements to promote trade in goods, services, and investment. Taking advantage of new opportunities in foreign markets, corporations have built foreign factories and established production and marketing arrangements with foreign partners. A defining feature of globalization, therefore, is an international industrial and financial business structure. Technology has been the other principal driver of globalization. Advances in information technology, in particular, have dramatically transformed economic life. Information technologies have given all sorts of individual economic actors—consumers, investors, businesses—valuable new tools for identifying and pursuing economic opportunities, including faster and more informed analyses of economic trends around the world, easy transfers of assets, and collaboration with far-flung partners. Globalization is deeply controversial, however. Proponents of globalization argue that it allows poor countries and their citizens to develop economically and raise their standards of living, while opponents of globalization claim that the creation of an unfettered international free market has benefited multinational corporations in the Western world at the expense of local enterprises, local cultures, and common people. Resistance to globalization has therefore taken shape both at a popular and at a governmental level as people and governments try to manage the flow of capital, labor, goods, and ideas that constitute the current wave of globalization. To find the right balance between benefits and costs associated with globalization, citizens of all nations need to understand how globalization works and the policy choices facing them and their societies. Globalization101.org tries to provide an accurate analysis of the issues and controversies regarding globalization, without the slogans or ideological biases generally found in discussions of the topics. We welcome you to our website.

Multipolarity and multi-polarization

Having or conceiving multiple centers of power or influence: a multipolar world

Mandates

In politics, a mandate is the authority granted by a constituency to act as its representative.

Atlantic Charter, 1942

In the "Declaration by United Nations" of 1 January 1942, the Allies of World War II pledged adherence to this charter's principles.

Geo-economic Insight

In the Middle East, the rise of ISIS is playing into a wider sectarian conflict led by Iran and Saudi Arabia.

Why is it beneficial to study microbiology?

Knowledge can help prevent food spoilage and disease occurrence. Can also lead to aseptic techniques to prevent contamination in medicine and in laboratories.

Geo-economics

The (relative) "winners" of Geo-economics are the US/ EU (as long as they maintain sufficient leverage over the global economy to be able to make sanctions "bite"), and China (whose companies are often turned to, when Western firms are barred, and that is most active in supporting its companies in global markets). The "losers" are targets of Western sanctions, such as Russia and Iran, and Western- headquartered MNCs that are relatively disadvantaged, as well as, above all, the multilateral institutions designed to safeguard the free flow of trade and investment, such as the World Trade Organization (WTO), that lose credibility by appearing irrelevant.

The Boko Haram insurgency

The Boko Haram insurgency began in 2009, when the jihadist rebel group Boko Haram started an armed rebellion against the government of Nigeria.[28] In 2013, more than 1,000 died in the war. The violence escalated dramatically in 2014, with 10,849 deaths. The insurgency has spread to Cameroon. The insurgency takes place within the context of long-standing issues of religious violence between Nigeria's Muslim and Christian communities.

Congress of Vienna, 1815

The Congress of Vienna was a conference of ambassadors of European states chaired by Austrian statesman Klemens Wenzel von Metternich, and held in Vienna from September 1814 to June 1815. The objective of the Congress was to provide a long-term peace for Europe by settling critical issues arising from the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars. The Congress's "Final Act" was signed nine days before his final defeat at Waterloo on 18 June 1815.

Council, League of Nations

The Council: The Council was the executive body of the League of Nations. This means that it was the decision making part of the organisation. The Council met on average 5 times a year. It initially had 4 permanent member nations (Britain, Italy, France and Japan) and four non permanent member nations who were on the council for 3 years. When Germany was admitted to the League of Nations they were given a permanent place on the Council. The number of non permanent members rose to 6 and later to 11 members.

UN General Assembly

The General Assembly is the main deliberative, policymaking and representative organ of the United Nations. Comprising all 193 Members of the United Nations, it provides a unique forum for multilateral discussion of the full spectrum of international issues covered by the Charter.

Group of 77 (G-77)

The Group of 77 at the United Nations is a loose coalition of developing nations, designed to promote its members' collective economic interests and create an enhanced joint negotiating capacity in the United Nations.

Hague Conferences

The Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 are a series of international treaties and declarations negotiated at two international peace conferences at The Hague in the Netherlands. The First Hague Conference was held in 1899 and the Second Hague Conference in 1907. Along with the Geneva Conventions, the Hague Conventions were among the first formal statements of the laws of war and war crimes in the body of secular international law.

Japan's Attack on Manchuria, 1931

The Japanese invasion of Manchuria began on September 19, 1931, when the Kwantung Army of the Empire of Japan invaded Manchuria immediately following the Mukden Incident. The Japanese established a puppet state, called Manchukuo, and their occupation lasted until the end of World War II.

Kellogg-Briand Pact, 1928

The Kellogg-Briand Pact is a 1928 international agreement in which signatory states promised not to use war to resolve "disputes or conflicts of whatever nature or of whatever origin they may be, which may arise among them".

UN Intervention in Korea, 1950-1953

The Korean War was a war between North and South Korea, in which a United Nations force led by the United States of America fought for the South. The conflict escalated into open warfare when North Korean forces—supported by the Soviet Union and China—invaded South Korea on 25 June 1950. On that day, the United Nations Security Council recognized this North Korean act as invasion and called for an immediate ceasefire.

Economic Warfare

The Oxford English Dictionary defines economic warfare or economic war as involving "an economic strategy based on the use of measures (e.g. blockade) of which the primary effect is to weaken the economy of another state". In military operations, economic warfare may reflect economic policy followed as a part of open or covert operations during or preceding wartime. Economic warfare aims to capture or otherwise control the supply of critical economic resources so that the military and intelligence agencies can operate at full efficiency or deprive enemy forces of those resources so that they cannot function properly. The concept of economic warfare is most applicable to conflict between nation states,[citation needed] especially[citation needed] in times of total war - which involves not only the armed forces of an enemy nation, but mobilization of that nation's entire economy towards the war effort. In such a situation, causing damage to the enemy's economy directly damages the enemy's ability to fight the war. Policies followed in economic warfare may include blockade, blacklisting, preclusive purchasing, rewards and the capturing or control of enemy assets or supply lines. Clear examples of economic warfare occurred during World War II when the Allied powers followed these policies to deprive the Axis economies of critical resources. In turn, the Axis powers attempted to damage the Allied war effort via submarine warfare and through the sinking of supply ships carrying supplies, raw materials, and essential war-related items such as food.

Peace of Westphalia, 1648

The Peace of Westphalia was a series of peace treaties signed between May and October 1648 in Osnabrück and Münster. These treaties ended the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) in the Holy Roman Empire, and the Eighty Years' War (1568-1648) between Spain and the Dutch Republic, with Spain formally recognizing the independence of the Dutch Republic.

Treaty of Versailles, 1919

The Treaty of Versailles was one of the peace treaties at the end of World War I. It ended the state of war between Germany and the Allied Powers. It was signed on 28 June 1919, exactly five years after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand.

Yalta Conference, 1945

The Yalta Conference, sometimes called the Crimea Conference and codenamed the Argonaut Conference, held February 4-11, 1945, was the World War II meeting of the heads of government of the United States, the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union, represented by President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Prime Minister Winston Churchill and Premier Joseph Stalin, respectively, for the purpose of discussing Europe's post-war reorganization.

Bootstrap paradox, or ontological paradox

The bootstrap paradox, or ontological paradox, is a paradox of time travel that refers to scenarios whereby items or information are passed from the future to the past, which in turn become the same items or information that are subsequently passed from the past to the future - this creates a circularity of cause-effect such that the items or information have no discernible origin. Thus, the paradox raises the ontological questions of where, when and by whom the items were created or the information derived.

Report: Geo-economics: Seven Challenges to Globalization by The World Economic Forum

The competition between states in the geo-economic era will increasingly be driven by a quest for markets rather than national resources. The main law of the new race is access to large markets, which often have large, young populations as well as a burgeoning middle class that enjoys increasing purchasing power. The need for this access is twofold. Those who want to win in the new world should invest in skills. Those who want to provide incentives for human capital accumulation should assure access to a large (preferably global) market. Thus, accessing markets to make production more competitive by possible outsourcing to cheaper skill centres and having large middle class markets to sell products in are driving this new trend.

fiscal authorities

The fiscal authorities are the institutions and people in charge of conducting fiscal policy. Europe does not have a common fiscal authority. Each individual country maintains control over its own fiscal policy. Those in charge of fiscal policy in each country can range from the president, prime minister, finance minister, and/or Parliament. The fiscal authority in the United States is the executive and legislative branch of the government. It is the responsibility of the president and Congress (with the help of the Treasury Department) to conduct fiscal policy. Individual states in the United States rarely conduct fiscal policy and thus are not referred to as fiscal authorities. As fiscal authorities have become increasingly paralyzed and politically constrained, post-crisis responses have fallen to central banks via monetary policy. The risk of states using central banks to advance interests beyond those explicitly consistent with their mandates is on the rise.

Geo-economics Insight

The main law of the new race is access to large markets, which often have large, young populations as well as a burgeoning middle class that enjoys increasing purchasing power. The need for this access is twofold. Those who want to win in the new world should invest in skills. Those who want to provide incentives for human capital accumulation should assure access to a large (preferably global) market. Thus, accessing markets to make production more competitive by possible outsourcing to cheaper skill centres and having large middle class markets to sell products in are driving this new trend.

What is peptidoglycan?

The material unique to bacteria cell walls

monetary authorities

The monetary authorities are the institutions and people in charge of conducting monetary policy. In almost all instances this is done by the country's central bank. The monetary authority in Europe is the European Central Bank. The monetary authority in the United States is the Federal Reserve.

Report: Geo-economics: Seven Challenges to Globalization by The World Economic Forum

The outcome of these geo-economic campaigns is not a zero-sum game. The stronger economy backed by other forms of power can incur more damage on the target country than it will sustain in return, but it does not always alter the political behaviour of the government to be "punished". Sometimes sanctions can make that behaviour even more problematic. Ironically, the true winner may be a third party that jumps into the opening: European countries in the initial phases of US-Iran sanctions; China in the case of current Western sanctions against Russia; Russia in the case of the post-Tiananmen Western weapons ban on China; Turkey in the situation when EU pressure made Russia abandon its South Stream gas pipeline project.

Permanent Members of the Security Council

The permanent members of the United Nations Security Council, also known as the Permanent Five, Big Five, or P5, include the following five governments: China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States. The members represent the great powers considered the victors of World War II.

Capitalism 2.0

The term Capitalism 2.0 has been around for a number of years and is usually applied to describe something better than the system we currently have. With such a vague and far-reaching definition, it can tend to mean all things to all people. It does, however, provide a useful classification for the new thinking that is emerging in this field, and therefore offers a convenient meeting place for us to convene our discussion and debate. It is in this meeting place that we can reflect on the issues involved and explore the range of attributes that we might need to develop, collectively, in shaping a better economic operating system. The 2.0 suffix and CAP2 abbreviation present a convenient starting point, nothing more. Of course, we need to be mindful of the history and evolution of capitalism that has taken place over the last few hundred years. This system has already undergone several rather distinct stages since its localised inception in France and Holland in the 18th Century. It evolved into the colonialist free-trade period, the subsequent era of industrialisation and international finance, the collapse of colonial powers and currencies in the early 20th century, and through to the rise of international markets and then neo-liberalism/globalisation. But capitalism's evolutionary changes, while they have involved the development of different markets and a shift from local to national and global trading, have largely been variations on a similar theme. Capitalism was originally founded on principles that led towards a concentration of wealth and power, and it is still underpinned by this same foundation today. And this foundation is supported by the largely destructive and inherently unsustainable paradigm of a take-make-waste model for commerce made possible by the exploitation of resources and people. But we are now moving into a new phase - can we find Capitalism 2.0? While this phase has yet to be fully defined, we intend to find out whether it will involve incremental changes, or whether we will need to see a more dramatic shift, to new ways of thinking and doing - if we are to address the fundamental issues of resource scarcity, environmental degradation, poverty, and the inevitable concentration of power and wealth that are so hard-wired into our present capitalist system. It is time for a paradigm shift? In undertaking the research for this project, we discovered at least ten different new recipes for better forms of capitalism, including: Breakthrough, Clean, Community, Conscious, Constructive, Cooperative, Mindful, Progressive, Responsible, and Sustainable.

Report: Geo-economics: Seven Challenges to Globalization by The World Economic Forum

This paper attempts to map out the challenge of geo- economics for companies, governments and campaign groups. It highlights the powerful trends reshaping the world, which are changing the rules for competition between countries and even the arenas in which these frictions play out. It shows a world where: - The pursuit of power is as important as the pursuit of profit, with increasing state presence in economies - Economic warfare is undermining economic integration - Multilateral regimes are becoming regional rather than global - Oil prices are lower and more volatile, and the main competition is for markets rather than resources

Economic Sanctions

are domestic penalties applied by one country (or group of countries) on another country (or group of countries). Economic sanctions may include various forms of trade barriers and restrictions on financial transactions.

International Regimes

are international processes and collection of rules, and sometimes, when formally organized, many of them can transform into intergovernmental organizations. They are, however, not actors or non-governmental organizations. Organisations only regulate and promote regimes.

Collective Security

can be understood as a security arrangement, political, regional, or global, in which each state in the system accepts that the security of one is the concern of all, and therefore commits to a collective response to threats to, and breaches to peace.

Principles of Peacekeeping

consent of the parties, impartiality, and use of military force only as a last resort and in self- defense.

Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)

constitutes one of the principal organs of the United Nations. It is responsible for coordinating the economic, social and related work of 14 UN specialized agencies, their functional commissions and five regional commissions. Serves as the central forum for discussing international economic and social issues, and for formulating policy recommendations addressed to member states and the United Nations system.

What does the term pathogenic mean?

disease-causing

to stiffen someone's resistance/resolve

if your resolve or resistance stiffens, or if you stiffen it, you become more determined stiffen someone's resistance: "The army stiffened their resistance." stiffen someone's resolve: "The air attack only served to stiffen the enemy's resolve."

Hegemonic Stability Theory

indicates that the international system is more likely to remain stable when a single nation-state is the dominant world power, or hegemon

Kofi Annan

is a Ghanaian diplomat who served as the seventh Secretary-General of the United Nations from January 1997 to December 2006. Annan and the United Nations were the co-recipients of the 2001 Nobel Peace Prize "for their work for a better organized and more peaceful world."[2] He is the Chairman of The Elders, a group founded by Nelson Mandela.

UNICEF (United Nations Children's Emergency Fund)

is a United Nations Program headquartered in New York City that provides long-term humanitarian and developmental assistance to children and mothers in developing countries. UNICEF was created by the United Nations General Assembly on December 11, 1946, to provide emergency food and healthcare to children in countries that had been devastated by World War II.

UNCHR (United Nations High Commission on Refugees)

is a United Nations agency mandated to protect and support refugees at the request of a government or the UN itself and assists in their voluntary repatriation, local integration or resettlement to a third country. The UNHCR has won two Nobel Peace Prizes, once in 1954 and again in 1981

Regionalism

is a political ideology that focuses on the interests of a particular region or group of regions, whether traditional or formal (political divisions, administrative divisions, country subdivisions or subnational units).

United Nations Education Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)

is a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN). Its purpose is to contribute to peace and security by promoting international collaboration through education, science, and culture in order to further universal respect for justice, the rule of law, and human rights along with fundamental freedom proclaimed in the United Nations Charter.

UN Secretariat

is one of the principal organs of the United Nations, an intergovernmental organization charged with the promotion of aiding states to collectively maintain international peace and security; it serves as a forum for member-states to discuss and resolve pressing issues in the international field through primarily diplomatic resources.

UN Security Council

is one of the six principal organs of the United Nations and is charged with the maintenance of international peace and security. Its powers include the establishment of peacekeeping operations, the establishment of international sanctions, and the authorization of military action through Security Council resolutions

Ban ki-Moon

is the eighth and current Secretary-General of the United Nations, after succeeding Kofi Annan in 2007. Before becoming Secretary-General, Ban was a career diplomat in South Korea's Ministry of Foreign Affairs and in the United Nations.

Non-Governmental Organizations

is the term commonly used for an organization that is neither a part of a government nor a conventional for-profit business. The term "non-governmental organization" was first coined in 1945, when the United Nations (UN) was created. The UN, itself an inter-governmental organization, made it possible for certain approved specialized international non-state agencies—i.e., non-governmental organizations—to be awarded observer status at its assemblies and some of its meetings.

Sovereignty

it means a state or a governing body has the full right and power to govern itself without any interference from outside sources or bodies.

Italy's Invasion of Ethiopia, 1934

on September 28, 1934 the United States Ambassador at Rome, Breckinridge Long, reported to the Secretary of State that rumors were current that Italy contemplated war against Ethiopia and was making extensive preparations to this end.

Trusteeship Council

one of the principal organs of the United Nations, was established to help ensure that trust territories were administered in the best interests of their inhabitants and of international peace and security.

What are microbes or microoroganisms?

organisms you can't see with the naked eye...require a microscope to see them!

What are some of the roles played by microbes in our life?

pathogenic, decompose organic waste, producers in our ecosystem, produce industrial chemicals, produce fermented foods (like vinegar and cheese), produce products used in manufacturing (like cellulase) and treatment (insulin).

What are some of the properties of bacteria?

prokaryotic, have peptidoglycan cell walls, reproduce via binary fission. For energy use organic chemicals, inorganic chemicals, and photosynthesis.

International Court of Justice

referred to as the World Court or ICJ is the primary judicial branch of the United Nations. It is based in the Peace Palace in The Hague, Netherlands. Its main functions are to settle legal disputes submitted to it by states and to provide advisory opinions on legal questions submitted to it by duly authorized international branches, agencies, and the UN General Assembly.

Assembly, League of Nations

the Assembly: Each member nation had 3 representatives in the Assembly and one vote. The Assembly met once a year, in Geneva. It could also meet at other times in the case of emergencies. The primary functions of the Assembly were the control of the budget for the organisation; control over membership of the League of Nations and the appointing of the Council of the League of Nations.

League of Nations, Secretariat

the Permanent Secretariat was the executive organ of the League of Nations in charge of: - assisting the Assembly and the Council, as well as their committees and commissions, and conferences, in the preparation of their work and the implementation of their decisions, resolutions and all official acts, as well as in the participation of surveys on technical subjects;- carrying out administrative and financial work; - the registration and publication of the Treaties ratified between Member States; - material and technical work, such as translation of speeches, discussions and documents, writing and reproduction of minutes, reports, distribution and mailing of documents;- documentation (statistical collection, information documents, studies on various subjects, etc.);- dissemination of information: especially to inform the staff through press releases and peoples throughout the world about actions taken by the League of Nations. This was accomplished through the production of books, pamphlets, periodical publications, press and radio broadcasts.

Dag Hammarskjold

was a Swedish diplomat, economist, and author. The second Secretary-General of the United Nations, he served from April 1953 until his death in a plane crash in September 1961. At the age of 47 years, Hammarskjöld is the youngest to have held the post. He is one of just three people to be awarded a posthumous Nobel Prize. American President John F. Kennedy called Hammarskjöld "the greatest statesman of our century".

Congo Crisis

was a period of political upheaval and conflict in the Republic of the Congo (today the Democratic Republic of the Congo)[c] between 1960 and 1965. It began almost immediately after the Congo's independence from Belgium and ended, unofficially, with the entire country under the rule of Joseph Mobutu.

Atlantic Charter

was a pivotal policy statement issued in August 14, 1941 that, early in World War II, defined the Allied goals for the post-war world. It was drafted by the leaders of Britain and the United States, and later agreed to by all the Allies.

Fourteen Points (Woodrow Wilson)

was a statement given on January 8, 1918 by United States President Woodrow Wilson declaring that World War I was being fought for a moral cause and calling for postwar peace in Europe. This speech made by Wilson laid out a policy (free trade, open agreements, democracy and self-determination).

Dumbarton Oaks Conference, 1944

was an international conference at which the United Nations was formulated and negotiated among international leaders.