Sustainable Transportation

*Connectivity*: •What are the connectivity choices for one line? - what 3 outcomes come from specializing it? - what 3 outcomes come from circulating it? •What are the 2 connectivity choices for multiple lines? What do each offer as a benefit, and take as a cost? *NOTE*: good pics on p.25-27 of 3.5 summarize this visually

*Connectivity choices for one line* • Specialize - serve only some locations - transit is fast - ridership goal • Circuitous - serve all locations - slower service - coverage goal *Connectivity choices for multiple lines* • Direct service: direct line b/t each pair of locations • Connected service: fewer lines but require transfers

* "It respects me" * What is civility in transit systems? What is it essential for?

*Civility* •Values unrelated to travel time or cost - comfort,cleanliness,courtesy,safety, security, amenities •Varies by culture •Essential for carrying diverse range of riders* - rob.s send signals that a transit system is uninterested in serving the whole community

What is the classic version of the trolley problem? What is the Utilitarian view regarding it? What is the Morality view? What's another interpretation of that view?

*Classic version*: you're the driver of a runaway trolley that's hurtling toward 5 unsuspecting rail workers. To the left is a track where 1 rail worker is standing. If you do nothing, the 5 workers will die. If you steer to the left, 1 worker will die. *Utilitarian view*: asserts that it is obligatory to steer to the track with one man on it. • accg to classical utilitarianism, such a decision would be not only permissible, but, morally speaking, the better option (the other option being no action at all). *Morality view*: an alternate viewpt. is that since moral wrongs are already in place in the situation, moving to another track constitutes a participation in the moral wrong, making one partially responsible for the death when otherwise no one would be responsible. - an opponent of action may also point to the incommensurability of human lives. • under some interpretations of moral obligation, simply being present in this situation & being able to influence its outcome constitutes an obligation to participate. - if this is the case, then deciding to do nothing would be considered an immoral act if one values 5 lives > 1.

(VERY LONG) What are the 10 elements of an ideal Complete Streets Policy? Describe each

*1. Sets a vision*: inspire cmnty to follow through - in small town of Decatur, GA, their transport plan defines their vision as promoting health thru physical activity & active transportation. - in Chicago, the DOT focuses on creating streets safe for travel by even the most vulnerable - children, older adults, & those with disabilities. *2. Specifies all users* •Pedestrians, cyclists, elderly, kids, car users, etc. *3. Creates a network* •Should result in creation of a complete transportation ntwrk for all modes of travel, balance needs of all users. -create an interwoven array of streets that emphasize diff. modes & provide quality accessibility for everyone. •Important to provide basic safe access for all users regardless of design strategy & networks should not require some users to take long detours. *4. All agencies and all roads* •Policies should address how to work w/other agencies and jurisdictions. •Another common issue to resolve how to include elements of CS policy in subdivision regulations, which govern how private developers build new streets. *5. All projects* •View all transportation improvements as opportunities to create safer, more accessible streets for all users, inclg peds, cyclists, & public transportation passengers. •Under this approach, even small projects can be an opportunity to make meaningful improvements. •Integrate CS planning into all types of projects (construction, rehabilitation, repair, maintenance, etc) *6. Exceptions* •Fed Hwy Admin's guidance on accom bike & ped travel named 3 exceptions that have become commonly used: 1) accommodtn not necessary on corridors where non-motorized use is prohibited, such as interstate freeways 2) cost of accommodation is excessively disproportionate to the need or probable use; 3) a documented absence of current or future need. •Many communities have included their own exceptions, such as severe topological constraints. •Must also be a clear process for granting them, where senior-level dept head must approve them. -any exceptions kept on record and publicly available. *7. Design criteria* •Review design policies to ensure their ability to accom. all modes of travel, while still providing flexibility to allow designers to tailor the project to unique circum.s. - re-write or refer to existing design guides (AASHTO) *8. Community Context-sensitivity* •Narrow roads in quiet neighborhoods; •Not too much sidewalk coverage in rural areas •Strong stmnt about context can help align trnsprtn & land use planning goals: creating livable, strong nbrhds. *9. Performance measures* •Traditional measure has been vehicular level of service - measure of automobile congestion •CS cmnties can measure success in # of ways: - miles of on-street bicycle routes created - new linear feet of pedestrian accommodation - mode shifts to using public transit, biking, or walking - changes in the number of people - number of new street trees; - creation or adoption of a new multi-modal *10. Implementation* • 4 key steps for successful implementation: 1) Restructure procedures to accommodate all users on every project; 2) Develop new design policies and guides; 3) Offer workshops and other training opportunities to planners and engineers 4) Institute better ways to measure performance and collect data on how well the streets are serving all users

What are 2 possible unintended consequences of increased safety of CAVs?

*Organ shortages*. • Currently, 1 in 5 organ donations comes from the victim of a vehicular accident. • If CAVs are to become norm, need to find way to supplant this externality *Wildlife* • Once smart cars & AVs are equipped w/360-degree-sensing tech, they'd be able, in theory, to brake or swerve in time to avoid killing animals as small as chipmunks or as large as deer, moose, and bears • If we don't kill animals w/our vehicles anymore, are we willing to live w/them in closer proximity to us? • Cars are a way that deer and other wildlife are culled in the absence of their natural predators - gotta find another population control

* "It takes me when I want to go" * What 2 temporal components of service provision determine this?

*SERVICE FREQUENCY*: How often? • Direct role in meeting 4/7 transit demands • What is the max waiting time? • Headway: - inverse of frequency - gap b/t consecutive vehicles *SERVICE SPAN* • Operating hours? • Is it running when I need it?

*Ten steps of walkability* What are the 2 steps to the "interesting walk"? Describe each

*STEP 9: Make friendly & unique faces* •Lively streetscapes have 3 main enemies: 1. parking lots 2. drugstores 3. Starchitects (star architects)? •Why? blank walls, repetition, & a disregard for the ped's need to be entertained *STEP 10: Pick your Winners* •Even most walkable cities aren't universally walkable: only so many interesting street edges to go around. - as a result, some will remain principally automotive. •Cities must make a conscious choice about the size & location of their walkable cores - avoid squandering walkability resources in areas that will never invite pedestrians

What is the Brundtland definition of Sustainable Development? What are its key features? What criticisms have been made of it?

• "meets the needs of current generations w/o compromising the ability of future gen.s to meet their needs and aspirations" • key features: - normative: how things should be - centered on intra- and intergenerational justice • criticisms: - distinction b/t needs and wants, which are both ever-chging - vague, ill-defined accg to some (how many gen.s?)

CAVs: Enabling technologies: What are they, and what do they do? - High-performance GPS - Sensors & Cameras - RADAR - LiDAR - AI - Machine Learning - In-vehicle data processing - Wireless connectivity - Cloud-based computing - Smart technologies

• *High-performance GPS* - satellite-based GPS tracks the vehicle's location & supports navigation • *Sensors & cameras* - collect & process data in real time to keep the vehicle traveling in the proper lane & operating safely • *RADAR* - object detection systems using radio waves determine the presence, distance, angle, and velocity of surrounding objects • *LiDAR* - Light Detection And Ranging - constructs a frequently updated 3D-like image of the envt • *Artificial intelligence* - advanced algorithms & deep learning systems enable the vehicle to quickly & automatically adapt to changing circumstances • *Machine Learning* - a form of data-driven AI that improves vehicle performance w/o reprogramming, aided by frequent software updates & new algorithms via the cloud • *In-vehicle data processing* - software that automatically performs real-time calculations enables high-speed decision-making on the road • *Wireless connectivity* - onboard systems support machine-to-machine comm.s to learn about dynamic conditions from other vehicles, infrastruct. & other road users; also communication w/cloud-based computing • *Cloud-based computing* - tools that aggregate & analyze real-time telemetric data — such as vehicle speed & surrounding car proximity —signal the need for actions like braking or lane-switching • *Smart technologies* - Road signs, traffic lights, & lane markers communicate w/sensors in the moving vehicle

What do mechanical, thermal, and electromagnetic energy all derive/result from?

• *Mechanical energy* results from movement and is the combination of kinetic and potential energy. • *Thermal energy* is the outcome of temperature differences between two systems. • *Electromagnetic energy* (also called radiant energy) is the outcome of electromagnetic waves such as light emitted by the sun. • *Gravitational energy* is the foundation of mechanical energy derived from the attraction of two masses, the earth being the most significant.

How do alternative fuels reduce vehicle exhaust emission and improve envtl air quality? - what are they capable of compared to oil? - how is their carbon-to-hydrogen makeup advantageous? - what about hydrogen is advantageous? - how can they change emission sources advantageously?

*Alternative fuels generally reduce the vehicle exhaust emission & hence improve the environmental air quality* • alternative fuels are capable of reducing the engine emissions as compared to petroleum products. • some alternative fuels have a low C:H ratio & therefore generate less hydrocarbon emissions on combustion. • hydrogen is the clean fuel & generates no hydrocarbon emissions. • emissions released from a centralized plant can be more easily controlled than vehicular emissions.

What are the definitions and travel impacts of the following 4 land use factors behind transportation: - Connectivity - Roadway design & management - Walking & Cycling conditions - Transit quality & accessibility

*Connectivity* •Degree that walkways and roads are connected and allow direct travel between destinations. •Improved roadway connectivity can reduce vehicle mileage, & improved walkway connectivity tends to increase walking & cycling. *Roadway design and management* •Scale, design and management of streets. •More multi-modal street design and management increases use of alternative modes. •Traffic calming tends to reduce vehicle travel and increase walking and cycling. *Walking and Cycling conditions* •Quantity and quality of sidewalks, crosswalks, paths and bike lanes, and the level of pedestrian security. •Imprvd walking & cycling cndtns increases non-mtrzed trvl & can reduce car travel, prtclry if implmntd w/land use mix, transit imprvmnts, & incntves to reduce driving. *Transit quality and accessibility* •Quality of transit service and degree to which destinations are transit accessible. •Improved transit service quality increases transit ridrshp & can reduce car trips, particularly for urban commuting

What are the disadvantages of biodiesel fuel? - emissions - cost - energy density - possible competition

*Disadvantages* • biodiesel-fueled vehicles increase NOx emissions. • significantly more expensive than diesel fuel & hence govt incentives needed to promote it. • bc there is less energy in a gal of biodiesel than in a gal of petroleum diesel, the driving range of vehicles operating on biodiesel blends is less. • possible competition with food production

Future fuels?: - biodiesel - biomass - synthetic fuel

*Future fuels?* • Biodiesel produced from algae or nonfood products, • Cellulosic ethanol and fuels produced from gasification of biomass. • Synthetic fuel is a liquid fuel obtained from natural gas, coal, oil shale, and biomass sources

* "It takes me when I want to go" * What is peak vs base scheduling? In other words, what does each approach differently prioritize?

*Peak VS Base scheduling* • Peak-first - peak service is the fundamental product provided - other times of day are supplemental product • Base-first - pattern of service that runs all the time is the fundamental product - service added on the peak is supplemental

* "It is a good use of my time" * In what 2 ways is time valued/characterized in relation to public transit?

*Time is short* • Time required for entire trip includes: - access time (stop locations) - waiting time (frequency) - transit time (speed or delay) - transfer time (connectivity + frequency) - egress time (stop locations) *Time is useful* • Multitasking during transit is enabled • Reading lights, power outlets, internet access

For what 2 key reasons is public transit unique and valuable?

1. Only public transit can carry large numbers of people in a single vehicle with a single driver - wage costs (for now) are a large part of public transit costs 2. Public transit delivers people as pedestrians

In what 2 ways are frequency & span the "gold" of public transit?

Frequency & Span are *gold* to transit services •Valuable - essence of travel freedom - allows spontaneous trips & changes •Expensive - doubling frequency roughly doubles operating cost - each increase in the length of the service day is also a corresponding increase in operating cost

What's the problem with fuel taxes in the US?

Fuel taxes have not increased w/inflation and vehicle fuel efficiency, resulting in declining revenue per vehicle-mile

2.6 Physical inactivity health

lots of charts and MAPS experiment not in here, look @the charts and go over experiment a bit on Sunday (2/23)

How does air quality differ b/t the macro and micro scales?

•Macro (urban) scale - varies by land use type & configuration - fragmented land uses (sprawl) generates more traffic emissions - but concentration/dispersion is affected by micro-scale factors •Micro (street & built envt) scale: - attenuates w/dist. from traffic - but affects ppl who live, work, etc. nearby - bldgs, urban canyons can trap pollution

What have been the overall trends of population density chronologically and across transportation evolution?

•Much higher prior to mechanization (1890s-) •Drop in 20th century: sprawl, suburbs, and sub-centers •Rebounding 1980s -

What is Carbon Monoxide, and what does it result from? When is emission of it most likely to occur, and when are concentrations typically highest? How does it affect human physiology, and thus who are at greater risk? What effect does it have on healthy people?

•Odorless, colorless gas resulting from incomplete fuel combustion - most likely to occur @low air-to-fuel ratios in engine (eg. vehicle starting) - concentrations typically highest during cold weather, make combustion less complete •Reduces the amount of O in blood by binding chemically to hemoglobin - cardiovascularly & respiratory compromised or weaker are @greater risk - higher levels can affect mental alertness & vision in healthy individuals

What was the worst traffic-jam in history? How long did it last and stretch? What was the (ironic) cause?

•On Beijing‐Tibet Expressways just outside Beijing, drivers trapped in 62-mi traffic jam that lasted >12 days! •Crawling along @speed of just 2mil/day day, some drivers est.d that it took them 3 days to pass through! •Cause of the jam was due to skyrocketing # of cars & drivers in China but also the heavy use of the route by trucks bringing construction supplies to Beijing for road work on the highway intended to lessen the congestion & eliminate traffic jams (lol) •Gave birth to a mini‐econ. w/local merchants capitalizing on the drivers by selling water & food @inflated prices. •Some drivers passed time by playing cards, while others were victims of theft &extortion from locals.

What income levels bike the most, and what for what reasons?

•Ppl w/incomes <$20,000 & ppl w/incomes >$100,000 are more likely to have ridden a bike in the past 12 mths than other income groups - but ppl on low end of income spectrum bike more freq.tly for both transportation & recreation than others.

Summarize the 5 major phases of shifts in sources of energy and their links to economic and technological development: 1. Pre-Industrial Revolution 2. Mid-19th Century/Industrial Revolution 3. Beginning of the 20th Century 4. Late 20th Century 5. The 21st Century -- speculative future of energy

•Pre-IR (18thC), energy use relied only on muscular & biomass sources - manual labor & animals, biomass (mainly firewood) provided for heating & cooking energy needs. - windmills & watermills for energy marginally contributed, & for very specific purposes (e.g. milling flour). •Mid-19thC, IR brought a major shift in energy sources w/usage of coal, mainly for steam engines, but increasingly for power plants. •Beginning 20thC, major reliance on coal, but gradual shift towards oil began - 2nd major shift saw the introduction of internal combustion engines and of oil‐powered ships. •Late 20thC, high level of petroleum dependence in the world economy, main provider of energy - as level of technical expertise increased, more efficient sources of fossil fuels were tapped (ie. natural gas, nuclear fission) - renewable sources of energy (eg. hydroelectric, wind, solar) first tapped, but remained marginal sources. •21stC will have major shifts in energy sources - gradual obsolescence of fossil fuels, like coal & oil, for more efficient fossil fuels such as natural gas. - advances in biotechnologies, underline the growing potential of biomass derived fuels - wind & solar energy will also account for a notable share of energy sources. - nuclear energy, particularly if nuclear fusion becomes commercially possible, may also play a significant role, but remains speculative - new transition likely to be usage of hydrogen, mainly for fuel cells powering vehicles, small energy generators & portable devices.

What is the presence of such widespread parking an artifact of? How does legally mandated/zoning restrictions disrupt market prices and compare to building space? What does Donald Shoup show about the unsustainable economic value of parking spaces compared to their costs and uses?

•Presence of so many parking spaces is artifact of regulation & serves as a powerful subsidy to cars & car trips. •Legally mandated parking lowers the market price of parking spaces, often to zero. •Zoning & dev't restrictions often require a large # of parking spaces attached to a store or a smaller # of spaces attached to a house or apartment block •Shoup est.s that many American parking spaces have a higher econ. value than the cars sitting in them. - eg., after including construction & land costs, he measures the value of a LA parking space @ >$31k, much more than the worth of many cars, especially when considering their rapid depreciation

Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles: - how are they similar to HEVs? - how do they differ from HEVs? - what 2 things power their battery packs? - how *can* they perform compared to ICE vehicles and HEVs in terms of emissions and pollutants?

•Similar to HEVs in that they have both an ICE & a battery pack as a means to provide driving power. •Don't utilize the ICE to charge the battery to the same extent as in HEVs - instead, they have a battery pack that can be fully charged by the electricity grid by plugging the vehicle into a standard electrical outlet of 120/240 V AC. - also, regenerative braking can also provide an on board battery charging alternative. •Several studies have found that when charged from the electricity grid, PHEVs may emit less CO2 & other pollutants over their entire fuel cycle than conventional ICE vehicles & HEVs.

Where do pedestrian fatalities occur disproportionately in terms of income, and why is this surprising in terms of the things that these communities lack?

•Study analyzed where ped fatalities occur relative to the median household income of the surrounding area - found that ppl die while walking @much higher rates in lower income communities vs higher‐income ones •Unsurprising given that low‐income communities are significantly less likely to have: - sidewalks - marked crosswalks, and - street design to support safer, slower speeds, also known as traffic calming.

What is the Planning Time Index? Give an example of it. What is Columbus' PTI, and how does this compare to NY, Chitown, LA, and DC?

•Travel time reliability measure; ratio of total time needed to ensure 95% on-time arrival as compared to a free-flow travel time in a given month - eg. PTI of 2.00 means that for a 20‐minute trip in light traffic, 40 minutes should be planned. •Columbus has a freeway‐based PTI of 1.59 (using freeway measures only). For comparison: - New York: 2.05 - Chicago: 1.85 - Los Angeles: 2.87 - Washington DC: 2.27

What are conditions of Horizontal equity?

•Treat everybody equally, unless special treatment is justified for specific reasons •Policies and regulations apply equally to all users. •Per capita public expenditures and cost burdens are equal for different groups. •Service quality is comparable for different groups and locations. •Modes receive public support proportional to their use •All groups have opportunities to participate in transportation decision‐making. •Individuals bear the costs they impose •Users bear all costs of their travel unless subsidies are specifically justified.

What are the problems with the 85th percentile rule?

•Unrealistically assumes that drivers select their travel speed taking adequate & objective consideration of road safety issues •Leads to gradual increases of the avg operating speed •Less effective the more residential the surrounding environment •Can't be considered as objectively rational: considers an erroneous driver perception of speed impacts •Does not consider pedestrian and cyclist safety •Does not consider emissions and air quality

Vegetable oil fuels - sources: - 2 broad classifications - main uses of each classification - 2 uses of oil cakes

•VOs have two broad classifications: 1. edible oils (sunflower, soy bean, palm oil, etc.) 2. nonedible oils (jatropha, karanji, rubber seed oil,etc.). - edible type oils are mainly used for food purposes - nonedible VOs serve as important raw material for manufacture of soaps, paints, varnishes, hair oil, lubricants, textile auxiliaries, & various products. •After extraction of oil from oil seeds, oil cakes can be used as cattle feed and fertilizer. - moreover, these oil cakes can be used as biomass feed stock for gasification process.

What are winter temperature inversions, and how do they adversely affect air quality?

•Warmer air aloft acts like a lid on denser colder air in valley, traps pollutants in cold air below •Cities in valley often exceed national standards

How are the World's oil supplies shifting politically and geographically? Where are the most unconventional oil stores projected to be, and how much more is thought to be there compared to conventional reserves elsewhere?

•World's oil supplies will no longer remain concentrated in the Middle East, Africa, and Russia. •Oil reserves will be found in the Western Hemisphere & over the long term, will be unearthed globally. •IEA projects that North America is home to the world's largest stores of unconventional oils - est.s of 50% more UO than total conventional reserves in the Middle East, Eastern Europe & Eurasia; followed by Latin America, have also been identified as part of the new geography of oil

Does congestion pricing work? What is the main concern regarding congestion pricing? - what does use of tolled roads depend on, and what inequity may this cause? - who can be left worse off, and how? How is road space rationing generally regarded relative to congestion pricing? - however, what loophole and inequity can this still cause?

•Yes, but it's controversial - inequities due to regressive pricing - difficulties in getting the price right - how to spend revenues? horizontal equity says on roads/hwys, vertical says on public/active transport •Main concern is the possibility of undesirable distrbt.n of repercussions due to the diversity of road users - use of tolled road depends on user's level of income; when some can't afford to pay, then this policy is likely to privilege the middle-class & rich. - users who shift to some less-preferred alternative are also worse off; less wealthy are the more likely to switch to public transit. •Road space rationing is another strategy generally viewed as more equitable than congestion pricing. - however, high-income users can always avoid the travel restrictions by owning a 2nd car & users w/relatively inelastic demand (such as a worker who needs to transport tools to a job site) are relatively more impacted

What four major factors jointly influence fuel consumption and energy use by transportation? Describe each

1.*Vehicle*: type is linked w/fuel efficiency, particularly the engine and the fuel it uses. 2.*Infrastructure*: capacity & level of service offer, e.g., mass transit versus personal automobile. 3.*Demand*: higher the level of economic activity, the more demand for travel and the energy used. - higher the price of fuel, lower the travel demand 4.*Spatial structure*: spatial distribution of activities affects the transport distance.

Disadvantages of natural gas: - fueling - performance - vehicle cost - driving range - fuel tanks - fuel properties - extraction

Disadvantages • NG refueling process is slow due to low-volumetric efficiency of engine & low energy density • low energy density results in low-engine performance. • NGVs cost > comparable gas/diesel models bc of low-production volumes & higher cost of fuel storage tanks. • compared to a volumetric gal. of gas/diesel fuel, there's less energy in an energy gal. equivalent of NG - TF, NGVs have lesser driving range - NGVs need pressurized fuel storage tanks; present storage capacity has a range of ~150 km (~93 mi.) • On-board NG fuel tanks are larger than comparable gas/diesel fuel tanks. • Inconsistent NG fuel properties around the world. • Often extracted via hydraulic fracturing, or fracking

See 3.1 pg.s 9-11 for graphs on external vs internal fixed vs internal variable costs on average

See 3.1 pg.s 9-11 for graphs on external vs internal fixed vs internal variable costs on average

2.7 pages 10-12

not in here, but take a look at them; about commute costs, healthcare accessibility

What urban design, and also building design, strategies can promote physical activity and healthy living?

• Urban design strategies that encourage walking, bicycling, and active transportation and recreation • Building design strategies for promoting active living where we work and live and play, through the placement and design of stairs, elevators, and indoor and outdoor spaces

Time geography recognizes three major types of constraints on human activities.

•*Capability constraints* limit the activities of individuals thru their own physical capabilities &/or avail. resources - people need to conduct maintenance activities such as eating and sleeping; these require time and place - indiv.s w/private cars can generally travel faster than individuals who walk or rely on public transport. •*Coupling constraints* define where, when, & for how long an individual has to join w/other individuals for shared activities such as work, meetings, & classes. •*Authority constraints* are flat restrictions over particular space-time domains - eg. a shopping mall or gated community can make it difficult & illegal to enter at designated times, while a public street cannot.

What are market prices? What are they in the context of driving? What are externalities? What are they in the context of driving?

•*Market prices*: costs involved in market transactions - driving: automobile purchase price, gas prices, insurance, maintenance, depreciation, parking - avg: 60 cents/mile •*Externalities*: costs (or benefits) incurred by individuals not involved in the market transaction - air pollution, risk, GHGs, health costs, social costs - police/hwy patrol, emergency rooms, expanded govt, subsidized parking

What energy use change and tech. innovation lead to what changes in freight transport? How did this impact ships and harbors? What two constructions vastly improved maritime circulation?

•1870s: gradual shift from coal to oil - greater energy efficiency (90% reduction vs coal) - no need for coal refueling stages along routes •Combined w/improvements in engine propulsion tech., led to inc.s in ship size, speeds & carrying capacities - ship cargo capacity rose from 3800 tons in 1871 to 47,000 tons in 1914 •Industrialization of harbors: agglomerated activities using ponderous raw materials - integrated production & transshipping activities •Greater maritime circulation due to Suez (1869) & Panama (1914) canals, Asia & AUS more accessible

What changes in urban population has the 21st century seen, and which will it see?

•21st cent. is the urban cent. - for 1st time, world became majority urban - rise of megacities (pop > 10mil), mostly in the developing world - global pop'n ~10bil by end of cent.

What does accessibility-based analysis expand on? • What important roles does it recognize? • What impacts does it consider? • What options does it expand in order to include improvements to what areas? • What does this provide?

•Accessibility‐based analysis expands the range of impacts and options considered in planning. - recognizes the important roles that active and public transport can play in an efficient and equitable transport system - considers impacts such as the barrier effect and sprawled development on accessibility - expands transport improvement options to include improvements to alternative modes, increased transport network connectivity, more accessible land use devt, and improved telecommunications & delivery services. •This provides more comprehensive equity evaluation.

How is natural gas advantageous compared to gas and diesel from an environmental perspective? What about natural gas is disadvantageous compared to petroleum fuels?

•Advantages compared to gas & diesel from an envtl perspective: - NG vehicles cost-competitive, lower-emission alt. to gas-fueled vehicles - produces less than half the CO2 emissions per unit of generated electricity compared to conventional fuels, •Difficult to store/transport bc physical nature, needs high pressures &/or low temps to increase bulk density - oil is readily stored in large, relatively simple, & cheap tanks & then transported in huge tankers.

How to automobile owners decide how much to drive? What do public agencies tend to be influenced by? What do current transport planning and investment decisions tend to focus on? Why do indirect and externalities tend to be undervalued?

•Automobile owners decide how much to drive based primarily on perceived, internal, variable costs. •Public agencies tend to be influenced by costs perceived by their constituents, however defined. •Current transport planning and investment decisions tend to focus on direct market costs. •Indirect and non-market costs tend to be undervalued because they are more difficult to measure.

Why was the automobile, and specifically the internal combustion engine, an improvement on the steam engine? What was advantageous about their production, and what did they lead to?

•Automobile: internal combustion engine (1889) - more efficient and lighter fuel - more flexible mvmt - could be mass produced due to assy line - led to diffusion of ancillary industries & infrastruct.s

How may autonomy inevitably have a negative effect on personal health, specifically in relation to the effects of active transportation? What are the effects of lowered friction of distance? How might CAVs offset its safety gains in this way?

•Autonomy may inevitably have a neg. effect on personal health by causing a rise in inactivity. - whereas active transportation reduces individuals' costs for transport., makes them healthier, & fosters a move twd mixed-use communities & city & town centers, CAVs could upset this balanced way of living by putting large #s of these ppl back into cars & encouraging suburban sprawl even to rural areas. •Lowered friction of distance makes longer commutes and thus suburban sprawl easier - could also replace activate transport for short trips •Studies have shown that inactivity is related to miles traveled by car. - if CAVs increase travel by vehicle substantially, as many experts predict, death by preventable diseases may reduce overall lives saved by a considerable amt.

What is Marchetti's constant? Combined w/a demand for more mobility w/higher income, what must then occur?

•Avg 1 hr daily time budget for travel - if ppl hold their time for travel constant but also demand more mobility as their income rises, they must select faster modes of transport to cover more distance in the same time

What are the benefits of External Combustion Engines? The drawbacks?

•Benefits: - can be config.d for low CO, Nitrogen oxides, and unburned C emissions - doesn't require heavy & complex transmission •Drawbacks - early ones half as nrg efficient as ICEs - heavier drive-train - need to carry water

What are bike paths? What are greenways? What often are they? What are these used more often for?

•Bike paths have their own dedicated right of way independent of the street network •Greenways are bike paths surrounded by a park space - they're often abandoned rail corridors - these are also known as rail-trails •Since they are independent of the st ntwk, & (in the case of greenways) isolated from the st ntwk, bike paths are often used more for recreation than utilitarian riding. - but there are exceptions, such as the Olentangy Trail.

Vegetable oil fuels: - when was the concept of using VO for fuel conceived? - what does mixing VO w/diesel afford users? - how can modern diesel engines run VO?

•Concept of using VO as fuel began in 1895: Dr. Rudolf Diesel developed the 1st diesel engine to run on VO - Dr. Diesel had demonstrated his engine at the World Exhibition in Paris in 1900 using peanut oil. •Mixing vegetable oil w/diesel lets users get some of the advantages of burning vegetable oil & is often done w/no modification to the vehicle •Can be run in modern diesel engines w/modifications, just need heating element to maintain low viscosity

What is congestion pricing? What are some examples? What type of pricing strategy is it, and what does it regulate? According to economic theory, what is the objective of congestion pricing policy? What does it encourage, and what does it shift demand to?

•Congestion pricing is a system of surcharging users of a transport network in periods of peak demand to reduce traffic congestion. - eg. some toll-like road pricing fees, & higher peak charges for utilities, public transport & slots in canals & airports. •Variable pricing strategy that regulates demand, making it possible to manage congestion w/o increasing supply. •Objective of this policy is to use pricing to make users more aware of the costs they impose upon one another when consuming during the peak demand, & that they should pay for the add.l congestion they create •Encourages the redistribution of the demand in space or time, and shifting demand to a substitute good (eg. public/active transport)

What are 3 main options for pricing and taxing driving?

•Congestion pricing: charge drivers based on •Gas tax: charge drivers based on fuel consumed •VMT tax: charge drivers based on distance traveled

What is a traffic reliability measure? Why is it more relevant to commuters? Why is it more salient to commuters, and thus what measure does it outperform in representing a commuter's experience?

•Consistency or dependability in travel times, as measured from day to day or across diff.t times of day - most travelers are less tolerant of unexpected delays bc such delays have larger consequences than drivers face w/everyday congestion •Measures of travel time reliability better represent a commuter's experience than a simple avg travel time. - tend to remember the few bad days they spent in traffic, r/t an avg time for travel throughout the year.

What trend in pedestrian & cyclist deaths is being seen in the US? How does it compare to other industrialized democracies in terms of traffic safety?

•Despite long‐term trends in reduced death & injury rates in hwy transportation due to improved vehicles & infrastructure, US is experiencing rapid growth in pedestrian & cyclist deaths - 46% increase in pedestrian deaths since 2009 - falling behind the safety level being achieved in other industrialized democracies.

What are a couple positive effects of climate change on transportation?

•Fewer cold days mean less time & money will have to be spent on road salt & on de-icing planes - but could mean more freeze-thaw conditions, creating frost heaves & potholes) •Marine transport will benefit from less ice fog, fewer ice jams, longer shipping seasons, & open NW Passage

What is most dangerous regular activity for the majority of Americans? What do the large majority of transportation fatalities result from?

•For majority of Americans, driving or being a pssgr in a motor vehicle is their most dangerous regular activity - 95% of transportation fatalities, ~35,000 to 40,000 annually, result from routine hwy travel •Despite ongoing improvements to vehicles & infrastructure that have reduced injury risk, many hwy casualties nonetheless result from predictable causes that can be reduced by using proven strategies

US transit buses by fuel types from 2007 to 2015: - which most powered by? 2nd most? - which fuel type fastest growing? - what these increases largely due to? - where CNG/LNG mostly used?

•From 2007 to 2015, diesel buses represent the largest portion of total buses, w/NG buses a distant second. •Electric & hybrid buses are fastest growing fuel type, increased >8x from 2007-2015. •Increase in both NG buses & electric & hybrid buses is largely due to the favorable econ.s & clean air benefits in the transit bus app.s. •CNG &LNG are mostly in private fleets such as businesses and public transit agencies.

How much gasoline is produced from each standard barrel of crude oil in the US? What happens to the rest of the barrel? How much CO2 is produced from burning a gallon of gasoline?

•Gasoline is a nonrenewable fuel made from petroleum. •Refineries in the United States produce about 19 gal.s of gas from every 42‐gal barrel of crude oil refined. - rest of the barrel gets turned into other petroleum products: diesel fuel, heating oil, jet fuel, & propane to name a few •Burning a gallon of gasoline (that does not contain ethanol) produces about 19.6 pounds of carbon dioxide.

What was the timeline of the Horsecar era in Columbus? Specifically, the beginning, end, and milestones in b/t: spec.y how pop'n and resid.l options changed.

•HC era started in 1863, w/line of ~1.5mi •Electrification of lines began in 1888, last HC line converted by 1892 •During 29yr HC era, Cbus pop'n grew 18k to 90k - gave rise to SC suburbs - In its peak in 1892, 2 SC co.s supplied multiple routes for total of 34.5mi - est.d basic layout for electric SC that followed

What is community-based planning? How does it open up the planning process? What type of planning? What's a big potential disadvantage?

•Involving community stakeholders in pluralistic, adaptive, inclusive, proactive planning •Open the planning process to citizen involvement in all phases of the process - esp. criteria dev't & solution generation •Bottom-up planning by citizen org.s •Disadvantage: potential for NIMBYism

What are the limitations of the rational planning model? - in terms of time - assumed criteria - assumes what knowledge - how is citizen input usually limited?

•It's a slow process that requires a great deal of time, and cities are getting faster •Assumes rational, measurable criteria; however, many urban problems are "wicked problems" •Assumes accurate, stable & complete knowledge of all alternatives & their consequences •Citizen input is usually limited to evaluating the final alternatives being considered by planners

FLEXIBLE TRANSIT SERVICES How much of US ridership? Define it How are they limited? Where do flexible routes tend to be useful (2)?

•Less than 1 percent of ridership in the US •Flexible or demand-responsive services, where the routing followed by a transit bus or van can change based on customer requests •Can be useful, but limited because they are intrinsically less efficient. •Flexible routes tend to be useful where: - overall demand is low - specific populations whose needs aren't met by fixed services, such as people with different abilities

How Do Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles Work Using Hydrogen? - how do they operate like all-electric vehicles? - how do they contrast to other EVs? - how are FCEVs designed differently from all-electric vehicles in terms of their power?

•Like all-electric vehicles, fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) use electricity to power an electric motor. •In contrast to other electric vehicles, FCEVs produce electricity using a fuel cell powered by hydrogen, rather than drawing electricity from a battery. •During the vehicle design process, the vehicle manufacturer defines the power of the vehicle by determining the size of the fuel cell, & the amount of nrg to be stored on board by the size of the fuel tank. - different from an all-electric vehicle, where the amount of power and energy available are both closely related to the battery's size

What is the TDM philosophy? What must travel demand be managed by?

•Meeting unfettered demand for travel is impractical - "predict & provide" paradigm is obsolete •Travel demand must be managed by: - expanding the avail.y of more sustainable alternatives - controlling demand for use of unsustainable modes - providing incentives & rewards for more sustainable travel decisions - imposing full-cost pricing on automobile use

What is Transportation disadvantage? How is it context specific?

•Mismatch b/t an individual's mobility needs & the degree to which those needs are met •Differential exposure to negative externalities of transport. •Context specific - TD is the intersection b/t *propensity* (who a person is) & *provenance* (where a person lives) - Can change over a lifetime

What does mobile source air pollution include? Why is it regulated differently than stationary sources? How does the EPA differentiate b/t mobile sources in terms of classification and regulation?

•Mobile source air pollution includes any air pollution emitted by motor vehicles, engines, & equipment that can be moved from one location to another. •Regulated differently than stationary sources due to: - large # of sources & their ability to move from one location to another - increase in the # of motor vehicles driven in the US - wide variety of mobile sources of air pollution, some contributing more to pollution than others •EPA differentiates b/t mobile sources, classify as either on-road vehicles (cars, buses, trucks, etc.) or nonroad vehicles (aircraft, construction equip.) - both groups face regulation, but not all regulations apply to all types of mobile sources

What are the benefits of urban street trees? (there are many)

•More approp. urban traffic speeds •Create safer walking envt.s •Less drainage infrastructure needed •Rain, sun, heat, & skin protection •Reduced harm from tailpipe emissions •Lower urban air temperatures •Convert streets, parking, & walls into more aesthetically pleasing environments •Soften & screen necessary street features •Reduced blood pressure, improved overall emotional & psychological health •Lower travel time perception •Longer pavement life due to shading

What is the impact of unsust. transport on air quality? What did a study find regarding this?

•More ppl die due to poor air quality caused by transport. than crashes •Cause a wide range of bad health impacts - study found that schools near busy intersections had students w/slower, more stunted cog. dev.t

What is the global carbon cycle? Where does carbon flow and over what time scale -- what are the major reservoirs? What does this cycle help regulate, and how has this worked before and after the industrial revolution? How much human carbon emissions end up in the atmosphere?

•Natural carbon cycle of Earth: C is naturally exchanged b/t terrestrial vegetation & the atmosphere thru photosynthesis & respiration •Carbon flows from one reservoir to another over time scales ranging from days to millennia - major components or reservoirs: oceans, terrestrial vegetation & soils, & the atmosphere •This C cycle helps regulate the amount of CO2 present in our atmosphere, & is therefore a major component of the climate system - in the millennium prior to the IR, atmospheric concentrations of CO2 were relatively stable bc the two major carbon fluxes—b/t terrestrial vegetation & the atmosphere; & between the ocean & the atmosphere—were generally in equilibrium - the burning of fossil fuels & deforestation has introduced an additional flux into the C cycle; these activities combined now emit almost 8 bil. metric tons of C to the atmosphere every year, ~20% of which is the result of land-use change such as tropical deforestation. - roughly half of human-induced carbon emissions remain in the atmosphere (for up to a century or more), while the remainder is taken up in nearly equal portions by the oceans & land vegetation.

How is the case of Neil Kelly indicative of the plight of wheelchair users in a car-dominated landscape? How much more are wheelchair users at risk than pedestrians, and what does this make even more difficult for them?

•Neil Kelly is a wheelchair user in Cincy; he has been struck three times by drivers with a 10 month period - all 3 times he was in a crosswalk. •Wheelchair users have a 36% higher risk of being hit by a vehicle than pedestrians; bear an inequitable burden of risk for the convenience of drivers. - makes it even more difficult for these users to access employment, healthcare, shops, etc.

What triggered the Santa Barbara Oil Spill? What relief efforts were taken, and to what avail? What resulted from Union Oil continuing to drill offshore? What did the event bring into question, and to what extent was Union Oil held accountable? What was the environmental fallout, in terms of nature and policy? After all this, how was offshore drilling continued, and what were the sustained effects of this continued effort?

•Oil well exploded in ocean, leak ultimately released 235k gal.s of crude w/a slick of 800 miles. •Efforts to use chemical dispersants on the oil were started & stopped several times. - investigations & studies offered little immediate relief - littany of lawsuits against Union Oil & State/Fed Gov.t - protests against remaining oil operations •Efforts to permit Union Oil to resume offshore prod. simply led to renewed blowouts and leaks, oil washing up on San Diego beaches •Brought into Q envt responsibility of offshore oil - CA fought for jurisdiction limit >3mi (prev.y set @), were denied •Union Oil assumed liability, but financial settlements were well below the total damage costs •Congress tightened regulations on leases & made offshore operators liable for cleaning spills. •>3,500 birds died, damage to wildlife & the beaches impermanent nevertheless - still helped stimulate the growth of the modern environmental movement - moved federal govt to pass NEPA •Search for new sources of petroleum inevitably led to increased interest in offshore wells nevertheless - ocean drilling and greater tanker traffic guaranteed more blowouts and spills: 3 Exxon oil spills in one month in 1970: 15k gal.s off the coast of Florida, 3 mil. gallons in Nova Scotia Bay, & 50k gal.s/day for several weeks in the Gulf of Mexico - during 1975 alone, 12,000 reported spills resulting in 21 million gallons of oil dumped into U.S. waters.

How is petroleum consumption changing currently? What is the US transport fuel and product US refineries produce? In 2017, how much motor and aviation gasoline did Americans use? Furthermore, in 2017, gasoline accounted for: - what % of total transportation sector energy consumption? - what % of petroleum consumption? - what % of total US energy consumption? How much of US gasoline consumption is accounted for by light-duty vehicles?

•Petroleum consumption is rising; - Gasoline is the main U.S. transportation fuel , main product US oil refineries produce - 2017, Americans used ~143 bil gal.s of motor gas—or ~391 mil gal.s/day—& 173 mil gal.s of aviation gasoline. •2017, gasoline accounted for - ~59% of total transport. sector energy consumption, - 47% of total petroleum consumption, - 18% of total U.S. energy consumption. •Light‐duty vehicles (cars, SUVs, & small trucks) acct for ~92% of all gasoline consumption in the US

Why are older adults more likely to be killed as pedestrians? How do these disparities become even more pronounced when accounting for variations in walking rates by age? Compared to younger victims of ped deaths, where are older victims more often stuck & killed at?

•Ppl age 50- , & esp. 75- and older, are over-represented in deaths involving people walking. - more likely to experience challenges seeing, hearing, or moving, & shows shortcomings in street design •Such disparities become even more pronounced when we acct for variations in walking rates by age. - relative PDI for older adults age 50- is >33% higher than it is for the gen.pop, & for ppl 75- is ~50% higher - compared to younger victims of ped deaths, older adults who are struck & killed while walking are more often at an intersection or in a crosswalk.

What are the goals and actions of vertical equity transport systems?

•Progressive w/r/t income: lower‐income households pay a smaller share of their income, or gain a larger share of benefits, than higher income households •Support affordable modes (walking, cycling, ridesharing, transit, carsharing, etc.) receive support and are well planned to create an integrated system. •Special discounts are provided for transport services based on income and economic need. •Transport investments and service improvements favor lower‐income areas and groups. •Affordable housing is available in accessible, multi‐modal locations.

How is congestion a collective action dilemma? What is the common property, and what the "tragedy of the commons"? Explain. What does the solution require?

•Public roads are common property shared by many - traffic jams are a "tragedy of the commons" - each road-user has own mindset & looks out for themselves -> road gets overused & lessened in value for everyone. - each person seeking to diminish their own driving time has increased the overall driving time for everyone - individuals acting in self-interests feel immediate gain, but the collective losses are not felt immediately - solution requires people to collectively make a decision to alter the behavior of everyone, including themselves.

What were the safety concerns w/RRs? What caused and then dec.d collision incidents? What danger did the pressure in steam engines pose?

•RR collisions: single tracks b/t cities to save costs - telegraph reduced accidents, better scheduling/comm.n •Boiler explosions: not uncommon in 19th-early 20th C - tremendous force: devastating fragments, pressure waves, & scalding steam

Risk compensation hypothesis: - what does it hold that each individual has, and how they corresponding respond to changes in risk levels? - what is the basic idea in terms of cost-benefit trade-offs? - in line w/this hypothesis, what then is the outcome when streets are design to be "less risky"?

•Risk homeostasis holds that everyone has his or her own fixed level of acceptable risk - when the level of risk in one part of the individual's life changes, there will be a corresponding rise or fall in risk elsewhere to bring the overall risk back to that individual's equilibrium - same is true of larger human systems, such as driving •The basic idea here is that as we make transportation safer, people tend to do riskier behaviors. - when perceived benefits of risky behaviors (speeding, using phone), outweigh the perceived costs, ppl are more likely to engage in risky behaviors. •TF, street designs that lower threshold of perceived risk by employing hwy design induce drivers into operating their vehicles well above the SL & w/o approp. care. - eg. overbuilt roads built to enable high‐speed travel while providing buffer room for high‐speed mistakes

What are Sharrows or Shared Lane Markings (SLMs)? What are their benefits? What are they not -- what shouldn't they be substituted for?

•Road markings used to indicate a shared lane envt for bicycles & automobiles. - the shared lane marking is a pavement marking w/a variety of uses to support a complete bikeway network; •Among other benefits shared lane markings reinforce the legitimacy of bicycle traffic on the street, recommend proper bicyclist positioning, & may be configured to offer directional & wayfinding guidance. •Not a facility type & shouldn't be considered a subst. for bike lanes, cycle tracks, or other separ.tn treatmnts where these types of facilities are otherwise warranted or space permits.

Describe the role of the Roman Road Network, and the expanse of the Chinese Grand Canal

•Roman Road Network: provided a central role to support trade b/t a network of coastal cities •Chinese Grand Canal: at its peak total ~2500km from Beijing in N to Hanghzou in S and Luoyand in E

What are the short- and long-term effects of SO2 exposure, and what groups are particularly vulnerable? How can SO2 emissions contribute to particulate matter pollution, and what health effects do these then have?

•Short-term exposures can harm human respiratory system,make breathing difficult (bronchoconstriction) - long-term exposure can cause respiratory illness, alter lung's defense mechanisms, & aggravate existing cardiovascular disease - children, the elderly, & those who suffer from asthma are particularly sensitive to effects of SO2 •SO2 emissions that lead to high concentrations of SO2 in the air generally also lead to the formation of other sulfur oxides (SOx). - SOx can react w/other compounds in the atmosphere to form small particles - these particles contribute to particulate matter (PM) pollution: may penetrate deeply into sensitive parts of the lungs & cause additional health problems

What nuance is there w/space-time convergence?

•Space-time convergence is not equal everywhere; it is very uneven, as are rxns to this convergence •Altho mobility & connectivity can fragment some activities, others remain grounded in physical space

What is the single most important factor in street safety, and what are 3 related factors to this?

•Speed is the single most important factor in street safety •3 speed-related factors: 1. Peripheral vision: constricted @ higher speeds 2. Stopping distance: much longer @ higher speeds 3. Impact force: fatality much more likely @higher speeds

What are the 4 types of presence? Describe each and give examples

•Synchronous presence (SP) corresponds to face-to-face interxn: requires coincidence both in time & space. •Synchronous telepresence (ST) requires only coincidence in time: telephones, radio, & IMing allow indiv.ls to communicate among diff.t places but only at the same time. •Asynchronous presence (AP) requires coincidence in space but not time: eg.s include notes left on a refrigerator or office door •Asynchronous telepresence (AT) doesn't require coincidence in space & time: this mode includes printed media, e-mail, text messages, and webpages.

How are policies and services progressive with respect to transportation disadvantaged (non‐drivers, different abilities, children, older adults, etc)?

•Transport policies and planning decisions support access options used by disadvantaged people. •Development policies create more accessible, multi modal communities. •Transportation services and facilities (transit, carsharing, pedestrian facilities) reflect universal design (they accommodate people with disabilities and other special needs, such as using strollers and handcarts). •Special mobility services are provided for people with mobility needs

What is New Urbanism? What is it influenced by? What kinds of principles does it encompass?

•Urban design mvmt that promotes walkable nbrhds that contain a range of housing & job types •Influenced by urban design standards that were prominent until the rise of the car in the mid-20thC •Encompasses principles such as traditional neighborhood design (TND) and transit-oriented development (TOD).

What types of urban landscape development did these following modes of transport cause: walking, streetcar, bicycle, automobile, and highway?

•Walking (pre‐industrial): Concentric •Streetcar: Sector •Bicycle: Concentric •Automobile: Concentric •Highway: Concentric w/emergence of sub‐centers.

Weak sustainability: what conditions must hold for an economy to be sustainable? What assumption is it based on? What r-ship does it posit b/t the 3 pillars of sustainability?

•economy is sustainable if its savings rate is > the combined depreciation rate on nat'l & human-made capital - growth of human capital just needs to outpace depletion rate of nat'l capital - keep the *total net investment* of all capital (human-made and nat'l) positive •Based on assumption of unlimited substitutability of natural and human-made capital •3 pillars are *compensatory*

What is transportation disadvantage and social exclusion?

"The process by which people are prevented from participating in the economic, political & social life of the community because of reduced accessibility to opportunities, services & social networks, due in whole or part to insufficient mobility in a society & envt built around the assumption of high mobility"

Describe CAV heaven vs CAV hell

*CAV heaven* - supports public transit - compact cities - better access for all - walkable + bikeable neighborhoods *CAV hell* - more congestion - more sprawl - higher inequity - segregated roadways

Describe some of the main benefits claimed by CAV supporters: - safety - traffic - fuel consumption and emissions - accessibility - system integration

*Safety* • most road crashes & trauma are preventable; due to human error • lower rates of driving under influence *Less traffic* • greater lane capacity • higher speeds, tighter packing, less "phantom jams" due to human variability in driving *Lower fuel consumption and emissions* • platooning, programming for lower emissions *Greater accessibility* • for people who cannot drive due to physical abilities, age *Last mile services*: • connect people to public transit

Slow adoption scenario of EVs: - what rate is it based on? - what was the state of car driving in 1910s America? biggest worry? state of gas and road infrastructure? car prices? - how did this state change dramatically by 1921? 1925? - how many EVs will there be in 2020s & 2040s under this scenario? Fast adoption scenario of EVs: - what rate is it based on? - what made this faster? - what 2 things are different today regarding this scenario? - what reality does this scenario match? Ultimately, what will drive EV adoption?

*Slow adoption scenario:* based on the rate at which gas vehicles were adopted during the early 20thC • In 1910 there were few paved roads in America, & biggest worry in cities was what to do w/all the horse manure that was piling up. - gas was hard to find; today's massive infrastructure of refineries & gas stations just beginning to be built. - driving one of Henry Ford's new Model T's was a daunting change from a horse, w/or w/o a buggy, & it was as affordable to Americans then as a $137,000 car would have been in 2015 - not surprisingly, few ppl bought Model T's @that price • Yet by 1921, price had dropped to equivalent of $35k, Govts & the oil industry had spent massively on roads & other infrastructure, & Model T sales shot up to mil./yr. - by 1925 were nearing 2 mil/yr •If EVs are adopted at that pace, they'll acct for 5% of all vehicles by the late 2020s & 36% by the early 2040s. *Fast adoption scenario:* based on the rate @which horses disappeared during the early 20thC. • Happened much faster, in part bc public transit was expanding rapidly at the same time. - many ppl who gave up horses didn't buy cars at first; they hopped on electric street cars. - no comparable public transit boom today, but switching from gas-powered to EVs is much easier than switching from horses to cars was a century ago. •The fast-adoption scenario matches the actual EV adoption rate b/t 2011 & 2015, & may be more likely •Cost is what will push Americans out of their driver seats: EVs are 4x more energy efficient & cheaper to fuel.

What is the enhanced greenhouse effect?

- The Earth absorbs incoming solar radiation & tries to cool by emitting long wavelength infrared radiation. - This radiation is absorbed by GHGs and can't escape - The net result is that the earth's mean annual temperature increases

What were the 2 major phases of transport modifications during the IR? What dev't was critical to this?

1. Canal systems 2. Railways - invention of steam engine

Describe the 3 pillars of sustainable mobility

1. Econ.: cost-effective & continuously responsive to chging demands - but doesn't n.ly mean can/should pay for itself 2. Env.l: minimize env.l degradation 3. Social: equity; accessibility to employment, education, & health services; quality of life - prob. could be one of land use/urban form not n.ly transport.

What are Banister's 4 principles of the sustainable mobility paradigm?

1. Make best use of tech. & give industry directions on societal priorities - still need behav.l chgs & wariness of Jevon's paradox 2. Accurately pricing transport; use demand mgmt to acct. for externalities - requires public support to work effectively 3. Integration of land-use dev.t , urban form design to support shorter travel dist.s - also would contribute to modal chg.s 4. Clearly target indiv.ls: use of social scientific & psych.l methods to raise acceptability

What were the percentages of global GHG emissions by economic sector in 2014? What were they in the United States specifically that year?

*GLOBALLY:* •Electricity and heat production: 49% •Transport: ~21% •Manufacturing and construction: ~20% •Residential, commercial, & public services: ~9% •Other sectors: 1 to 2%. *UNITED STATES:* •Electricity and heat production: 46% •Transport: ~34% •Manufacturing and construction: ~9% •Residential, commercial, & public services: ~11% •Other sectors: 1%

How did motorized transport change the expansion of cities? What residential & social effects did cars have on cities? Effects on commercial and industry? How did the US and EU differ in their subsequent treatment of streetcars?

•motorized transport (buses & cars) radially expanded cities - initially only access. to wealthy, used recreationally - low density suburbs emerged & inc.d ethnic & econ. segregation - decentralization of commercial & industrial sectors •SCs actively dismantled in US, while many EU cities kept theirs - eg. GM & Standard Oil bought Pacific Elec. Railway of LA in 1938 only to dismantle and replace tramways w/buses

Public Transit component 1: regularly scheduled vehicle trips - what is transit provided by? - what extent of variation in this component is accepted? - what must transit service be at its core?

*1. regularly scheduled vehicle trips* •Transit is provided by a vehicle running on a regular schedule or pattern. •There is room for variation in routes and schedules. - demand-responsive services, for eg., may vary their routing accg to customer requests, within set limits. •At its core, transit service must be predictable so that diff ppl can plan around it w/o coordinating directly w/one another. - this feature is the crucial difference between transit and other ways of sharing a ride.

What are 6 reasons for why to measure transportation costs comprehensively?

*1.Improved Vocabulary for Discussing Impacts*: avoid confusion over how various transport impacts are defined & categorized *2.Policy and Planning Evaluation*: policy & planning decisions often involve econ. analysis to determine whether a particular option is cost-effective, & which option provides the greatest overall benefits - conventional evaluation practices often exclude some impacts, which can result in solutions to one problem that exacerbate other problems. *3. Optimal Pricing*: cost analysis is important to help identify fair & efficient pricing, incl.g fuel taxes, road & parking fees, insurance pricing, vehicle fees & taxes, & road pricing - a general economic principle is that prices should reflect full marginal costs, where marginal cost is the incremental cost per additional unit of consumption. *4. TDM Evaluation*: includes various strategies that result in more efficient use of transport resources - requires more comprehensive analysis than normally used for transport planning bc it requires determining the economic impacts of various travel changes, incl.g changes in transport diversity & shifts in travel time, distance, destination & mode. *5. Equity Evaluation*: several types, each of which requires different types of benefit and cost info *6. Economic Development Impacts*: refers to progress toward a community's economic goals, including increases in economic productivity, employment, business activity & investment - various techniques can be used to measure the economic development impacts of a particular transport policy or project.

Describe the 7 advantages of VMT taxes/distance-based fees: 1. Increased fairness - what is more accurately reflected? - why is current pricing unfair? - what kind of tax would they be then? 2. Increased affordability - what decision are motorists given? - what might this allow some households to afford? 3. Increased economic efficiency - what is more accurately reflected, and thus what is then increased? 4. Consumer savings - how much is the average motorist predicted to save with distance-based insurance alone? - what do these savings represent? - what does this indicate about the type of savings consumers value? 5. Reduced vehicle travel - how much would vehicle travel be predicted to be reduced by distance-based fees? - what else would in turn be reduced? 6. Increased safety - how is crash reduction related to mileage reduction? - why would higher-risk motorists be incentivized to reduce their driving? - how many lives would be saved per year in the US? 7. Emission reduction - how would mileage reduction be predicted to reduce emissions

*1.Increased fairness*: distance-based fees can more accurately reflect the insurance, road, & pollution costs imposed by individual vehicles. - current pricing tends to overcharge motorists who drive <avg and undercharge those who drive >avg each year in a price category - regressive since lower-income motorists tend to <avg *2.Increased affordability*: converting to distance-based costs could make vehicle purchase, leasing, insurance, & registration more affordable by allowing motorists to decide how much driving they can afford, as they can w/most consumer goods. - allows households to afford extra, seldom driven vehicle, eg. old truck used for errands, or a rec.l vehicle. *3.Increased economic efficiency*: distance-based charges more accurately reflect motor vehicle costs than existing pricing, & so increase overall economic efficiency and productivity. *4.Consumer savings*: avg motorist is predicted to save $50-100/vehicle w/distance-based insurance, & more if other charges are distance-based. - savings rep. the reductions in insurance & roadway costs that result when motorists reduce their mileage - indicate that consumers value incremental financial savings more than incremental vehicle use - these are true cost savings, not just econ. transfers. *5.Reduced vehicle travel*: distance-based insurance & registration fees are predicted to reduce vehicle travel by 10-15%, making this one of the most effective TDM strategies currently proposed. - reduces traffic congestion, road & parking facility costs, accident risk, pollution emissions, consumer costs, & urban sprawl. *6.Increased safety*: vehicle crashes should decline even >mileage (10% mileage reduction is predicted to reduce crashes by 12-15%) bc higher-risk motorists (who currently pay high premiums/vehicle-yr) would pay higher per-mile fees, & would therefore have the greatest incentive to reduce their driving. - if implemented thru-out U.S., would save ~5,000 lives/yr, & prevent much larger # of disabilities & injuries. *7.Emission reduction*: distance-based fees would reduce energy consumption & pollution emissions. - mileage-based emission fees would provide particularly large tailpipe emission reductions: a fee that reduces mileage by 2% is predicted to reduce emissions by 4-16%.

4 types of TDM strategies (give examples of each): 1. Operational 2. Physical 3. Financial and pricing 4. Organizational

*1.Operational*: enhanced choices & traveler info about those choices - (e.g., dynamic route information, trip planning apps) *2.Physical*: restricted car use in certain areas/times; strategic improvements to transport network to enhance system efficiency or provide new capacity for public transport or HOVs - (e.g., auto restrictions in city centers, HOV lanes) *3.Financial and pricing*: incentives and more inclusive pricing of driving - (e.g., congestion pricing, commuter incentives, parking rates) *4.Organizational*: new partnerships, planning processes (e.g., sustainable travel planning)

Define each of the 6 diff.t methods of implementing VMT taxes: 1. Pay-as-you-Drive Insurance - what are the many benefits of this? 2. Mileage-Based Registration Fees - what other fees can also be made variable? 3. Mileage-Based Vehicle Purchase Taxes - how much when based on avg vehicle lifetime? how much if paid over 1st 4 years operated? 4. Mileage-Based Vehicle Lease Fees - what % of new vehicle acquisitions in US acct.d for by leases? - how does this improve upon current mile-limits set on leases? 5. Weight-Distance Fees - how much for automobiles? combination trucks? - why/how more equitable than fuel taxes? 6. Mileage-Based Emission Fees - how does it incentivize motorists?

*1.Pay-As-You-Drive Insurance*: simple & effective way to make distance-based vehicle insurance by prorating existing premiums by mileage, incorporating all existing rating factors; reflects fact that the chances of having a crash increase w/mileage •Provides several benefits: - more accurate insurance pricing, increased insurance affordability, a reduction in total vehicle mileage; - reduction in vehicle crashes & insurance claims (particularly effective at reducing crashes, gives highest risk motorists greatest incentive to reduce mileage); - consumer cost savings (motorists are predicted to save annually in net insurance costs); - significant reductions in traffic congestion, road & parking facility costs, and pollution. *2.Mileage-based Registration Fees*: vehicle licensing & registration fees prorated by vehicle mileage; - similarly, other purchase and ownership fees can be converted into variable fees. *3.Mileage-based Vehicle Purchase Taxes* converted to distance-based taxes, which converts to ~1¢/mi if paid over an avg vehicle lifetime, or 3¢/mi if paid over the 1st four years of a vehicle's operating life *4.Mileage-Based Vehicle Lease Fees*: leases (acct. for ~30% of new vehicle acquisitions in U.S.) & rentals can be restructured to be more mileage-based. - altho most leases & rentals include mileage rates for "excessive driving," they're usually set so high they only affect a minority of leased vehicle mileage. *5.Weight-Distance Fees*: mileage-based road use charge that increases with vehicle weight. - range from ~3.5¢/mi for automobiles up to 20¢/mi for combination trucks; more equitable way to fund roads than fuel taxes, more accurately represents the roadway costs imposed by individual vehicles. *6.Mileage-Based Emission Fees*: reflect each vehicle's emission rate, giving motorists w/higher polluting vehicles a greater incentive to reduce their mileage, & conversely, motorists who must drive high mileage an incentive to choose less polluting vehicles

Disadvantages of VMT taxes: 1. Privacy - how can privacy concerns be mitigated by adjusting GPS systems? - how would GPS data be stored, aggregated, and ultimately used effectively, non-invasively, and in line w/precedent? 2. Equity - why may poor, disadvantaged, and rural people be disproportionately charged?

*1.Privacy*: govt-installed tracking mech.s in every car! - privacy concerns are understandable, but not totally warranted; GPS systems can be rigged to only collect location info and not transmit it. - that data would be stored in your car's system, then aggregated at the end of the month, w/mileage totals organized by road type, time of day, & proximity to any pertinent landmarks. - that total would ping your account, which would dispense the dollars—this is how multi-agency toll networks like E-ZPass work. *2.Equity*: poor, disadvtgd, & rural ppl tend to commute farther than the affluent, & drive less efficient cars. - gas tax already charges them disproportionately -- a straightforward VMT would too - (it seems this disproportionate cost could be acct.d for elsewhere though?)

What are 6 reasons given for imposing fuel taxes? 1. Road use fees 2. Finance transportation programs 3. Encourage energy conservation 4. Travel demand management strategy 5. Revenue-neutral tax shift 6. Internalize fuel production and consumption external costs

*1.Road user fees*: meant to cover total roadway cost, although fail to in many jurisdictions, particularly if include traffic services such as planning & policing - although US fuel taxes cover most state hwys & hwy patrol costs, local roads & traffic services are funded mostly through general taxes. *2.Finance transportation programs*: can be increased to help finance transportation programs, inclg alternative modes & TDM programs. - critics argue that congestion pricing is more efficient & equitable (more accurately reflect the costs imposed by a particular trip) & reliable (increased fuel efficiency & shifts to alternative modes may reduce future fuel tax revenues per vehicle-mile);may be true in long-term, but compared w/commonly-used transportation financing options, such as property and sales taxes, fuel taxes are relatively efficient and reliable. *3.Encourage energy conservation*: increases are an efficient & effective way to encourage energy conservation & emission reductions, which are also justified to minimize climate change emissions - can be implemented as a carbon tax on the C content of fuels, or effectively a tax on the fuel's CO2 emissions. *4.TDM strategy*: fuel is largest & most visible motor vehicle operating expense, & incr.g vehicle operating costs tends to reduce vehicle travel. - as such, fuel tax increases are sometimes proposed to reduce driving & increase transport system efficiency. *5.A revenue-neutral tax shift*: increasing taxes on resources such as fuel to fund reductions in more economically harmful taxes, such as those on income and investments - such tax shifts can provide overall economic, environmental and social benefits. *6.Internalize fuel production and consumption external costs*: price the externalities of fuel, including its envtl damages, tax subsidies, micro-economic and security costs of petroleum imports (est. avg of $0.30-1.00/gal.)

Public Transit component 2: open to all paying passengers - what does the "public" in public transit mean? what confusion does this sometimes cause however? - in the developed world, how is transit usually treated financially? what misunderstanding can arise? what requirement applies universally to all transit services?

*2. open to all paying passengers* •"Public" transit means "open to the entire public." - can be confusing in debates about whether transit should be operated by the govt or private sector. •In developed world, where wage costs are high, transit is usually subsidized by govt but it may still be operated either by govt or by private companies. - in those convos, public transit can be misunderstood as meaning "transit operated by the public sector—that is, govt—rather than by private companies. - however, even privately operated transport services are expected to welcome all paying customers; in fact, the failure to do so can become a civil rights issue.

Energy consumption by air: - how much of the total transportation energy consumption does the aviation industry account for? - what levels of energy consumption are needed, and why? - how much does fuel factor into air transport costs? - how has energy efficiency changed over time?

*AIR* •Aviation industry acct.s for 8% of the energy consumed by transportation •Has high energy consumption levels, linked to high speeds. •Fuel is 2nd most important cost, acct.ing for 13‐20% of total expenses •Tech innovations, (efficient engines & better aerodynamics), have led to a continuous improvement of the energy efficiency of each gen

What are the the advantages of biodiesel fuels? - adaptability to diesel - oxygen and sulfur content - engine life - what's left unaffected in terms of engine performance? - how can be used - carbon and sulfur emissions - hydrocarbons from combustion - particulates and CO - NOx emissions - handling and transportability - production

*Advantages of biodiesel fuels* • can be used to operate any conventional, unmodified diesel engine; can be stored anywhere diesel fuel is • has about 11% oxygen by weight & no sulfur • can extend life of diesel engines bc more lubricating than petroleum diesel fuel • fuel consumption, auto ignition, power output, & engine torque relatively unaffected by biodiesel • can be used alone or mixed in any ratio w/petroleum diesel fuel in diesel engines. • life cycle production & use of biodiesel produces ~80% less CO2 emissions, & ~100% less SO2 than diesel. • combustion of biodiesel alone provides >90% reduction in total unburned HCs & 75-90% reduction in aromatic HCs. • provides significant reductions in particulates & CO compared to petroleum diesel fuel • provides a slight increase or decrease in NOx emissions depending on engine family & testing procedures. • safe to handle & transport bc is biodegradable as sugar, 10x less toxic than table salt, & high flashpoint (~110°C) compared to petroleum diesel (45-55°C). • can be made from domestically produced, renewable oil seed crops such as soybeans, jatropha, cottonseed, rubber seed, and mustard seed.

What are the advantages of sharrows? - what does it encourage bicyclists to do? - who and what does it alert? - what does it indicate for bicyclists? - what do they advertise? - what do they provide? - what do they demonstrate in relation to parked cars? - what do they require? - what things do they reduce? What are the disadvantages of sharrows? - how are they rather disingenuous? - what counterproductive impact could they be having on cyclists?

*Advantages of sharrows* • encourages bicyclists to position selves safely in lanes too narrow for a motor vehicle & a bicycle to cmfortably travel side by side w/in the same traffic lane. • alerts motor vehicle drivers to the potential presence of bicyclists. • alerts road users of the lateral position bicyclists are expected to occupy within the travel lane. • indicates a proper path for bicyclists thru difficult or potentially hazardous situations, such as railroad tracks. • advertises the presence of bikeway routes to all users. • provides a wayfinding element along bike routes. • demonstrated to increase the distance b/t bicyclists & parked cars, keeping bicyclists out of the "door zone." • encourages safe passing by motorists. • requires no additional street space. • reduces the incidence of sidewalk riding. • reduces the incidence of wrong-way bicycling. *Disadvantages* • the least-loved nod to cycling, a low-cost way for cities to say they're doing something about safety and street design without really doing much at all. • but far from giving cyclists a safer ride, or even doing nothing at all, sharrows might actually be doing some harm by tugging bikes into moving traffic. - some research has found they do reduce dooring (when the door of a parked car hits a cyclist). - but only one study to date looked at whether or not sharrows had any impact on overall car-bike collisions—& that study found they could be incrsg the risk of injury.

7 Advantages of vegetable oil fuels? 7 disadvantages?

*Advantages of vegetable oil fuels* 1. can be used as substitute fuel for diesel engine app.n 2. reduces the import of costly petroleum & improves the econ. of agricultural countries. 3. biodegradable and nontoxic. 4. low aromatics & low sulfur content & hence reduced particulate matter emissions. 5. environmentally friendly fuels. 6. good lubricity: no major engine modification required 7. improves personal safety (flash point is >100ºC). *Disadvantages* 1. price is dependent on the seed price & market-based. 2. questionable feed stock homogeneity, consistency, & reliability; durability & emission testing can vary w/feed stocks. 3. prod.n of VO derived biofuels are @optimum cost. 4. studies are needed on oxidation stability & long storage of vegetable oils. 5. need dev't of additives for improving cold flow properties, material compatibility, & prevention of oxidation in storage, etc. 6. competition w/food production 7. demand could lead to deforestation - especially soybeans & oil palms!

Advantages of natural gas: - regulated pollutants - C:H ratio, pollution - unregulated air toxics and GHGs - energy security - operating cost - distribution efficiency/safety - flexibility - transition to hydrogen

*Advantages* • CNG vehicles produce far less of all regulated pollutants compared to gas/diesel vehicles, incl.g NOx & particulate matter. • low C:H ratio, hence lower CO & HC emissions - due to proper combustion of gas-air mixtures, reduced unburned HC emissions will reduce the envtl pollution of visible photochemical smoke • CNG vehicles produce far less unregulated air toxics and GHGs. • reduces consumption of non-domestic gas & diesel • cheaper at the pump than gasoline and diesel fuel. • higher ignition temperature than gasoline or diesel. - lighter than air & hence disperses quickly in the event of leakage of fuel - safest & most efficient energy distribution system - explosive limit of NG-air mixtures > diesel-air mixtures. - for continuous flame propagation, NG requires a min of 5% by volume as compared to ~ merely 2% for propane & 1% for gas vapor; thus safer than other fuels. • CNG vehicles can be produced as dedicated & bi-fuel versions - dedicated vehicles most apropo where vehicles tend to operate in an area where NG fueling is available. - bi-fuel vehicles have both NG & gas storage tanks on board, can operate on either fuel at the flip of a switch; most apropo when driver may need to travel to areas not currently served by NG stations • econmcl & env.tly friendly compared to other fuels • hydrogen-powered vehicles will require changes in a # of areas, incl.g bldg codes & standards, mechanic/ inspector/user training. - NGVs require many of the same changes, TF a growing NGV market today is smoothing the path for a hydrogen vehicle market tomorrow.

Hydrogen advantages: - environmentally - production - flexibility - burns... - efficiency Hydrogen disadvantages - volumetric energy - storage - cost - emissions - distribution

*Advantages* • Envt.ly clean automobile fuel suitable for ICEs. - fuel leakage to atmosphere is not a pollutant. • Can be produced from abundant raw material: water. • High burning rates make it robust for diff.t engine designs • Burns quickly and easily • High efficiency *Disadvantages* • Very low energy density • Storage of hydrogen in vehicles • Higher fuel cost • Higher NOx emissions bc of its higher flame temp • Little current infrastructure for distribution network

Advantages of electric vehicles: - emissions - efficiency - noise - fossil fuel dependency Disadvantages of electric vehicles: - cost - charging - range - seating space - customer acceptance

*Advantages* •EVs don't emit GHGs & toxic exhaust gases - they're zero emissions if the energy required to operate the vehicle (i.e., charging of battery) is prod.d from renewable energy sources or onboard H fuel cells. •Elec. motor much more efficient than convent.l ICEs •EVs are noiseless. •EVs reduce the dependency on fossil fuels if they run on alt. fuels. *Disadvantages* •EV costs high compared to current gas & diesel cars. •Recharging time of batteries is high & rsrch needed to reduce the recharge time - takes hours to recharge the batteries, more than the refueling time of gas and diesel vehicles. •Driving range of EVs depends on power of the batteries, to date limited to 150-300 mi in 1 recharging. •Limited seating space availability as increase in the space will increase load of the pssgrs affecting the driving range as increased load puts stress on the battery performance & life. •Less cx acceptance (so far), marketing challenge: will be a difficult task to change cx perception w/so many limitations of EVs & when other options that are far better than EVs are available in the market.

What are the adverse health effects of lead exposure on children, pregnant women, and adults in general?

*CHILDREN - MOST SUSCEPTIBLE:* Even low levels of lead in the blood of children can result in: • Behavior and learning problems • Lower IQ and Hyperactivity • Slowed growth • Hearing Problems • Anemia • In rare cases, ingestion of Pb can cause seizures, coma & even death. *PREGNANT WOMEN* •Pb can accumulate in our bodies over time, where it is stored in bones along w/calcium •During pregnancy, Pb is released from the mother's bones along w/calcium & can pass from the mother exposing the fetus or the breastfeeding infant to Pb •Can result in serious effects to the developing fetus and infant, including: - cause the baby to be born too early or too small - hurt the baby's brain, kidney's, & nervous system; - increase likelihood of learning/behavioral probs; - put the mother at risk for miscarriage. *OTHER ADULTS* can suffer from: • Cardiovascular effects, increased blood pressure and incidence of hypertension • Decreased kidney function • Reproductive problems (in both men and women)

What are the advantages of contra-flow bike lanes? - what do they provide? - what do they reduce? - what things do they decrease? - what do they influence? - what do they allow bicyclists to use? What are their typical applications? - on what type of streets? - on what 3 types of corridors? - where in terms of connections? - where do they work best?

*Advantages* •provides connectivity & access to bicyclists traveling in both directions. •reduces dangerous wrong-way riding. •decreases sidewalk riding. •decreases trip distance, # of intersections encountered, & travel times for bicyclists by eliminating out-of direction travel. •influences motorist choice of routes w/o limiting bike traffic. •allows bicyclists to use safer, less trafficked streets. *Typical applications* •on streets where large #s of bicyclists are already riding the wrong way. •on corridors where alternate routes require excessive out-of-direction travel. •on corridors where alternate routes include unsafe or uncomfortable streets w/high traffic volumes and/or no bicycle facilities. •on corridors where the contra-flow lane provides direct access to destinations on the street under consideration. •where two-way connections between bicycle facilities are needed along one-way streets. •works best on low-speed, low volume streets, unless buffer separation or physical protection is provided.

Alcohols: - substitute/additive for what? - methanol - ethanol

*Alcohols (methanol and ethanol)* • substitute or additive for gasoline w/high octane • methanol: used in 1930s for high‐performance engines, now competitive as fuel to derive H for fuel cell vehicles • ethanol: by‐product of production of sugar - 1st internal combustion engine was designed to run on ethanol; suitable alt.fuel for diesel engines

How do alternative fuels reduce the energy dependence? - how reduce crude oil import bill? - most can be produced from what? - where can electricity be produced from? - what can hydrogen be produced from? - what does all this mean about potential impacts of alternative fuels on crude oil imports?

*Alternative fuels are mostly produced from domestic resources that reduce the energy dependence.* • use of locally available resources for fuel purposes can reduce crude oil import bill. • most of the alternative fuels, (eg. alcohols), biodiesel can be produced from biomass resources & agri-wastes • electricity for battery operated vehicles can be produced from solar & fuel cells. • hydrogen can be produced from biomass gasification or electrolysis of water. • hence, even a small % substitution of diff. alternative fuels reduces the crude oil import significantly.

Why are pedestrian deaths increasing so much? Why is it not attributable to either increased walking or increased driving?

*Are we walking more?* Not really. •Altho indiv.l cities & metro areas have observed increased walking rates, share of trips made by walking nationwide increased only 1% from 2009-2017 - the total # of all trips, including walking trips, decreased during this time. *Are we driving more?* Not much. •VMT, (total amount of driving we do as a nation each year), has gradually increased since 2011. •However, VMT in 2017 was only 8.1% higher than it was in 2008 before the recession, yet the # of ppl struck & killed by drivers while walking rose by 35.4% during this time period & is higher now than it's been in ~3 decades.

PUBLIC TRANSIT: What are the benefits of ridership orientation (4)? What are the benefits of coverage orientation (4)?

*BENEFITS OF RIDERSHIP ORIENTATION* • Reducing envt.l impact thru lower VMT • Achieving low public subsidy per rider, thru serving more riders w/the same resources, & thru fares collected from more passengers. • Allowing continued urban dev't, even @higher densities, w/o being constrained by traffic congestion. • Reducing the cost for cities to build & maintain road & bridges by replacing car trips w/transit trips, - & by enabling car-free living for some people living near dense, walkable transit corridors *BENEFITS OF COVERAGE ORIENTATION* • Ensuring that everyone has access to some transit service, no matter where they live. • Providing lifeline access to critical services for those who cannot drive. • Providing access for people who are transportation disadvantaged. • Providing a sense of political equity, by providing service to every municipality or electoral district.

What are the benefits and costs of transportation?

*Benefits* • Quality of transportation available affects people's economic and social opportunities. • Transport planning decisions can affect development location & type, and TF accessibility, land values and local economic activity; also employment & economic development which have distributional impacts. *Costs* • Transport facilities, activities and services impose various indirect and external costs, such as congestion delay and accident risk imposed on other road users, infrastructure costs not funded through user fees, pollution, and undesirable land use impacts. • Transport expenditures represent a major share of most household, business and government expenditures. • Transport facilities require significant public resources (tax funding and road rights of way), the allocation of which can favor some people over others.

What are the benefits of bike lanes? - what 3 things do they increase? - what do they create? - what do they visually remind? What are their typical applications? - on what streets are they most helpful, in terms of traffic, speed, and transit volume? For streets that don't meet those of the typical applications, how should the bike lanes be implemented differently?

*Benefits* •increases bicyclist comfort & confidence on busy st.s. •increases predictability of bicyclist and motorist positioning and interaction. •increases total capacities of streets carrying mixed bicycle and motor vehicle traffic. •creates separation between bicyclists and automobiles. •visually reminds motorists of bicyclists' right to the st. *Typical applications* •most helpful on streets w/ ≥ 3,000 motor vehicle average daily traffic (ADT). •most helpful on streets w/a posted speed ≥ 25 mph. •on streets with high transit vehicle volume •Streets w/high traffic volume, regular truck traffic, high parking turnover, or speed limit >35 mph should have more protected bike lanes, such as buffered bike lanes

What are bikeshare's equity problems? What obstacles block bike equity (in general)? What are the possible solutions for bikeshare's equity problems?

*Bikeshare's equity problem*: • sharp divisions along race and class lines • high-income whites 3X as many bikeshare trips as low-income POC • only 9% of low-income POC, 18% of high-income POC, 13% of low-income whites, 29% of high-income whites have ridden bikeshare in their cities (PSU study) *Obstacles that block bicycle equity (in general)*: • lack of separated bike lanes, • lack of access to quality bikes, repair facilities, & safety classes. • need for digital access & for credit, as well as the high cost of replacing a lost bike ($1,200 in CoGo system). *Possible solutions*: • Discounted passes to low income • Cash only for unbanked • Bicycle ambassador programs • Close digital divide for smartphones

Conventional oils: - what form do they represent? - what are they a mixture of? - what compounds are they rich in, and which less abundant in? -- why is this advantageous?

*Conventional oils* • Represents the form that is the most desirable to extract since it is of high quality. • "Mixture of hydrocarbons that exist in liquid phase under normal surface conditions." • Hydrogen‐rich compounds w/relatively short hydrocarbon chains, fewer carbon atoms & lower molecular weights than most unconventional oils • Tend to deliver more productivity w/less waste than unconventional oils.

What are the definitions and travel impacts of the following 4 land use factors behind transportation: - Density - Mix - Regional Accessibility - Centeredness

*Density* •Ppl or jobs per unit of land area (acre or hectare). •Increased density tends to reduce per capita vehicle travel - each 10% increase in urban densities typically reduces per capita VMT by 2-3%. *Mix* •Degree that related land uses (hsg, commercial, institutional) are mixed •Increased land use mix tends to reduce per capita vehicle travel, & increases use of alternative modes, particularly walking for errands. - nbrhds w/good land use mix typically have 5-15% lower vehicle-miles. *Regional Accessibility* •Location of dev't relative to regional urban center. •Improved access. reduces per capita vehicle mileage. - residents of more central nbrhds typically drive 10-30% fewer vehicle-miles than residents of more dispersed, urban fringe locations. *Centeredness* •Portion of commercial, employment, and other activities in major activity centers. •Increased centeredness increases use of alternative commute modes. - typically 20-50% of commuters to major commercial centers drive alone, compared w/80-90% of commuters to dispersed locations.

Distracted driving: - what change in DD has been seen recently? - in what ways can mobile phone distraction impair performance? - how is texting particularly troublesome? - how much more risky is driving while using a mobile phone? - how do hands-free phones factor in?

*Distracted driving* • Recently there has been a marked increase globally in the use of mobile phones by drivers • Distraction caused by mobile phones can impair driving performance in a # of ways: - longer rxn times (to braking & traffic signals), - impaired ability to keep in the correct lane, - shorter following distances. • Texting also results in considerably reduced driving performance, w/young drivers @particular risk of the effects of distraction resulting from this use. • Drivers using a mobile phone are ~4x more likely to be involved in a crash than a focused driver • Hands‐free phones not much safer than hand‐held

Driving under the influence: - what 2 likelihoods does drunk driving increase? - above what BAC level does crash risk increase? - what types of laws are effective in this regard? - what kinds enforcement are also effective?

*Driving under the influence* • DDing increases both the risk of a crash & the likelihood that death or serious injury will result. • Risk of being involved in a crash increases significantly above a BAC of 0.04 g/dl. • Laws that est. BACs of 0.05g/dl or below are effective @reducing the number of alcohol‐related crashes. • Enforcing sobriety checkpt.s & random breath testing can lead to reductions in alcohol‐related crashes of ~20% and have shown to be very cost‐effective

Electric/fuel cell/hybrid vehicles: - how can electric vehicles be zero emission? - limitation of current pure electric vehicles? - what do hybrid EVs functionally combine? - what are fuel cells?

*Electric/fuel cell/hybrid vehicles* • electricity normally generated from coal, natural, solar, fuel cell, on board diesel engine, gas, & nuclear - if produced from non-fossil fuel, then electric vehicles become zero emission vehicles. • pure electric vehicles currently don't have adequate range when powered by batteries alone, & hence can't be used for driving long distances; require recharging • Hybrid electric vehicles (HEV) combine the alternative energy source (engine/fuel cell) to run the vehicle & charge the battery. • fuel cells are electrochemical devices that convert the chemical energy of a rxn directly into electrical energy.

Smart Columbus projects enabled by the SCOS: • Enabling technologies: - connected Vehicle Environment • Enhanced human services: - multimodal trip planning app w/common payment system - mobility assistance for people w/cognitive disabilities - prenatal trip assistance - smart mobility hubs - event parking management • Emerging technologies - connected electric autonomous vehicles - truck platooning

*Enabling Technologies* • Connected Vehicle Env't: seek to enhance safety & mobility thru-out city's transprtn system utilizing Connected Vehicle (CV) tech.s & app.s, w/an emphasis on congested & high-crash intersxns & corridors. *Enhanced Human Services* • Multimodal Trip Planning App w/Common Payment System: make multimodal options universally accessible by providing a robust set of transit & alternative transprtn options incl.g routes, schedules, & dispatching possibilities, while facilitating payment for multiple transprtn systems in one common platform. • Mobility Assistance for Ppl w/Cognitive Disabilities: allow travelers to request & view multiple trip itineraries & make reservations for shared-use trnsprtn options (eg. bikeshare, trnsprtn network companies and carshare) • Prenatal Trip Assistance: help reduce Cbus' high infant mortality rate by helping expectant mothers get to prenatal care • Smart Mobility Hubs: someone getting on or off a COTA bus can easily access the next leg of their trip. • Event Parking Management: integrate parking info from multiple providers into a single availability & reservation services solution. *Emerging Technologies* • Connected Electric Autonomous Vehicles: connect COTA riders to opportunities in the Easton area. • Truck Platooning: help ensure the efficient & safe movement of logistics related vehicles through the use of Intelligent Transportation Systems.

Summarize the following: - hybrid electric vehicles - plug-in hybrid electric vehicles - all-electric vehicles

*Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs)* • powered by an ICE & by an electric motor that uses energy stored in a battery, which is charged thru regenerative braking & by the ICE; no plug-in charging *Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEVs)* • powered by an ICE & an electric motor that uses energy stored in a battery; can be plugged in to an electric power source to charge the battery. - some can travel nearly 100 mi. on electricity alone, & all can operate solely on gas (similar to HEVs) *All-Electric Vehicles (EVs)* • use a battery to store the electric energy that powers the motor; EV batteries are charged by plugging the vehicle in to an electric power source.

What is excludability? What is rivalry? Accg to excludability and rivalry, define private goods, clubs, common pool resources, and public goods. What are the arguments for and against public transport being considered a public good? What do Levinson & King argue public transit is in terms of excludability and rivalry?

*Excludability* •Good's provider can prevent a user from obtaining it w/o charge •National defense for instance is non-excludable, America's nuclear weapons protect anyone in the country, whether or not they want it. •Sale of anything in a store is excludable: owner can prevent a cx from obtaining a good unless the cx pays *Rivalry* •One person's consumption of a particular good prevents another individual from consuming it. •National defense again is non-rivalrous: one person's protection doesn't prevent another's protection. •Shoes are rivalrous, only 1 person can wear a pair @ a time. •*Private good*: excludable & rivalrous •*Club*: excludable & non-rivalrous •*Common pool resource*: non-excludable & rivalrous •*Public good*: non-excludable & non-rivalrous *Is public transit a public good?* •On 1 hand, has many pos externalities & is consequently underpriced & underfunded, like many public goods. •Alternatively, public transport is both excludable (at the cost of validating payment), and rivalrous (when congested); satisfies the definition of a private good. •However, sometimes it is operated non-excludably, such as connector services (eg, Cbus in Columbus) •Also, it can be non-rivalrous during off-peak •Levinson & King argue that that it is excludable but not rivalrous, like a club: - systems should pay their own op.ns & maintenance - users should be incentivized to buy passes - land value capture should pay for infrastructure - the public should subsidize public transit for the disadvantaged

* "It is a good use of my money" * What are 3 major schemes of fare structuring? What are other considerations? What are the advantages of smartcards for fares?

*Fare structure* •3 major schemes: 1. Flat fare 2. Zone-based pricing 3. Distance-based pricing •Other considerations: - extra for connections - frequent rider discounts - off-peak discounts *Smartcards* •Reduce hassle •Allow elaborate fare structures

CAVs: Public policy issues - how might a state-by-state approach be disadvantageous? - what has the NHTSA released and proposed in this regard? - in terms of licensure? - in terms of testing & regulations? - how is the adoption of the autonomous elevator analogous to the issue of steering wheels in AVs? - what's Google's plan for stg wheels? - what have some states regulated regarding stg wheels, and what questions does this raise?

*Federal vs. State*: which one will create AV testing standards & regulation •There's some danger in a state-by-state approach, where piecemeal regulation could make testing & approval of AVs prohibitively expensive. •The NHTSA released updated guidance on CAVs that gave OEM some guidance on safe design & deploymnt, & provided non-binding model state policy - propose states continue w/previous roles: vehicle licensing & registration, traffic laws & enforcement, & motor vehicle insurance & liability regimes. *License* •Will use of CAVs in the future require driving training or the possession of a license? *Testing & Regulations* •To what extent will OEMs be required to test CAVs? •In what settings are AVs expected to perform? *Steering Wheels* •When the automated elevator was first developed, people rejected it out of fear. - took ~50 yrs for the automated elevator to become standard, even though it was much safer. •Elevator designers had to design features of the elevator so they reassured skittish riders. •Google is hoping to remove the stg wheel completely from its CAVs, so what are the design features they will have to include to make drivers more comfortable w/it? •Some states have also regulated where and when CAVs w/o steering wheels can be tested. - is this standing in the way of progress? - same as requiring an attendant in a modern elevator?

What is the footbridge version of the trolley problem? What is different from the classic version in terms of the usual response? What is different in terms of the intimacy?

*Footbridge version*: standing on a ftbridge above RR tracks, w/a train heading twd 5 ppl on the tracks. One way to avoid these 5 deaths is to push a man, standing nearby, down onto the tracks. Thus, 1 man will die, but 5 will be saved. Alt.vly, the respondent can choose not to actively push the man off, & the 5 people will be hit. • Diff w/the classic version is many ppl who would pull the switch in the classic version would not push the person off the bridge. • 1 clear distinction is that in the classic version, one doesn't intend harm twds anyone - harming the 1 is just a side effect of switching the trolley away from the 5. - however, in the footbridge case, harming the one is an integral part of the plan to save the five.

Energy consumption of freight transportation: - What modes is it dominated by? - What other routes provide an energy efficient method, and how do they compare to rail car and truck loads? - What is the rationale for favoring coastal & inland navigation based on?

*Freight transportation* • Dominated by rail & maritime shipping, 2 most energy efficient modes. • Coastal & inland waterways also provide an energy efficient method of transporting passgrs & cargoes: - a tow boat moving a typical load of 15 barges in tow holds equiv of 225 rail car loads/870 truck loads. • Rationale for favoring coastal & inland navigation is based on lower energy consumption rates of shipping & the general overall smaller externalities of water transportation.

Gaseous fuels: - why is natural gas supply advantageous? - why is hydrogen a clean fuel? - what potential does hydrogen have? - how can hydrogen power cars in multiple ways? - how is hydrogen manufactured? - what is the major barrier to hydrogen as an energy source? what does its solution implie?

*Gaseous fuels* • natural gas reserves are evenly distributed on a global basis & therefore provide better security of supply. • hydrogen is one of the clean fuels in the world, as it does not contain carbon compounds. - clean & efficient energy carrier w/potential to replace liquid & gaseous fossil fuels. - can be combusted directly in IC engines or can be used in the fuel cell to produce electricity - manufactured from water using energy from either fossil or non-fossil fuel sources. - low‐density gas, so storage of hydrogen in a compact & efficient manner is a major technological challenge - storage implies the reduction of an enormous volume of hydrogen gas.

What are the potential disadvantages of CAVs in terms of - increasing VMT (and the addl. prob.s off-shooting from this) - inequity (in terms of congestion & employment) - street-sharing

*Increasing VMT* •AVs may cause people to commute more, leading to - more energy consumption, - greater congestion, - more urban sprawl, and - less green spaces. •Ease of use of AVs may contribute a lot more pollution than they help solve. *Inequity* •If AVs lead to more congestion, could end up hurting those who cannot afford the technology. •Could also lead to huge levels of unemployment in the transportation sector - ~3% of the entire US labor force works in transportation and warehousing (~4.5 million jobs) *Street-sharing* •CAVs sometimes require special tech to operate safely. - if peds & bicyclists interfere sufficiently w/this tech, car-makers may push them off the road entirely - could spell end of "complete streets," leading to ugly and depressing roads

What is "jerk by proxy" relating CAVs? What are 3 examples that could occur?

*Jerk by Proxy*: owners of a self-driving car might order it to behave in ways that benefit themselves but harm everyone else; 3 examples: *(1)* Person jumps out of their car to run in & pick up an order, leaves it not in legal parking spot but blocking others, knowing that the car will take care of getting out of the way if some other car needs to get by. - may well work, but only by slowing everything down for other ppl. And perhaps the owners will be able to set the tolerance on how uncomfortable things have to get before the cars move. *(2)* Suppose someone is going to an evening event w/o much parking nearby. & suppose AVs are always prowling neighborhoods waiting for their owners to summon them, so it takes a while for any particular car to get thru the traffic to the pickup location. Then the members of a 2-car family may send one of their cars earlier in the day to find the closest parking spot that it can, then rely on their 2nd car to drop them at the event & send it home immediately. When the event is over, their first AV is right there waiting for them. Cost is foisted off on the commons, in form of a parking spot occupied all day. (& w/2x the GHGs emitted.) *(3)* In the various suburban schools that my kids went to there was a pickup ritual: parents would drive up just before dismissal time & line up in the order of arrival; when school let out, teachers would bring out the kids, & the parents & teachers would cooperate to get the kids into their car seats. Cars then left one @a time. When the 1st few families have fully driverless cars, one can imagine them sending their cars to wait in line 1st, so their kids get picked up 1st & brought home. There'll be a contest to see whose AV can get to school 1st. Teachers, too, will be inconvenienced, but ppl will still try it.

Energy consumption by land: - what is energy consumption % by road transport? - how dominant is road transport in the land sector spec.y? - how does rail compare to road transport in terms of pssgr and freight efficiency (on the basis of 1 kg of oil equivalent)? - how much of the global transport energy demand does rail account for? What is happening to the rate of energy consumption in total, and why?

*LAND* •Road transport alone is consuming on avg 85% of total energy used by the transport sector in developed countries - trend not uniform w/in the land transport sector itself, as road transport is almost the sole mode responsible for add.l energy demands over last 25yrs •Despite a falling market share, rail transport remains 4x more efficient for pssgr & 2x more efficient for freight mvmt as road transport - accts for 6% of global transport energy demand •After decades of continuous growth, energy consumption is leveling of - due in part to the growing energy efficiency of modes as well as lower economic growth prospects

What is the loop version of the trolley problem? What is the difference from the footbridge scenario?

*Loop version*: trolley is hurtling down a track twds five ppl and you can divert it onto a 2ndary track. But, the 2ndary track later rejoins the main track, so diverting the trolley still leaves it on a track which leads to the 5 ppl But, the person on the 2ndary track, when he is killed by the trolley, will stop it from continuing on to the 5 ppl. Should you flip the switch? *What's the difference with the footbridge scenario?* • failure to act in this scenario will effectively allow the 5 to become a means to save the 1. If we do nothing, then the impact of the trolley into the 5 will slow it down & prevent it from circling around & killing the 1 • as in either outcome, some will become a means to saving others; does this allow us to count the numbers? • this approach requires that we downplay the moral difference between doing and allowing.

Energy consumption by sea: - how much of the cross-border world trade does maritime transport account for? - how energy efficient is water transport, and what 2 things about it make it so? - what portion of the energy consumption for terminal operations is contributed by fossil fuels vs electricity?

*MARITIME* •Accts for 90% of cross‐border world trade as measured by volume - its physical nature & econ.s of scale make it most energy efficient mode; uses only 7% of all the energy consumed by transport activities, a figure way below its contribution to the mobility of goods. - for terminal op.s, a container terminal usually has 70% of its energy consumption provided by fossil fuels (e.g. yard equipment) & 30% by electricity

What are one-way cycle tracks? - what may they be combined with? What are two-way cycle tracks? - how do they compare & contrast w/one-way tracks? - how may they be configured? What are raised cycle tracks? - what are many paired with? - what may they allow for? - what levels may they be set at? - what may they be combined with? - how can they interact with intersections?

*One-way* protected cycle tracks are bikeways that are at street level & use a variety of methods for physical protection from passing traffic •may be combined w/a parking lane or other barrier b/t the cycle track & the motor vehicle travel lane. *Two-way* protected BLs are physically separated cycle tracks that allow bicycle mvmt in both directions on one side of the road. •share some of the same design characteristics as one-way tracks, but may require add.l considerations at driveway and side-street crossings. •may be configured as a protected cycle track—at street level w/a parking lane or other barrier b/t the cycle track & the motor vehicle travel lane—&/or as a raised cycle track to provide vertical separation from the adjacent motor vehicle lane. *Raised* cycle tracks are bike facilities vertically separated from motor vehicle traffic. •many are paired w/a furnishing zone b/t the cycle track & motor vehicle travel lane &/or pedestrian area •may allow for 1-way or 2-way travel by bicyclists. •may be at the level of the adjacent sidewalk, or set at an intermediate level b/t the roadway & sidewalk to segregate the cycle track from the pedestrian area. •may be combined w/a parking lane or other barrier b/t the cycle track & the motor vehicle travel lane. •at intersxns, the raised cycle track can be dropped & merged onto the street, or it can be maintained at sidewalk level, where bicyclists cross with pedestrians, possibly with a dedicated bicycle signal.

What are the definitions and travel impacts of the following land use factors behind transportation: - Parking supply and mgmt - Site design - Mobility mgmt

*Parking supply and management* • Number of parking spaces per building unit or acre, and how parking is managed. • Reduced parking supply, increased parking pricing & increased application of other parking management strategies can significantly reduce per capita vehicle travel. • Cost-recovery parking pricing (charging motorists directly for the cost of providing parking) typically reduces automobile trips by 10-30%. *Site design* • The layout & design of buildings & parking facilities. • More multi-modal site design can reduce car trips, particularly if implemented w/improved transit services. *Mobility Management* • Various programs and strategies that encourage more efficient travel patterns. • Mobility management policies and programs can significantly reduce vehicle travel by affected trips. - vehicle travel reductions of 10-30% are common

Energy consumption of passenger transportation: - how much of energy consumption for transport. activities does it account for? - what is the dominant mode, its energetic performance, and how this has changed since the 1970s and in recent years? - what is the relationship b/t fuel-use and momentum for a car? - what relationships are there b/t income, car ownership, and distance traveled? - what is the level of car ownership in the US?

*Passenger transportation* • Acct.s for 60-70% of energy consumption from transportation activities. • Private car is the dominant mode but has a poor energetic performance, altho this performance has seen substantial improvements since the 1970s, mainly due to growing energy prices & regulations - however, this efficiency has been slipping in recent yrs due to low gas prices & growing popularity of SUVs & light‐duty trucks. • Only 12-30% of the fuel used by a car actually provides momentum, depending on the type of vehicle. • Close r-ship b/t rising income, car ownership, & distance traveled by vehicle. • The US has one of the highest levels of car ownership in the world w/one car for every 2 people

Per capita automobile use tends to be lower: - with what 3 things? - in what 3 types of areas? What types of commercial centers tend to have lower rates of car commuting, and why? What do land use strategies need to be combined with to increase effectiveness in this sense?

*Per capita automobile use tends to be lower*: • w/increasing pop'n & employment density, particularly if clustered into compact centers. • w/incrsd land use mix, such as when commercial & public services located w/in or adj.t to residential areas. • w/presence of strong, competitive transit system, particularly when integrated w/supportive land use - (high-density dev't w/good ped access w/in ½-km of transit stations) • in areas with connected street networks. • in areas w/attractive & safe streets that accommodate ped & bike travel, & where buildings are connected to sidewalks rather than set back behind parking lots. • in areas with traffic calming and other measures that reduce automobile traffic speeds. •Larger & higher-density commercial centers tend to have lower rates of car commuting bc they tend to support better travel choices (more transit, ride-sharing, better ped facilities, etc.) & amenities such as cafes & shops, altho they may increase avg commute distances. •Most land use strategies are mutually supportive, & more effective, if implemented 2gthr & in conjunction w/other TDM strategies. - some land use mgmt strategies that improve access could increase r/t reduce total vehicle travel unless implemented w/appropriate TDM strategies.

What are the Five D's of walkability? What are complete streets?

*Physical activity by design* • Five D's of walkability 1. Diversity of activities 2. Density 3. Distance to public transit 4. Destination accessibility 5. Design • Complete Streets: roads as habitats for all users, including pedestrians, cyclists and transit users

Seat-belts and child restraints: - how much do they benefit front- and rear-seat passengers in terms of risk? - how can laws & enforcement factor in? - how effective are child restrains if used and installed correctly?

*Seat‐belts and child restraints* • Seat‐belt use reduces the risk of a fatality among front‐seat pssgrs by 40-50% & of rear‐seat pssgrs by 25-75%. • Mandatory seat‐belt laws & their enforcement shown to be very effective @increasing seat‐belt wearing rates. • Child restraints reduce deaths among infants by ~70% & deaths among small children by 54%-80%.

What is recurrent congestion? Nevertheless, what kind of unpredictability can it still cause? What types of trips are mainly responsible for its causes, and what does this imply? What is non-recurrent congestion? What is it linked to? What is accident randomness influenced by? What are 4 main types of causes, and which one is particularly troublesome?

*Recurrent congestion*: consequence of factors that cause regular demand surges due to predictable human activities, such as commuting, shopping or wknd trips • HE, even recurrent congestion can have unforeseen impacts in terms of its duration and severity. • Mandatory trips are mainly responsible for the peaks in circulation flows, implying that ~half the congestion in urban areas is recurring @specific times of the day & on specific segments of the transport system *Non‐recurrent congestion*: caused by random events such as accidents & unusual weather conditions (rain, snowstorms, etc.), which are unexpected & unplanned • Linked to the presence & effectiveness of incident response strategies • Accident randomness is influenced by the level of traffic, as the higher the traffic on specific road segments the higher the probability of accidents. • Examples of types: - traffic incidents (vehicle stalling to serious crash) - construction zones - inclement weather conditions - special events (not a lot can be done about congestion related to these, as opposed to 1st 3)

How might CAVs contribute to increasing VMT, in terms of: - reduced friction of distance - ownership and upgrading - deadheading problem

*Reducing friction of distance* •A study predicts w/AVs, VMT will increase by as much as 60% bc AVs will help productivity rise & reduce the cost of sitting in traffic, allowing people who rarely take a car today to start doing it much more in the future. •Even if, as some predict, 2-car families become 1-car families, congestion may not necessarily be eased. - ppl may be willing to live farther from work or amenities bc AVs relieve them of driving obligations - also, overall trips could increase. *Ownership and upgrading* •In wealthier countries, ppl will be tempted to upgrade their AV after only a few years, just as today we want the latest smartphone as soon as possible - result will be # of cars worldwide may grow exp.ntly *Deadheading problem* •Shared CAVs travel empty to pick up riders - could lead to more VMT than private cars

* "I can trust it" * What is reliability? What is the main cause of reliability problems? What are the 2 types of this nuisance? What are 3 kinds of the 2nd type of that nuisance?

*Reliability*: does it run predictably? •Delay: main cause of reliability prob.s •2 types of delay: - exceptional delay: weather, emergencies, breakdowns, construction - routine delay: ___1. traffic delay is caused by the interference of other vehicles ___2. signal delay is caused by required stops @signals ___3. passenger-stop delay is caused by stops for passenger boarding & alighting

*Ten steps of walkability* What are the 4 steps to creating the "useful walk"? Describe each in detail

*STEP 1: Put cars in their place* •Car is a servant that has become a master; for 60 yrs, it has been the dominant factor in shaping our cities. •Relegating the car to its proper role is essential to reclaiming our cities for pedestrians •Requires an understanding of how the car & its minions have unnecessarily distorted the way that design decisions are made in American communities. *STEP 2: Mix the uses* •For people to choose to walk, the walk must serve some purpose. •In planning terms, that goal is achieved through mixed use or, more accurately, placing the proper balance of activities within walking distance of each other. •Most downtowns have an imbalance of uses that can be overcome only by increasing the housing supply. *STEP 3: Get the parking right* •"Parking is destiny" - it's the not-so-hidden force determining the life or death of many a downtown. •Parking requirements & pricing determine disposition of more urban land nationwide than any other factor •Yet until recently there wasn't even any theory on how to use parking to a city's benefit; that theory now exists, and is just beginning to affect policy nationwide. *STEP 4: Let transit work* •Walkable neighborhoods can thrive in the absence of transit, but walkable cities rely on it. •Communities that hope to become the latter must make transit-planning decisions based upon a number of factors that are routinely neglected, such as: - the often surprising public support for transit invest. - the role of transit in the creation of real estate value - the importance of design in the success or failure of transit systems.

*Ten steps of walkability* What are the 2 steps to the "safe walk" Describe each

*STEP 5: Protect the Pedestrian* •This is perhaps the most straightforward of the 10 steps •But also has most components: block size, lane width, turning motions, direction of flow, signalization, roadway geometry, speed limits *STEP 6: Welcome Bikes* •Walkable cities are also bikeable cities, bc bikes thrive in envt.s that support pedestrians •Also bc bikeability makes driving less necessary •More & more American cities are making big investments in biking, w/impressive results

*Ten steps of walkability* What are the 2 steps to the "comfortable walk"? Describe each

*STEP 7: Shape the Spaces* •Ppl enjoy open spaces & the great outdoors - but ppl also enjoy/need a sense of enclosure to feel comfortable as pedestrians •Public spaces are only as good as their edges •Too much gray or green (parking or parks) can cause a would-be-walker to stay home *STEP 8: Plant Trees* •Like transit, most cities know that trees are good, but few are willing to pay properly for them •There's a need to communicate the full value of trees & justify the greater investment they deserve

Summarize the 3 current, main designs of PHEVs: - series design - parallel design - series/parallel design

*Series design:* • vehicle's wheels are only rotated by the electric motor & not the ICE, which is only used to turn a generator which in turn supplies electrical power to the electric motor system which provides driving power • battery stores any excess charge prod.d by the engine. *Parallel design:* • very similar to a HEV design, both the engine & the electric motor can drive the vehicle's wheels indpndntly or even simultaneously thru mechanical coupling. *Series/parallel hybrid design:* • vehicle has the flexibility to operate in either series or parallel mode.

What were the 2 biggest barriers to bicycling that the Breakaway survey found? What percentages of respondents listed these as barriers to their entry? What 2 conclusions did the researchers come to in terms of overcoming these barriers?

*Single biggest reported obstacle was concern about traffic* • ~54% reported worry about being hit by a car/truck, • 46% said they would be more likely to ride if they could bike in areas physically separated from traffic. • One of the Breakaway's main conclusions is that more bike infrastructure could be the best way to increase cycling in the U.S. *2nd-biggest barrier was lack of access to a working bike* • Only 52% of Americans reported they had a fxning bike available to them. • Services like bike-share & bike libraries might help expand access to this group & increase total cycling activity, researchers concluded.

Who's particularly at risk of road traffic injuries and deaths: - Socioeconomically, what countries and which ppl at most risk? - In terms of age, who's at the greatest risk? - In terms of gender, who's at more risk? - Which types of road users are at greater risk, and where is this especially pronounced?

*Socioeconomic status.* >90% of deaths resulting from road traffic occur in low‐ & mid‐income countries - road traffic injury death rates are highest in the countries of the African & Middle Eastern regions - even w/in high-income countries, ppl from lower SES backgrounds are more likely to be involved in a road traffic crashes than their more affluent counterparts *Age.* Children & young people<25 yrs acct. for >30% of those killed & injured in road traffic crashes - road traffic fatality rates higher in younger age groups *Gender.* From young age, males are more likely to be involved in road traffic crashes than females. - among young drivers, young males < 25yrs are ~3x as likely to be killed in a car crash as young females *Road user.* ~half of those dying on the world's road are vulnerable road users. - this proportion is even higher in the poorer econ.s - in some low‐income & mid‐income countries up to 80% of road traffic deaths are among VRUs

How may alternative fuels be more cost effective? - how do they compare to conventional fuels currently? - which 2 alt. fuels differ in this regard? - what is needed to a certain extent to develop alt. fuels? - what could make alt. fuels cost competitive?

*Some alternative fuels have the potential to operate at a lower cost compared to petroleum products.* • currently, cost of most alternative fuels is a little bit higher than conventional fuel. • *however, the cost of biodiesel & compressed natural gas (CNG) are cost competitive w/petroleum. • for the dev't of alternative fuels, government legislations & incentives are required to a certain extent. • large-scale production of alternative fuel could make these alternative fuels cost competitive

What 2 dimensions characterize stations? What are space-time anchors?

*Stations*: • Activity locations • Where and when (durations) *Space-time anchors*: locations and timings of key fixed activities act as space-time anchors • Can contribute to social exclusion by preventing participation in activities in other locations & times. • Although certainly not a universal phenomena, low income & minority women tend to have longer commute distances & times due to housing expenses, employment characteristics or household organization. • Another factor is the assoc.n of low-income employment w/less time flexibility; eg. shift work

*Locations of stops & stations*: •What are the stop coverage ranges for: - walking - cycling - driving - what has a big impact on such coverage? •What are the trade-offs involved in stop spacing? - what does close spacing mean? wide spacing? - what trade-off then results? - what does more stops mean?

*Stop coverage* •walking: .25-.5mi for local/bus; .6-1mi for regional/rail •cycling: 10min •driving: highly variable (park & ride, drop-off) •street network has big impact: gridiron allows much more accessibility than disconnect., irregular suburban *Stop spacing tradeoffs* •duplicate coverage vs coverage gaps - close spacing means smaller coverage gaps but larger duplicate coverage - wide spacing means opposite - tradeoff: coverage vs demand objective •stops vs speed: more stops means slower service

Describe the 4 types of cyclists. - What % of the Portland pop'n do they comprise? - What type of people are they? - What concerns or excites them about biking? From these, what is the main challenge, and biggest obstacle to increase ridership? What is key?

*Strong and the Fearless* •Comprise perhaps <0.5% of Portland pop'n •The people who will ride in regardless of roadway conditions: 'bicyclists;' - riding is a strong part of their identity and they are generally undeterred by roadway conditions. *Enthused and Confident* •Comprise ~7% of Portland pop'n •Those who have been attracted to cycling by bikeway networks and supporting infrastructure. •Comfortable sharing the roadway w/automotive traffic, but prefer to do so operating on their own facilities. •Appreciate bicycle lanes & bicycle boulevards. •They are the primary reason why bike commuting doubled b/t 1990 & 2000 (in Portland where they have invested heavily in bike infrastructure). *Interested but concerned.* •Represent the vast majority of citizens •Curious about bicycling; they like riding a bike, remembering back to their youths, or to the ride they took last summer and they would like to ride more. - but, don't like the cars speeding down their streets. - get nervous thinking about what would happen to them on a bicycle when a driver runs a red light, or guns their cars around them, or passes too closely & too fast. •Very few of these people regularly ride bicycles. - they would ride if they felt safer on the roadways—if cars were slower & less frequent, & if there were more quiet streets w/few cars & paths without any cars at all. *No way, no how.* •(33%) not interested in bicycling at all, for reasons of topography, inability, or simply a complete and utter lack of interest. *Main challenge*: getting the interested but concerned group to bike - single biggest obstacle is concern about traffic - therefore, bike infrastructure is key!

How can particulate matter also adversely affect visibility, environmental well-being, and aesthetics?

*Visibility reduction*: Major cause of reduced visibility (haze) in parts of US, including many national parks & wilderness areas *Environmental damage*: Particles can be carried over long distances by wind & then settle on ground or water • makes lakes & streams acidic; • changes the nutrient balance in coastal waters & large river basins; • depletes the nutrients in soil; • damages sensitive forests & farm crops; • affects the diversity of ecosystems. *Aesthetic damage*: Particle pollution can stain & damage stone & other materials, including important objects such as statues and monuments.

CAVs Cybersecurity and hacking: • what happened with the 2015 Jeep Hack? what did this show about AVs? • what vulnerability increases as vehicles become more connected? • what low tech hacks are possible?

*The 2015 Jeep Hack* •vehicles can be hacked through wireless features. •in 2015, 2 hackers were able to gain control of Jeep's driving fxns thru the entertainment system & control the car's Advanced Driver Assistance System remotely. - Chrysler recalled 1.4 million vehicles as a result *Connections between Vehicles* •as these become more & more connected to external infrastruct., other vehicles, & anything else, the pt.s thru which these vehicles are able to be hacked increases. •also, as more & more systems in the car can be controlled automatically (steering, etc.), hackers would potentially have more control over a car they hacked *Low tech hacks*: •activities online are already discussing how to hack CAVs simply by walking in the street

Transitional oils: - how do they compare to conventional oils in terms of makeup and extraction? - what two types of remote oil do they include? - what about their extraction make them more impactful on society?

*Transitional oils* • Tend to have conventional makeups but are difficult to extract - include tight oils, oil trapped in shale that can be accessed by hydraulic fracturing or fracking (procedure by which rock formations are fractured by injecting fluids to force them open, allowing oil (and gas) to flow out - ultradeep oils that are buried as remotely as 10 mi below the water's surface • More extensive the recovery method, the more energy is required for extraction, which means these oils tend to result in higher C emissions & other societal impacts.

What are the 3 types of natural gas vehicles? How is CNG distributed? - how is it dispensed and compressed?

*Types of Natural Gas Vehicles* • Dedicated: designed to run only on natural gas. • Bi-fuel: two separate fueling systems that enable them to run on either natural gas or gasoline. • Dual-fuel: have fuel systems that run on natural gas but use diesel fuel for ignition assistance; traditionally limited to heavy-duty vehicles *Distribution* • vast majority of nation's CNG supply is distributed via the existing natural gas distribution system • most natural gas fueling stations dispense CNG, which is usually compressed on site. • CNG is used in light-, medium-, and heavy-duty vehicles.

Unconventional oils: - what kinds of forms does it come in, terms of extraction? - what 4 categories does the Dept of Energy divide it into? - what do heavier oils have more of? - how do they compare to conventional oils in weight and sweetness?

*Unconventional oils* • Comes in other forms much more difficult to extract, let it be in deep waters or as oil shale, & of lower quality. • No fixed definition of unconventional oil. • U.S. DOE divides it into four types: 1. heavy oil 2. extra heavy oil 3. bitumen - tar and oil sands 4. oil shale (kerogen) •Heavier the oil is—for example, oil sand (bitumen) and oil shale (kerogen)—the more C laden, higher in S, & filled w/toxic impurities •Typically much heavier & sourer than even the lowest‐quality conventional oil.

In what way are CAVs safer, but what 2 potentialities may undermine that safety? What is already safer than CAVs, and what danger may CAVs pose to that? What technology that we have now, and in the next 5-10 years, is already more feasible than CAVs and nearly as safe?

*VMT increases* • CAVs are much safer on a per mile basis, but if they increase VMT those gains could be offset *Vehicle-vehicle > vehicle-human crash reductions* • CAVs can handle vehicles well bc they mostly follow rules (esp. if autonomous), but humans are complex; - it's unclear CAVs will be able to handle the full range of possible V-H interactions @ crosswalks & intersxns. *Public transit is already safer*: • overall safety effects disastrous if AV industry decimates transit systems, as cars did 1930s-1950s • transit is already ~95% safer than cars per mile traveled & may already be twice as safe as AVs @the highest levels of safety they may ever achieve. *Safe cars without self-driving.* • there's a diff. b/t safe cars & self-driving cars • much of the 50-90% est.d reduction in traffic fatalities could be achieved if car-makers simply continue to make cars themselves safer - instead of waiting for fully autonomous vehicles, this could happen in the next 5-10 yrs. • safe cars are feasible now - blind spot monitoring (BSM), lane departure warning (LDW), & forward collision warning (FCW) crash avoidance systems.

Vegetable oils: - competitiveness w/oil - vegetable oil engines Biodiesel: - what is biodiesel? what derived from? - what are its major sources? - well-to-wheel energy consumption compared to fossil diesel & gas - well-to-wheel emissions compared to diesel emissions

*Vegetable oils and biodiesel* • vegetable oil fuels not now petroleum competitive fuels bc they are more expensive than petroleum fuels. - VO engines also require frequent maintenance • biodiesel is methyl or ethyl esters of fatty acids derived from edible & non-edible type vegetable oils (used or fresh) & animal fats. - major sources for biodiesel production can be jatropha, karanji, palm, soy bean, and sun flower. - well‐to‐wheel energy consumption is higher than for fossil diesel but generally lower than for gas - well‐to‐wheel emissions of biodiesel are very similar to diesel emissions; that is, higher NOx & particulates but relatively low for CO & hydrocarbons & very low net CO2 emissions bc derived from biomass

In what 2 ways is hydrogen a very attractive transportation fuel? What is a special reason for the technological interest in hydrogen?

*Very attractive transprtn fuel in two important ways:* 1.Least polluting fuel (no C) that can be used in an ICE - H-fueled ICEs (H2-ICEs) operate as clean & efficient power plants for cars - H produces H2O only when it's combusted in the ICE & makes it a very envtly clean fuel. - H combustion doesn't produce any of the major pollutants such as CO, HC, SOx, smoke, lead, or other toxic metals except NOx. - Sulfuric acid deposition, benzene & other carcinogenic compounds, and ozone & other oxidants are intrinsically absent in a well-designed neat H2-ICE. 2. It is potentially available anywhere. •A special reason for the tech.l interest in H is that H works very well within fuel cells. - most fuel cells are basically powered by H, even tho the primary fuel is not always pure H. - using H in a fuel cell leads to optimized energy efficiency (for the conversion of chem. to mech. energy) compared w/use of hydrogen in an ICE.

How do alternative transport modes supplement public transit? • Walking • Cycling • Carpooling • Carsharing

*WALKING* • virtually every transit rider is also a pedestrian • transit outcomes depend heavily on walkability, including walk length *CYCLING* • can compete w/short distance public transit • complements longer-distance transit, esp. w/bike-friendly features (bike storage @stations, bus carriages) *CARPOOLING* • crucial tool for reg-scheduled commutes esp. to lower-density employment centers not dense enough to attract high-quality transit *CARSHARING* • essential in cities that want to encourage lower levels of car ownership • eliminates temptation to own a car that one only needs once/twice a week

What is smart mobility? - what does it use, and for what purpose? - what types of vehicles? What are the benefits of smart mobility in terms of - flexibility - efficiency - integration - clean technology - safety

*What is smart mobility?* • Using data and info-tech.s to create a seamless multimodal transportation system • Shared, autonomous EVs *Benefits* • Flexibility: multiple modes of transpt.n allow travelers to choose which ones work best for a given situation. • Efficiency: the trip gets the traveler to their destination w/minimal disruption & in as little time as possible. • Integration: the full route is planned door-to-door, regardless of which modes of transportation are used. • Clean Technology: transportation moves away from pollution-causing vehicles to zero-emission ones. • Safety: fatalities and injuries are drastically reduced.

CAVs liability issues: Who is at fault - Manufacturers or drivers? • where does the liability seem to shift from an automated-enough vehicle? what question does this raise? • what question regarding automation level is there? • what question does the 2016 Tesla incident raise? Actuarial rates • what are they? what are they usually based on? • what do accurate rates help do? what questions arise from this?

*Who is at fault- Manufacturers or drivers?* •Once the power of driving is given over to the vehicles, seemingly all of the liability rests on the vehicle itself, & by extension, the OEMs. - will mfcrs have to insure every vehicle they create? •Diff. degrees of automation: manufacturer under any obligation to make sure drivers understand the automation levl of their vehicle? •In the 2016 Tesla incident, some argue that misleading marketing of the autopilot feature lead to the crash - should there be classes to instruct drivers on AVs weak points in sensors and algorithms? *Actuarial Rates* •An est. of the expected value of future loss. - usually, the future loss experience is predicted on the basis of historical loss experience & the consideration of the risk involved. •Accurate actuarial rates help protect insurance co.s against the risk of severe underwriting losses that could lead to insolvency. - how should these be determined for CAVs? - determined purely by the algorithms of the specific vehicles? the conditions they drive in? - will insurance only be offered to entire fleets of AVs?

What about bikeshare makes it an appealing option? What are the types of sharing systems?

*Why bikeshare?* • Enhance walkability • 1st-mile/last-mile connectivity to public transit • Enable car-free or car-lite living *Types of sharing system* • Community versus membership • Sponsor: public, private, public-private • docked vs dockless

What are the benefits of active transportation?

- Improves access to transit - More travel choices - Reduce greenhouse gas emissions - Reduce traffic congestion - Reduce transportation costs - Supports the local economy - Improves public health by providing opportunities for physical activity

What about petroleum's energy density and transferability make it such a compelling energy source?

- Petroleum is an energy dense & portable energy source. - Energy density is the amount of energy stored in a given volume or mass of a certain substance or material. - gas is in the sweet spot where it has high energy density, but it also lightweight enough to readily transport and store

What are the five "D's" of walkability? What about the last one is different from the first 4, and what 4 things does it include within it?

1) A diversity of activities; 2) high housing and commercial density; 3) Short distance to public transit; 4) Good destination accessibility; and 5) good urban design: includes the human-scaled features that make walking a positive experience: - imageability and legibility, - a sense of linkage among places - human-scale features that are visually complex but coherent. - a sense of enclosure: a great walking envt has a sense of enclosure like a corridor/room, but much grander

* "It gives me freedom to change my plans" * Under what 3 conditions can a rider say, "It is there, whenever & wherever I need it"? Under what 2 conditions can a rider say, "I can figure it out & remember how it works"?

1. "It is there, whenever & wherever I need it" • Adequate overage & connectivity • Frequency & span: high-freq., long-span service • Reliability: runs predictably 2. "I can figure it out & remember how it works" • Simplicity: the network is easy to remember • Presentation: it's easy to learn what I need to know

What are the 4 major factors that cause road trauma? Are they mutually exclusive?

1. *Behavioral factors*: human error, DUI, driving while tired, aggressive driving, speed 2. *Envl factors*: weather, fog, sun 3. *Design factors*: vehicle design, hwy design 4. *Urban form*: exposure to traffic - not mutually exclusive!

* "It takes me where I want to go" *: What 2 things determine whether public transit exists where you need it? What does one of these not guarantee however?

1. *Location of stops & stations* determines how close transit service comes to each place that anyone might want to come from or go to. 2. *Connectivity* is a measure of whether transit links your destination with your origin. - stops near your origin & destination don't guarantee connectivity: transit agency may serve both pt A & pt B but be unable to take you from A to B by a reasonably direct path.

What are 3 main methods of road congestion pricing?

1. Cordon or area-wide 2. City center toll ring 3. Corridor or facility - High occupancy vehicle (HOV) lanes - High occupancy toll (HOT) lanes - Toll booths (eg. EZPass) - Bridges

What are the 6 urban design elements for walkability?

1. Fine-grained connections: Streets and sidewalks 2. Tissue: Parcels with narrow frontages 3. Housing/population density 4. A diverse mix of services 5. Streetscapes with human-friendly properties: A sense of coherence, permeability, architectural diversity and transparency for movement 6. Green networks: Parks, greenways and leafy streets.

What are the 7 aspects of useful public transit accg. to Jarrett Walker? (in order of increasing priority)

1. It takes me *where* I want to go 2. It takes me *when* I want to go 3. It is a good use of my *time* 4. It is a good use of my *money* 5. It respects me in the level of *safety, comfort,* & *amenity* it provides 6. I can *trust* it 7. It gives me *freedom* to change my plans

What are the 4 principles of the Charter of New Urbanism?

1. Neighborhoods should be diverse in use & pop'n 2. Communities should be designed for pedestrians & transit as well as the car 3. Cities & towns should be shaped by physically defined & universally accessible public spaces & cmnty institutions 4. Urban places should be framed by architecture and landscape design that celebrate local history, climate science, ecology, & building practice

What are the 3 major vehicle movement factors that determine emissions output?

1. Speed 2. Driving style 3. Congestion

What are the 4 major source types of emitted air pollution? How are these further divided? (give examples). What do "point" and nonpoint" sources refer to, and what are they?

1. Stationary sources 2. Mobile sources 3. Fires 4. Biogenics (naturally occurring emissions) •NEI divides these 4 source types into 60 sectors - eg. stationary sources include agriculture, fuel combustion & industrial processes sectors, while mobile sources made up of both on-road & non-road vehicle sectors such as construction equipment •"Point" and "nonpoint" are also common terms when referring to stationary emission sources - Point sources refer to the larger emission sources at a fixed location, such as an industrial facility - Nonpoint sources may be abundant and smaller in magnitude, such as residential heating.

What are several factors that could explain the apparent peak mobility achieved in the total annual vehicle-distance traveled in the US? What is this current context indicative of?

1. Steadily increasing energy prices, particularly in the 1st half of 2008 when a 3rd oil shock was unfolding - yet, as oil prices substantially declined afterwards, there were no resumption of VMT growth; remained flat 2. 2009‐10 recession where lower levels of econ activity negatively impacted ridership 3. Aging of the population 4. Slow down in suburbanization 5. Lower consumption levels, particularly in automobile & related goods & services 6. New generation less inclined to use the automobile • Current context is indicative of limited add.l growth prospects in mobility, at least related to the automobile.

What are 5 strategies for transport infrastructure design accounting for climate change?

1. Take inventory of America's most vulnerable infrastructure 2. Throw out the past several decades worth of climate data that shaped current operations 3. Rethink standards for design elements 4. Work more closely w/weather forecasters & emergency planners 5. Avoid placing people & infrastructure in vulnerable locations

In 2017, what were the top 11 countries in proven resources? (just know top few, where US is in relation)

1. Venezuela - 300,878 billion barrels 2. Saudi Arabia - 266,455 3. Canada - 169,709 4. Iran - 158,400 5. Iraq - 142,503 6. Kuwait - 101,500 7. UAE - 97,800 8. Russia - 80,000 9. Libya - 48,000 10. Nigeria - 37,062 11. USA - 35,000

What 3 things does Donald Shoup argue should be done to fix current parking policy?

1. charge fair market prices for on-street parking 2. spend the revenue to benefit the metered neighborhoods 3. eliminate off-street minimum parking requirements

What 3 general relationships are seen b/t motor vehicle fatalities and driving amounts and other events? How did annual fatalities change b/t 1900 & 1925, then when and where did this number eventually peak? How has the trend in motor vehicle fatalities since 1900 been responsive to major events of the time? Specifically in, - early decades of the 20thC - 30s - war years of the 40s - 50s - 60s - 70s-early 80s - mid-80s

1. fatalities increase w/more exposure/driving 2. short-term declines w/major disruptions 3. longer-term decline w/safety improvements •In 1900 car fatalities claimed the lives of 36 indiv.ls in the US; by 1925 annual death toll had reached 20,771. •Annual figure was to remain above 20,000 for each successive year in the 20thC, peaking in 1972 at 55,600. •Trend in MV fatalities since 1900 responsive to major events of the time, w/fatalities going up when driving was highest & decreasing when driving decreased: - rapid increase in fatalities in early decades of 20thC, - chaos of the stock market crash & depression of 30s; - declines during WW2 yrs, gas was rationed & much of the auto & steel industries' prod.y went twd war effort; - econ recessions of 50s, followed by growth of 60s, then decr. in travel due to oil shocks of 70s & early 80s; - finally, mid‐80s decreases in fatalities as we began to see some safety improvements.

What are the 4 components of the traditional definition of public transit? What is the defining virtue of transit? What is its most basic measure of its efficiency?

1. regularly scheduled vehicle trips 2. open to all paying passengers 3. capacity to carry multiple passengers - the ability to carry many people with a single vehicle is the defining virtue of transit - this is also the most basic measure of its efficiency. 4.Passengers' trips may have different origins, destinations, and purposes

What are the 3 classic theories of urban form?

1.*Concentric theory* - based on cities that developed mostly when walking & other forms of non-motorized travel were dominant 2.*Sector theory* - based on cities that developed mostly when streetcar transit was dominant 3.*Multiple nuclei theory* - based on cities developed when automobiles were dominant

What are the 4 key factors that determine emissions levels due to congestion?

1.*Driving style*: where traffic is moving slowly but steadily the air quality impacts will be lower than where traffic moves w/more acc- & decelerations 2.*Pollutant dispersion*: depends on several factors including the street characteristics (eg. street width) & traffic speeds - faster speeds tend to generate more turbulence & cause greater dispersion 3.*Average speed*: congestion reduces avg journey speeds which can prolong travel time & increase pollutant exposure per vehicle 4.*Mode shift*: network‐wide air quality impacts of congestion may be neutral if the congestion was caused by reallocating road space to promote active travel &/or reduce car mode share

What are the 4 major components of congestion?

1.*Duration*: amount of time congestion affects the system 2.*Extent*: the # of ppl or vehicles affected, or the geographic distribution 3.*Intensity*: the severity of the congestion that affects travel 4.*Reliability*: the variation in 1-3

What are the costs of traffic congestion? Specifically in terms of: - travel time - travel time variance - fuel usage - emissions and environmental effects - accidents and safety - vehicle wear and tear - productivity - business inventory - cargo

1.*Increased travel time*: most prominent cost of traffic congestion is the delay associated w/lower travel speeds, start‐&‐stop traffic flow, & @worst gridlock - opportunity cost of time not spent @work or leisure. 2.*Greater travel time unreliability*: cost to commuters in having to leave early to acct. for anticipated congestion - unreliability due to the inherent uncertainty of travel times, insofar as congestion level isn't known prior to leaving & to "bullwhip effect" assoc.d w/traffic queues - also a psych.l effect associated w/uncertain trip times - cost associated w/uncertainty often found to outweigh the cost of overall increased travel time - uncertainty of travel times factors into schedule delays & alternative routing requirements. 3.*Excess fuel usage*: due to two effects: - 1) time spent idling in gridlock - 2) start‐&‐stop nature of travel in congestion 4.*Increased emissions and environmental damage*: more time spent on the road, the greater the vehicle emissions & other negative envl externalities 5.*Higher accident rates and safety cost*: crashes are more frequent, but less severe in congested conditions. 6.*More wear & tear on vehicles & higher mntnce costs*: start‐&‐stop travel entails more strain on vehicles, primarily braking & engine systems. 7.*Loss of productivity*: eg. cost to businesses from being induced by congestion to alter their choices of input suppliers 8.*Increased inventory costs*: larger stocks of inventory are required n order to accommodate for longer and unreliable travel times 9.*Higher frequency of cargo delays*

What are the features of unsafe streets, specifically in terms of: - street and lane width - existence of sidewalks - accessible crosswalks - protection measures - predictability measures - cycle facilities - intersection design - boarding areas - surface hazards

1.*Wide Streets & Lanes*: encourage speeding by design 2.*Lack of Sidewalks*: when sidewalk is blocked, narrow, or nonexistent, peds are forced into the roadbed - presents a particular threat when the street is designed for fast‐moving vehicles, & not designed to accommodate all users safely. 3.*Lack of Accessible Crossings*: Peds are @risk of being struck when accessible crossings aren't provided or are inaccessible - mid‐block pedestrian crashes are very common on large streets, where vehicle volumes and speeds are prioritized over sufficient opportunities for safe crossing 4.*Lack of Protection*: wide, multi‐lane streets w/o refuge spaces expose peds to moving vehicles for longer distances as they cross the street - particularly unsafe for elderly or slow-movers 5.*Lack of Predictability*: when signals & countdown clocks aren't provided, or when signal cycle lengths result in long wait time, peds are unable to safely judge the time they have & are more likely to cross unsafely. 6.*Lack of Cycle Facilities*: cyclists are @risk of rear‐end & overtaking crashes when mixing w/MVs @ moderately high speeds, especially on multi‐lane streets. 7.*Poor Intersection Design*: large intersections are often designed for dangerous, high speed turning - lack of visibility results in poor navigation & assessment of different users' movements. 8.*Unsafe Boarding Areas*: transit riders are @risk when boarding & alighting vehicles in traffic, especially if no safe facilities are provided - higher‐speed streets & poor intersection design near boarding areas increase chances for severe crashes & put vulnerable users at risk. 9.*Surface Hazards*: obstacles & surface degradation, inclg potholes, can present hazards to peds & cyclists.

Hoyt's sector model

A study of residential areas done by Hoyt (1939) in the North American context concluded that the land use pattern was not a random distribution, nor sharply defined rectangular areas or concentric circles, but rather sectors. Thus, the effect of direction and time was added to the effect of distance. Transport corridors, such as rail lines, public transit and major roads, are mainly responsible for the creation of sectors, thus transport has directional effect on land uses. Cities would grow along major axis. The sector representation also includes concentric transitional processes observed by Burgess, which is occurring along a specific direction.

How do CNG vehicles and engines functions much like gas-powered ones?

•CNG vehicles work much like gas-powered vehicles w/spark-ignited internal combustion engines; engine functions the same way as a gasoline engine: - fuel-air mixture compressed & ignited by spark plug. - natural gas stored in fuel tank, or cylinder, typically at the back of vehicle. - fuel system transfers high-pressure natural gas from the fuel tank to the engine. - pressure is then reduced to a level compatible w/the engine fuel injection system, thru which the fuel is introduced into the intake manifold or combustion chamber.

Burgess' concentric zone model & its 6 zones

Concentric urban land uses. The Burgess concentric model was among the first attempts to investigate spatial patterns at the urban level (1925). Although the purpose of the model was to analyze social classes, it recognized that transportation and mobility were important factors behind the spatial organization of urban areas. The formal land use representation of this model is derived from commuting distance from the central business district, creating concentric circles. Each circle represents a specific socioeconomic urban landscape. In 1925, Burgess presented a descriptive urban land use model, which divided cities in a set of concentric circles expanding from the downtown to the suburbs. This representation was built from Burgess' observations of a number of American cities, notably Chicago, for which he provided empirical evidence. The model assumes a relationship between the socio-economic status (mainly income) of households and the distance from the Central Business District (CBD). The further from the CBD, the better the quality of housing, but the longer the commuting time. Thus, accessing better housing is done at the expense of longer commuting times (and costs). According to this monocentric model (see above figure), a large city is divided in six concentric zones: Zone I: Central Business District (called the "loop" in Chicago) where most of the tertiary employment is located and where the urban transport infrastructure is converging, making this zone the most accessible. Zone II: Immediately adjacent to the CBD a zone where many industrial activities locate to take advantage of nearby labor and markets. Further, most transport terminals, namely port sites and railyards, are located adjacent to the central area. Zone III: This zone is gradually been reconverted to other uses by expanding manufacturing / industrial activities. It contains the poorest segment of the urban population, notably first generation immigrants living, in the lowest housing conditions. Zone IV: Residential zone dominated by the working class and those who were able to move away from the previous zone (often second generation immigrants). This zone has the advantage of being located near the major zones of employment (I and II) and thus represents a low cost location for the working class. Zone V: Represents higher quality housing linked with longer commuting costs. Zone VI: Mainly high class and expensive housing in a rural, suburbanized, setting. The commuting costs are the highest. Prior to mass diffusion of the automobile (1930s), most of these settlements were located next to rail stations.

Harris & Hullman's multiple nuclei theory model

Following Hoyt's development of a sectorial city, Harris and Ullman (1945) introduced a more effective generalization of urban land uses. It was brought forward that many towns and nearly all large cities do not grow around one CBD, but are formed by the progressive integration of a number of separate nuclei in the urban spatial structure. These nodes become specialized and differentiated in the growth process and are not located in relation to any distance attribute, but are bound by a number of factors: • Differential accessibility. Some activities require specialized facilities such as port and rail terminals. For instance, the retailing sector demands maximum accessibility, which is often different from centrality offered in the CBD. • Land use compatibility. Similar activities group together since proximity implies improved interactions through economies of agglomeration. Service activities such as banks, insurance companies, stores and institutions are strongly interacting with each other. This can be defined as centripetal forces between activities. • Land use incompatibility. Some activities are repelling each-other such as high quality residential and heavy industrial areas. This may be defined as centrifugal forces and one of the main reasons why poorer neighborhoods tend to be located on the eastern side, at least in industrial cities. Since in the northern hemisphere, prevailing winds tend to be westerlies, so eastern sections of an industrial city tended to have a higher level of exposure to industrial air pollution. • Location suitability. Some activities cannot afford the rent of the optimal site for their location. They are thus locating at cheaper places, which are not optimal, but suitable for these activities. Harris and Ullman poly-nuclear model was the first to represent the fragmentation of urban areas, specialized functions as well as suburbanization.

What are the 2 main dimensions along which oil types differ? What are the 3 types of oil sources? Describe each

Oil types • Light versus heavy ‐ viscosity • Sweet versus sour - sulfur content Oil sources • *Conventional*: Oil that comes in liquid form that is transportable and possible to refine • *Transitional*: Oils w/conventional compositions that are extracted by unconventional means • *Unconventional*: Oils obtained by unconventional production techniques because they can't be recovered thru pumping in their natural state from an ordinary production well without being heated or diluted

4 examples of TDM programs (See article: What is transportation demand management, actually? - MobilityLab; https://mobilitylab.org/2018/07/27/what-is-transportation-demand-management-actually/)

See article: What is transportation demand management, actually? - MobilityLab; https://mobilitylab.org/2018/07/27/what-is-transportation-demand-management-actually/

What is Travel Demand Management?

TDM: •The "flip side" of infrastructure •Understand how people make mobility decisions •Help people use infrastructure in place for ridesharing, walking, biking, and telework •Guide design towards better balanced systems where alternatives to driving are naturally encouraged •Pursues actions, policies, and plans that: - reduce travel demand, esp. from single occupancy vehicles - redistribute travel demand in space & time

What are the 6 steps of the rational planning model process? What is it used in? What is it central to?

The rational planning model is the process of 1. realizing a problem, 2. establishing & evaluating planning criteria, 3. creating alternatives, 4. implementing alternatives, and 5. monitoring progress of the alternatives. 6. repeat when necessary • It is used in designing neighborhoods, cities, & regions. • The rational planning model is central in the dev't of modern urban planning and transportation planning.

Traffic flow theory: • What do the macro-, meso-, and microscopic scales all consider, and how are each modeled? • Where does congestion occur relative to demand & capacity?

• Macroscopic - aggregate flows, based on fluid dynamics, & modeled using mathematics. • Mesoscopic - collectives such as "platoons" of vehicles that form naturally & tend to dictate traffic flow. - modeled using a combo of math & simulation. • Microscopic ‐ individual vehicles, modeled using simulation •Congestion occurs where demand exceeds capacity & bottlenecks form - demand increases to a level greater than capacity - capacity decreases to a level less than demand

Seven features of the transport system that can contribute to the exclusion of certain population groups: - physical exclusion - geographical exclusion - exclusion from facilities - economic exclusion - temporal exclusion - fear-based exclusion - space exclusion

i)*physical exclusion*: physical barriers, such as vehicle design, lack of disabled facilities or lack of timetable info, inhibit the accessibility of transport services; ii)*geographical exclusion*: where a person lives prevents them from accessing transport services, such as in rural areas or on peripheral urban estates; iii)*exclusion from facilities*: the distance of key facilities such as shops, schools, health care or leisure services from where a person lives prevents their access; iv)*economic exclusion*: the high monetary costs of travel can prevent or limit access to facilities or employment and thus impact on incomes; v)*time‐based exclusion*: other demands on time, such as combined work, household and child‐care duties, reduces the time available for travel (aka timepoverty); vi)*fear‐based exclusion*: where fears for personal safety preclude the use of public spaces and/or transport services; vii)*space exclusion*: where security or space mgmt prevent certain groups access to public spaces, e.g. gated communities or 1st class waiting rooms at stations.

Smart Columbus Operating System (SCOS): - what is it? - what is it designed to serve? - what will it help us measure? - what will it share data for? - what data will it serve?

• An integrated data exchange for mobility apps & performance monitoring • Designed to serve as the technological backbone of all current & future smart city projects. • Help us measure the performance & progress of the USDOT grant initiatives. • Share data that will inspire entrepreneurs & developers to create Columbus' mobility services of the future • Serve the data that will fuel technology deployments within the USDOT grant scope

Best Practices: What attributes should public bike systems have to maximize effectiveness and benefits? - maximize convenience for what kinds of trips, and how? - integrate with which programs, which riders? - structure fees to do what? - how should be integrated w/public transit? - what does an effective system need to do? - aesthetic-wise?

• Designed to maximize convenience for short utilitarian trips, w/easy-to-use docking systems widely distributed around the city. • Integrated w/overall cycling improvement & encouragement programs, suitable for new & inexperienced cyclists riding for utilitarian trips • Fees structured to encourage use for short trips (free or very inexpensive for the first 20 minutes). • Stations and bikes are well maintained. • Integrated w/public transit: locate at public transit stations • An effective system is needed to redistribute bikes from areas that accumulate excess bikes to those that have too few bikes. • Stations and bikes are attractive and well designed to fit into the urban landscape.

The four pillars of sustainable urban transportation

• Governance: Establish an Effective Body for Integrated Land-use Transportation Planning. The city is an enormously complex system for which changes in one part can affect others in unanticipated ways. It is only through a comprehensive, integrated approach to transportation and land-use planning that one can hope to understand the complex interactions within cities and to address with any confidence the range of policies and their likely outcomes. Unfortunately, land-use and transportation often are not dealt with in a sufficiently coordinated way by municipal (and higher level) governments and agencies. • Financing: Create a Fair, Efficient and Stable Funding Mechanism. Development of efficient, long-term financing for transportation systems is essential for the well being of cities, either for investment in new infrastructure or for the long-term operation and maintenance of existing systems. The financing of transportation infrastructure in many cities has been challenged in recent decades by the shrinking role of central governments. Having re-evaluated the governance of transportation and land use, cities may benefit from examining alternative funding mechanisms for sustainable, long-term financing of transportation. • Infrastructure: Make Strategic Investments in Major Infrastructure. With suitable governance and funding mechanisms in place, cities would be well positioned to invest in infrastructure that supports sustainable transportation. • Neighborhoods: Support Investments through Local Design. Until a new generation of sustainable personal transportation vehicles has been developed, investment in public transit systems may be the most viable means of making urban transportation more sustainable. But major investment in public transit infrastructure will not suffice, or even work at all, if macro land use and micro neighborhood designs are not supportive of, or compatible with, these investments. People have to be able to get to and from major transit 'line-haul' facilities; houses, jobs and other activities must be located in a connected, convenient, attractive way with these facilities. Details are important, and the details start with the design of streets and neighborhoods.

What are the Smart Columbus goals?

• Improve people's quality of life • Drive growth in the economy • Provide better access to jobs & ladders of opportunity • Become a world-class logistics leader • Foster sustainability

Market equilibrium with negative externality (See 3.1 pg.18): - what does the private cost curve reflect? - what does the social cost curve include? What is the "actual equilibrium" point? - what kind of outcome is this? - what can the gov.t do to bring this to "ideal equilibrium"? what is the trick to doing this?

• This is an example of the market outcomes in a situation where there are external costs that are not reflected in the price of a good. •Private cost curve reflects the cost of the good to the consumer: the cost of driving that only reflects the internal costs to the driver •Social cost curve includes both the internal costs plus the external costs to society •"Actual equilibrium" is the market price & quantity consumed when only internal costs are considered - this is an undesirable outcome: the quantity consumed is too high. - govt can impose a tax or add.l price on the good/ service to shift the private cost curve closer to the social cost curve so the market price & quantity demanded reflects the total ("social") cost - trick is to price the external costs that are the gap between the two curves.

What health effects can breathing ground-level ozone result in? What are some respiratory symptoms? What does the evidence of observational studies suggest about the associations w/higher daily ozone concentrations? How does it affect those w/asthma particularly?

•# of health effects that are observed in broad segments of the population, including: - induction of respiratory symptoms - decrements in lung function - inflammation of airways •Respiratory symptoms can include: - coughing - throat irritation - pain, burning, or discomfort in the chest when taking a deep breath - chest tightness, wheezing, or shortness of breath •Higher daily ozone concentrations are assoc.d w/increased asthma attacks, hospital admissions, daily mortality, & other markers of morbidity - can make asthma symptoms worse & increase sensitivity to asthma triggers

What is Vertical Equity in terms of Income and Social Class concerned with? Accg to it, under what conditions are transport policies equitable? When are policies progressive, and when are they regressive? What do they support?

•(aka social justice, envl justice & social inclusion), concerned w/distribution of impacts b/t indiv.ls & groups that differ (in that case) by income or social class - TF, transport policies are equitable if they favor economically & socially disadvantaged groups in order to compensate for overall inequities - policies are called progressive if they favor disadvantaged groups & regressive if they harm such groups - supports affordable mode improvements, special services & discounts for lower income groups, & efforts to insure that disadvantaged groups don't bear excessive external costs (pollution, accident risk, financial costs, etc.).

What are the 3 goals of pricing and taxation? What does pricing attempt to do? What does taxation use, and for what purpose? How do pricing programs differ in purpose from taxation? Since all transportation is subsidized to some degree, what then is the question regarding transportation mode subsidization?

•*3 goals of pricing and taxation:* 1.Create revenue for transport.n infrastructure & services 2.Encourage people to use transportation more appropriately, in ways reflective of their true costs 3.Educate people about their true transportation costs as compared w/costs for alternative travel choices •Pricing attempts to bring the market price of transportation more in-line with its true cost •Taxation uses payments extracted from legislative authorities to bring the price of transportation more in-line with its cost •Pricing programs differ from taxation in that they can be justified as not just another way to increase govt funds, but rather to reduce transportation subsidies and shift the costs to those who are responsible for them. - note that all transportation is subsidized to some degree: public, private, air, freight •The question is not whether we should subsidize but rather what transportation behavior is best for society?

What are 2 conflicting goals of public transit? Describe the conflicting considerations, targeted riders, and definitions of public transit accg. to each

•*Coverage*: serve all parts of our community - provide service regardless of how many people use it - *captive riders*: serve those who depend on public transit - public transit is a social service •*Ridership*: maximize ridership w/a fixed service budget - farebox recovery - *choice riders*: compete with the automobile - public transit is a business

What 5 things make health outcomes unclear from design interventions?

•*Endogeneity*: e.g., people self‐select for walkable neighborhoods •*Context‐dependence*: e.g., walkability near home versus work •*Social factors*: SES, age, gender roles •*Compensation effects*: e.g., standing at work leads sitting at home •*Unhealthy environments*: e.g., air quality in urban canyons, heat stress, sick buildings

How do SO2 and nitrogen oxides form acid rain? What are the major sources of them in the atmosphere? Why are their effects not confined to those who live close to these sources?

•Acid rain results when SO2 & NOx are emitted into the atmosphere & transported by wind & air currents - they react w/water, oxygen & other chemicals to form sulfuric & nitric acids - these then mix w/water & other materials before falling to the ground •While a small portion of the SO2 and NOX that cause acid rain is from natural sources such as volcanoes, most of it comes from the burning of fossil fuels; major sources: - burning of fossil fuels to generate electricity: 2/3 of SO2 & 1/4 of NOX in the atmosphere come from electric power generators - vehicles & heavy equipment - manufacturing, oil refineries & other industries. •Winds can blow SO2 & NOX over long distances & across borders -- problem for everyone

What are fixed activities? How are they tied to time and place? What are flexible activities? How are they tied to time & place? What is a time budget? How must fixed vs flexible activities be budgeted? What concepts form from the spatio-temporal travel & activity patterns that emerge from one's time budget?

•*Fixed activities* are events that are relatively difficult to relocate or reschedule - ppl are often required to work at a specific location for a designated duration. - a person's home is usually fixed in place (at least over the short run) & maintenance or familial obligations require presence for regular intervals - eg. childcare is only available for certain hours of the day •*Flexible activities* are relatively easy to reschedule & relocate. - a person can shop @a grocery store at otherwise idle times between work and home hours; also have some choice over where this occurs - limits on flexible activities as well (e.g., retail outlets have limited hrs & few locations, one can't socialize if friends are not avail), but the activity is flexible if there are some degree of freedom to the indiv(s) involved. •*Individual's time budget*: only a finite amount of time available to a person to allocate among activities over any time horizon (daily, weekly, monthly, annually) - fixed activities dominate a person's time budget; - flexible activities must occur in the residual time intervals between fixed activities. - the spatio-temporal travel & activity patterns that emerge from the allocation of time among anchors leads to the concept of an activity space or the limited portion of the envt used by an indiv for their activities & travel.

What is the fixed demand assumption? What is the induced demand assumption?

•*Fixed demand assumption*: increasing the supply of roads doesn't influence the demand for driving - building new roads increases supply, lowering the cost of driving (where cost = congestion). - travel demand may grow endogenously, leading to more congestion, but this is natural, background growth un-influenced by the supply of roads. •*Induced demand assumption*: travel demand is responsive to cost - in short run, there is some decrease in congestion from shifting supply curve out, altho less so than expected under fixed demand assumption - but, since the cost of driving is reduced, drivers both make longer & more frequent trips in the short term - in LT, reduced congestion encourages construction of less dense housing dev.ts far from the city center - w/new roadway commuters can live farther from their places of work and leisure at the same cost - over time, these dev.ts shift the demand curve out, reducing the gains against congestion and further increasing the number of vehicle miles traveled.

What does Grid-to-vehicle charging refer to? What is battery charging mostly achieved through? - how has this since shifted, and why?

•*Grid to vehicle charging (G2V)* refers to the process of battery charging of PEHVs & EVs from the electricity grid infrastructure. •Battery charging is mostly achieved through the use of conventional household outlets. - however, high charging times & the need for vehicle charging in outside locations for more frequent & quicker charging has resulted in the advent of publicly available charging stations

Describe the 6 levels of automation. For each: - how much control does the automation system have? - what responsibility does the human driver have?

•*Level 0*: The human driver does all the driving. •*Level 1*: an advanced driver assistance system (ADAS) on the vehicle can assist the human driver with either steering or braking/accelerating. •*Level 2*: an ADAS on the vehicle can control both steering & braking/accelerating under some circumstances. - the human driver must continue to pay full attention ("monitor the driving environment") at all times and perform the rest of the driving task. •*Level 3*: an automated driving system (ADS) on the vehicle can perform all aspects of the driving task under some circumstances. - the human driver must be ready to take back control at any time the ADS requests the human driver to do so. - in all other circumstances, the human driver performs the driving task. •*Level 4*: an ADS on the vehicle can itself perform all driving tasks and monitor the driving environment - essentially, do all the driving - in certain circumstances. - human needn't pay attention in those circumstances •*Level 5*: an ADS on the vehicle can do all the driving in all circumstances; the human occupants are just passengers and need never be involved in driving.

What are - marginal costs - fixed costs - sunk costs ?

•*Marginal costs*: incremental costs resulting from an incremental change in consumption •*Fixed costs*: not affected by consumption •*Sunk costs*: fixed costs incurred in the past which cannot be recovered

What are market versus non-market costs? In this context, what are monetary costs called? (as opposed to externalities)

•*Market costs*: involve goods that are traded in a competitive market, such as vehicles, land, and fuel •*Nonmarket costs*: involve goods that aren'tt regularly traded in markets such as clean air, crash risk, and quiet •Monetary costs are called *expenditures*

What is a natural resource, renewable resource, and non-renewable resource? What does renewability depend on?

•*Natural Resource* - anything occurring in nature that is used by people •*Renewable Resource* - a resource that is quickly replaced or recycled by natural processes in a time frame that makes it useful for human consumption or use (eg. cotton, wood, solar energy, water) - renewability depends on "useful time frame," typically a human lifespan •*Non‐renewable Resource* - a resource that is replaced slowly by natural earth processes in such a way that once used by people, it won't be available again w/in a useful time frame. (eg. oil, coal, rocks, minerals)

What is a space-time prism? • What does it delimit? • What 2 things anchor them? • For what 3 other cases can a space-time prism be constructed for? What does the interior of the prism show? • Under what conditions of a person's space-time path & space-time prism can they participate in an activity? • What spatial locations does the prism provide?

•*Space-time prism*: a fundamental time geographic concept device for measuring accessibility - delimits the possible locations for the space-time path - fixed activities & coupling constraints anchor a space-time prism since by definition these allow only one spatial possibility during their duration. - can also construct space-time prisms for cases where the 2 fixed activities are at the same location, one of the fixed activity locations is unspecified, and/or the min required flexible activity time is unspecified. •Interior of the prism is the potential path space: shows the points in space & time that the person could occupy during this travel episode. - person can't participate in an activity unless its space-time path (reflecting its location & avail times) intersects the potential path space to a sufficient degree - projection of the potential path space to geo-space provides the potential path area: all spatial locations that the person could occupy.

Several utility factors favor the usage of petroleum as the main source of energy in general, and for transport activities in particular: •*Occurrence*: what is it, what does it depend on, and how does oil do on it? •*Transferability*: what is it, how does oil do on it and why? •*Energy content*: why is high content needed, and how does oil do? •*Reliability*: what has made oil relatively reliable? •*Storability*: how storable is it worldwide? •*Flexibility*: what is it, and how does oil do? •*Safety*: how safe is oil? •*Cleanliness: how clean is oil, relative to what? •*Price*: what is price a function of, and what has made oil cheaper than many other sources?

•*Occurrence:* the location of energy sources considering the demand - many energy sources only available when a transport system can support transfers b/t supply & demand - exploitation of oil fields in several regions of the World made possible when an efficient transport system based upon pipelines & tankers was est.d •*Transferability:* dist over which an energy source can be transported dependent on its physical form (s/l/g), its energy content, & the available transport tech - most petroleum products are liquid, more or less viscous, & thus offer an efficient form to be transferred. - econ.s of scale in transport, notably maritime, enhance transferability •*Energy content:* low energy content is inadequate when demand is high and concentrated in space - gas & other petroleum products have a high energy content compared to other fossil fuels like coal, but even more when compared to renewables •*Reliability:* emergence of many sources & continuous supply thru maritime & land routes has given a relative reliability for petroleum products •*Storability:* liquid petroleum products are easily stored & several countries have built strategic reserves. •*Flexibility:* capacity to answer multiple usages - petroleum by‐products are the basis of whole industrial sectors (petrochemical) that synthesize goods like plastics, fertilizers, pharmaceutical products & synthetic rubber. •*Safety:* petrochemical industry presents some risks (accidents in extraction, mfg, & transport processes), nevertheless oil considered a safe source of energy for its production & usage. •*Cleanliness:* relative to other conventional energy sources (coal, wood) available technology, oil is cleaner to use and produces a limited amount of waste. •*Price:* low cost, often a function of the occurrence, transferability, & energy content of the source. - w/massive investments on large scale extraction, refining & transport of petroleum products, a constant supply & intensive competition from several oil producing countries, petroleum products prices are cheaper than many other sources.

Summarize the 4 main Distance-Based Pricing Options: 1. Odometer audits 2. VUDAR 3. On Board Data Collection 4. GPS

•*Odometer audits*: odometer readings collected by certified odometer auditors, usually during scheduled maintenance - low equipment costs, operating costs, user inconvenience, and price adjustability •*VUDAR*: vehicle operating hours are recorded by a small instrument installed in each vehicle; data are transmitted annually at a special station - medium equipment costs and price adjustability, low operating costs and user inconvenience •*On Board Data Collection*: electronic system in each vehicle tracks mileage; data are transmitted monthly to a central computer, either automatically or by users - high equipment costs, medium operating costs and user inconvenience, low-med price adjustability •*GPS*: GPS system used to track the location of each vehicle; data are automatically transmitted monthly - high equipment costs and price adjustability, medium operating costs, and low user inconvenience

What are oil sands, and what makes them particularly polluting? What is Bitumen -- what kind of mixture and transferability complexities? What is oil shale, what is extracted from it to produce oil and gas, and how is it like oil sands in terms of it pollutive potential?

•*Oil sands*: combo of quartz sand, clay, water, trace minerals, & a small (10-18%) share of bitumen - S content can be in excess of 7% •*Bitumen*: made up of organic components ranging from CH4 to large polymeric molecules - extremely complex hydrocarbon mixture can be synthetically processed into oil - can't be transported to market by pipeline w/o adding diluting agents to meet pipeline density & viscosity limitations •*Oil shale*: "immature oil" that has not been in the ground long enough to form oil - mostly composed of clay, silt, and salts, w/a small (12%) share of insoluble organic matter (kerogen) & even smaller (3%) share of soluble bitumen - organic kerogen, once extracted & separated from the oil shale, can be processed into oil & gas - oil shale has similarly high S content—up to 7%

What are the 3 main purposes/effects of taxation in general?

•*Revenue*: raise money to spend on armies, roads, schools & hospitals, & on more indirect govt fxns like market regulation or legal systems. •*Redistribution* normally means transferring wealth from the richer cohorts of society to poorer cohorts. - in case of transportation, could also mean redistbtn from those creating neg. externalities to those harmed •*Repricing*: taxes are levied to address externalities - eg., tobacco is taxed to discourage smoking, carbon tax discourages use of carbon-based fuels.

What do soft policies rely on? - what techniques do they involve? - how do they differ from hard policies? What do hard policies include? - what do they improve? - how do they improve that? - examples

•*Soft policies* rely on voluntary behavior r/t coercion - involve techniques such as info dissemination, persuasion, & social pressure to encourage travelers to switch to alternative transportation modes - often less expensive & controversial than hard policies - eg. workplace & school mobility plans, awareness campaigns, priority lanes for more sustainable modes, support for carpooling •*Hard policies* include: - improving alt. transptn infrastruct. & services (eg.more frequent bus service or add.l bicycling infrastructure), - incr.g the cost of car-use thru taxes, tolls, fees & other forms of pricing & rationing car-use (e.g. alternative day driving restrictions based on license plate #). - eg. increasing parking prices, tolling roads, & congestion charging

Describe the soft policy level of TDM: - what is TDM a program of? - how does it aim to help ppl? - what counterbalance does it seek to create? Describe the hard policy level of TDM: - what should TDM guide, and why? - what important new initiatives does TDM underlie?

•*Soft policy level*: TDM is a program of info, encouragement, & incentives provided by local or regional org.s to help ppl know about & use all their transprtn options to optimize all modes in the system - counterbalance the incentives to drive that are so prevalent in subsidies of parking & roads - both traditional & innovative tech-based services to help ppl use transit, ridesharing, walking, biking, & telework. •*Hard policy level*: TDM is a principle that should guide everything we do in designing our transprtn & physical infrastructure so that alternatives to driving are naturally encouragd & our systems are better balanced - TDM thus underlies most of the important new initiatives of today: transit-oriented dev't, complete streets, walkable activity centers, livability & sustainability initiatives, and integrated corridor management, to name a few examples.

What questions arise regarding CAV morality?

•CAVs will be placed in situations where they need to react in ways that will cause damage, injury and death •What happens when a CAV is faced with a difficult "choice"? •Some type of rules will need to be built into the algorithms that steer CAVs •What is the legality of that choice? Possible future court cases over these algorithms.

Why is the US lagging so much behind other nations in terms of traffic safety? Specifically, - what safety measure do other nations enforce more strictly? - how does the US compare to other nations and WHO recommendations in terms of drunk driving laws? - how does the US perform on UN est.d vehicle safety standards? - how is the US comparing in terms of speed? Specifically, how is it doing in meeting WHO recommendations for speed limits, and how does limit enforcement compare to other nations? How have US safety officials responded, and nevertheless what counteractive trend has taken place in recent years?

•*Stricter laws on safety belt use*; US law doesn't require seat belts in back seat, unlike vast majority of world. •*Extensive crackdowns on alcohol & drug‐impaired driving*; US drunk driving laws too lenient compared to peer nations & compared to WHO recommendations. - many studies have shown that driving is impaired at lower BAC levels than 0.08 - WHO recommends enforcing DD laws @0.05 BAC, like most of West. Europe, plus CAN, AUS, BRA & China. •*Vehicle safety standards*; US falling short of standards established by United Nations. •*Speed*; U.S. fails to control driver speed as well as other nations - for speed control laws to work even moderately well, WHO says urban street speeds must be strictly limited to ~31 mph - in U.S., localities often can't adjust their speed limits w/o state‐level permission, another red flag for WHO - worse, many localities don't even start ticketing until drivers exceed the posted speed limit by >10 mph - CAN, West. Europe, AUS, even China & MX have stricter controls on speeding than we do - some safety officials in the U.S. like the NTSB have warned that lack of progress on speeding is a major factor in the U.S.'s deteriorating traffic safety record - in recent years, we've actually gone backward w/30 states raising speed limits on hwys to 70 mph since 95, often w/deadly results.

What does tank-to-wheel efficiency refer to? What does well-to-wheel efficiency include? What is T2W efficiency used to provide? What is W2W efficiency needed to provide?

•*Tank-to-wheel (T2W) efficiency* refers to the operating efficiency of the car itself & provides the car's actual fuel economy. •Well-to-wheel efficiency is a more comprehensive efficiency indicator since it includes, apart from the T2W efficiency, the efficiency of the fuel/electricity production infrastructure from the oil-well to the tank •Generally, T2W efficiency is used to provide a fuel econ comparison for vehicles of the same category type; - also used for the same purpose to compare vehicles across diff.t vehicle category types, (ie., for CGVs, FEVs, or PHEVs) •W2W efficiency is however necessary to provide a meaningful comparison of vehicle tailpipe emissions across these different types of vehicle categories.

What are traditional congestion measures? Specifically, - Travel rate - Delay rate - Corridor mobility index - Relative delay rate - Delay ratio - Congested travel - Congested roadway

•*Travel rate*: minutes per mile •*Delay rate*: actual travel rate minus acceptable travel rate •*Total segment delay* (vehicle-minutes): delay rate times the vehicle volume on the segment •*Corridor mobility index*: (pssgr volume times the average speed) divided by a normalizing factor (25k for streets, 125k for freeways) •*Relative delay rate*: delay rate divided by the acceptable travel rate •*Delay ratio*: delay rate divided by actual travel rate •Congested travel (vehicle-miles): sum of all congested segment lengths (in miles) times the traffic volume (# of vehicles) •Congested roadway (miles): the sum of all congested segments

What are the 2 types of biking? How mutually exclusive are they? What important distinction is there between them?

•*Utilitarian cycling* - cycling primarily as a means of transport - most common type in the world •*Recreational cycling* - cycling primarily as a form of recreation •Note: a person can be both; depends on trip - a trip can serve both purposes - *but, these types of cycling have diff. needs*

CAVs: Describe the types of vehicle connectivity. For each: - what does the tech do? - what is the goal/intention of them?

•*V2I "Vehicle to Infrastructure"*: the tech captures data generated by the vehicle & provides info about the infrastructure to the driver. - the tech communicates info about safety, mobility or envt-related conditions. •*V2V "Vehicle to Vehicle"*: the tech communicates info about speed & position of surrounding vehicles thru a wireless exchange of information. - the goal is to avoid accidents, ease traffic congestions, & have a positive impact on the envt. •*V2C "Vehicle to Cloud"*: tech exchanges info about & for applications of the vehicle w/a cloud system. - allows the vehicle to use info from other connected industries like energy, transportation and smart homes and make use of IoT. •*V2P "Vehicle to Pedestrian"*: tech senses info about its envt & communicates it to other vehicles, infrastructure & personal mobile devices. - enables the vehicle to communicate w/pedestrians & is intended to improve safety and mobility on the road. •*V2X "Vehicle to Everything"*: tech interconnects all types of vehicles & infrastructure systems w/another - connectivity includes cars, hwys, ships, trains, & airplanes

What do two-stage turn queue boxes offer bicyclists? - where may they also be used, and for what? - what may they be used for at midblock crossing locations? What does cycle track design often prevent bicyclists from doing? - what does this make the provision for 2-stage turns? - where else do the principles for 2-stage turns apply to? What drawback may two-stage turns result in? - why is that? - where else may this configuration have this drawback, and why?

•2-stage turn queue boxes offer bicyclists a safe way make left turns at multi-lane signalized intersxns from a right side cycle track or bike lane, or right turns from a left side cycle track or bike lane. - may also be used at unsignalized intersxns to simplify turns from a BL or cycle track, as for ex., onto a bicycle boulevard. - at midblock crossing locations, a two-stage turn queue box may be used to orient bicyclists properly for safe crossings. - multiple positions are available for queuing boxes, depending on intersection configuration. •Cycle track design often prevents bicyclists from merging into traffic to turn. - this makes the provision of 2-stage turns critical for basic transportation function. - same principles for 2-stage turns apply to bike lanes as well. •While two stage turns may increase bicyclist comfort in many locations, this configuration typically results in increased delay for bicyclists. - bicyclists now need to receive 2 separate green signal indications (one for the thru st, followed by one for the cross st) to turn. - at unsignalized intersxns this configuration may also increase delay for bicyclists due to the need to wait for appropriate gaps in crossing motor vehicle traffic.

What is lead? What historically has it been used for/in? How is it a persistent chemical? What are the major sources of it at the national level, what are some other sources, and where are the highest air concentrations of it? How have its air levels changed since 1980, and why?

•A heavy metal - older consumer products (such as paint) & water distribution systems - used for many years as an additive to motor vehicle fuel (tetraethyl lead) - particles of Pb & Pb compounds deposited along roadways binding chiefly to the organic materials in soils •A persistent chemical: accumulates in soils, aquatic systems & sediments, & in some plants, animals, & other organisms •Sources of Pb emissions vary from one area to another - national level, major sources in the air are ore & metals processing & piston‐engine aircraft operating on leaded aviation fuel - other sources are waste incinerators, utilities, & lead‐acid battery manufacturers - highest air concentrations of Pb are usually found near Pb smelters •As a result of EPA's regulatory efforts including the removal of Pb from motor vehicle gasoline, levels in the air decreased by 98% b/t 1980 and 2014

What is LiDAR? - what does it generate, and how? - how is it similar, yet distinct, from Radar and Sonar? - what does a LiDAR system calculate? Using what? - how many pulses are fired per second? what are each of these returns then processed into (what's this called?)? - what does a LiDAR instrument consist of? - when equipped to a vehicle, what can it simultaneously locate and assess? how does this aid the on-board computer system?

•A remote sensing method that uses light in the form of a pulsed laser to measure ranges (variable distances) to objects. - these light pulses—combined w/other data recorded by the system— generate precise, 3D info about a setting or environment. •Works in a similar way to Radar & Sonar yet uses light waves from a laser, instead of radio or sound waves. •A LiDAR system calculates how long it takes for the light to hit an object or surface & reflect back to the scanner. - the distance is then calculated using the velocity of light; these are known as 'Time of Flight' measurements. •LiDAR systems can fire ~1,000,000 pulses per second. - ea. of these measurements, or returns, can then be processed into a 3D visualization of the surrounding scene known as a 'point cloud'. •A LIDAR instrument principally consists of a laser, a scanner, & a specialized GPS receiver. •LiDAR can simultaneously locate the position of people & objects around the vehicle & assess the speed & route @which they are moving. - using that info, an on-board computer system can determine the safest way for a self-driving vehicle to drive to its destination. centimeter resolution

What are bicycle networks? What are the design principles for bicycle networks? - what do they provide bicyclists with? - what coherency should there be? - what should they be separated from? what special considerations should be given? - what should be considered? - what should they establish? - what should they provide? - how can safety be enhanced?

•A well-connected bike ntwk should consist of inter-connected bike lanes, cycle tracks, traffic-calmed st.s w/priority for bikes, & special cnsdrtns at jxns & intrsxns, which are designed to prioritize cyclists' needs. *Design principles for bicycle networks* •provide bicyclists the most direct possible routes and a continuous right-of-way. •should be coherent & not interrupted by intersxns or building sites. •separate from high-speed motorized traffic. - special considerations & clear visibility to bicycles should be given at inter-sections and junctions. •consider bikeway typology/hierarchy, from off-street trails to shared streets to protected BLs on streets. •establish wayfinding tools, signalization, & integration with other transport modes. •provide ample bike parking. •safety of bicycle networks can also be enhanced by signalizing.

How many natural gas stations in the US? Provide a reference for this Who owns these stations?

•Accg to U.S. DOE, only 824 privately operated CNG stations in U.S. & 74 private LNG stations in the country. - by contrast, you can get liquid propane at 2,883 places or charge your EV at 9,572 charging stations or 24,450 charging outlets •Many CNG & LNG stations are owned & operated by private fleet owners-- CNG sales continue to carve out a niche w/private fleets with their own infrastructure

What is Braess' Paradox? What can removing capacity then counterintuitively do? Does this happen under User or System Optimal patterns?

•Adding capacity to a congested network can reduce overall performance/increase travel costs if travelers attempt to minimize their individual travel times and ignore the effects of their decisions on others. - removing capacity can decrease travel costs • Happens under UO • Does not happen under SO

What are Contra-flow bicycle lanes? What conversion do they create? How are they separated? What unintended consequence could they provoke however?

•BLs designed to allow bicyclists to ride in the opposite direction of motor vehicle traffic. - convert a 1-way traffic street into a 2-way street: one direction for motor vehicles & bikes, & the other for bikes only. •Separated w/yellow center lane striping. •Introduces new design challenges & may introduce add.l conflict points as motorists may not expect on-coming bicyclists.

What are bicycle boulevards? What do they use and for what purpose?

•Bicycle boulevards are streets with low motorized traffic volumes and speeds, designated and designed to give bicycle travel priority. •Use signs, pavement markings, & speed & volume mgmt measures to discrge thru trips by motr.vehicles & create safe, convenient bike crossings of busy arterial streets.

What does biodiesel refer to? What's it derived from? How does transesterification work/produce biodiesel? What policy do many countries follow wrt biodiesel? What have studies of biodiesel shown, and how have auto manufacturers responded accordingly?

•Biodiesel refers to diesel equivalent, processed fuel derived from bio. sources such as VOs & animal fats. - burns like normal diesel, fine in any diesel engine. •VOs can be modified into various, more useful forms that are suitable for diesel engine application, including: - microemulsion - pyrolysis - transesterification (most commercially successful) •Transesterification: chemical process of transforming large, branched triglyceride molecules of VOs & fats into smaller, straight chain molecules, almost similar in size to molecules of the species present in diesel fuel. •Many countries started biodiesel production industries & blend it w/diesel commercially as per national policy - EU has become world leader of biodiesel production •Engine performance, emission, endurance, & metal components wear analysis, fleet studies, & engine oil effects conducted by various automotive mnfctrs & oil co.s. yielded positive results - thus, auto. mnfctrs extended warranty of biodiesel operated vehicles

What are bus bulbs? How do they help buses, and how do they help bikes?

•Bus bulbs are curb extensions or concrete islands that align the bus stop w/the parking lane, allowing buses to stop & board pssgrs w/o ever leaving the travel lane. - help buses move faster & more reliably by decreasing the amount of time lost when merging in & out of traffic. - help reduce bus-bike conflicts at bus stops when a protected bike lane is provided behind the bus stop rather than a bike lane in the bus stop.

Market equilibrium with positive externality (See 3.1 p. 19) How can negative externalities be leveraged to support positive ones? (UNFINISHED)

•Can use tax $ on a neg. externality to support a good/service w/pos. externalities •In this case, we have a market where the demand for the good/service is too low since some enjoy the benefits w/o paying or (equivalently) ppl who pay enjoy more benefits beyond the price - reflected in the private demand curve which doesn't acct. for the societal or unpriced benefits. - result is a poor outcome: ppl are unwilling to pay as much as they should, so the quantity supplied in the market is too low. •The social demand curve reflects how much society would demand if societal benefits were considered. •In this case, government should use their resources to subsidize the good or service; the goal is to shift the private demand curve to the social demand curve, leading to a better market outcome. - again, the trick is to price the positive externalities.

What did the Census find about gender differences in bike commuters? What did the Breakaway survey find about gender differences across bikers overall? What did this show about the Census? What did Breakaway find the most common types of transportation biking trips were? Where did commute trips come in?

•Census finds that ~25% bike commuters are women. - but this survey, looking at biking trips of all kinds, found 30% of women had ridden a bike in the last 12 months compared to 39% of men. •Of ppl who bike, men are also somewhat more likely than women to ride twice a week or more (16% to 12%), but this still wouldn't acct for the gender discrepancy in the Census •The survey results also reinforce the idea that the Census over-emphasizes commute trips. •Breakaway found that the most common types of transportation biking trips are "traveling to and from social, recreation, or leisure activities" and "running errands or shopping." - commute trips came in third.

What are the New Urbanism design features for public buildings & neighborhoods?

•Certain prominent sites reserved for public buildings •A building must be provided @the center for neighborhood meetings •Neighborhood should be self governing, deciding on matters of maintenance, security, & physical evolution

What is an energy transition? What does a common pattern in energy transition involve in terms of energy content and technical expertise, and what has this implied a growth of, changes in, and usage of over time? When did the first significant energy transition take place?

•Change from one state to the other, namely in terms of supply, demand & quality •Common pattern involves moving to sources that have higher energy content, but require higher level technical expertise to be used - in time, this has implied a growth of the quantity consumed, changes in energy sources, & the usage of sources that tend to have a lower environmental impact. •1st significant energy transition took place during the IR, mostly involved adoption of coal as dominant source of energy •Even if there is a gradual transition away from petroleum, it still dominates global energy patterns.

What are Sulfur Oxides? What is used as the indicator of their concentration? What is the largest source of SO2 in the atmosphere? What are smaller sources of it? How are they formed during combustion processes?

•Colorless gases that result from burning sulfur - SO2 most easily measured, so used as indicator for all SOx concentrations - causes visibility/haze issues •Largest source of SO2 in the atmosphere is burning of fossil fuels by power plants & industrial facilities •Smaller sources: industrial processes such as extracting metal from ore; natural sources such as volcanoes; & locomotives, ships & other vehicles & heavy equipment that burn fuel w/high sulfur content - all fuels (oil, coal, natural gas, wood, etc.) contain some sulfur, & during the combustion process, sulfur reacts w/oxygen to form SOx.

Hybrid electric vehicles: - what 2 power sources are combined? - what is the battery/electric motor intended to achieve? how well do they achieve this, and why? - how is the battery charged? - what can the extra power provided by the electric motor allow? - what else can the battery power and reduce?

•Combines 2 distinct power sources to provide driving power: conventional ICE & a battery/electric motor system - presence of the battery/EMS is intended to achieve either better vehicle fuel econ.y or better performance than a conventional ICE vehicle; - this is essentially achieved since the low efficiency ICE is now used in combo w/a much higher efficiency power source, such as the battery. •Cannot be plugged in to charge the battery. - instead, battery is charged thru regenerative braking and by the ICE. •The extra power provided by the electric motor can potentially allow for a smaller engine. •Battery can also power aux. loads like sound systems & headlights, & reduce engine idling when stopped.

Complete streets: - what are they? who do they include? - what do approaches do they encompass? - what levels are CS policies set at, and frequently supported by? - how do CS approaches vary, and what may they address? - what things do they reduce? - what can they promote, and how? what did a study find in this regard?

•Complete Streets are streets designed & operated to enable safe use & support mobility for all users. - those include people of all ages and abilities, regardless of whether they are travelling as drivers, pedestrians, bicyclists, or public transportation riders. •Encompasses many approaches to planning, designing, & operating roadways & ROW w/all users in mind to make the transportation ntwrk safer & more efficient. •CS policies are set at the state, regional,& local levels & are frequently supported by roadway design guidelines •CS approaches vary based on community context. - may address a wide range of elements, such as sidewalks, bicycle lanes, bus lanes, public transit stops, crossing opportunities, median islands, accessible ped signals, curb extensions, modified vehicle travel lanes, streetscape, & landscape treatments. •CS reduce motor vehicle-related crashes & ped risk, as well as bicyclist risk when well-designed bicycle-specific infrastructure is included. •Can promote walking & bicycling by providing safer places to achieve physical activity through transportn. - study found that 43% of ppl reporting a place to walk were significantly more likely to meet current recmndtns for regular physical activity than were those reporting no place to walk

What is particulate matter? How can it affect respiratory and cardiovascular health? What are its known health problems, and what does emerging evidence suggest it also affect? What are the main sources of PM10 & PM2.5?

•Complex mix of small dust (organic) & soot (incomplete combustion) particles •Can get embedded deep in human lung tissue & get into bloodstream, causing or exacerbating respiratory diseases & cardiovascular problems •Known health problems: - decreased lung function - aggravated asthma - chronic bronchitis - irregular heartbeat - heart attacks - premature death in ppl w/heart or lung disease - mental health issues •Emerging evidence that PMs affect mental development & dementia •Sources: - PM10: blowing dust from construction sites & agricultural activities - PM2.5: incomplete combustion

What is Vertical Equity in terms of mobility need and ability? What design is this definition used to support, and what does this design mean?

•Concerned w/distribution of impacts b/t indiv.ls & groups that differ in mobility ability & need, & TF the degree to which the transport system meets the needs of travelers w/different mobility needs - used to support universal design (aka accessible & inclusive design), which means that transport facilities & services accommodate all users, inclg those w/special needs.

How is congestion a classic example of a feedback loop? Go through the vicious circle. In what ways can this vicious circle be mitigated?

•Congestion is a classic eg. of feedback loop. - pressures on the owners of transport infrastructure (usually the public sector) by diff.t user groups being impacted by congestion may often result in the addition of new capacity such as new or wider roads. - new capacity often results in lower friction to mobility & this may impact on urban sprawl as ppl may trade more space for a similar amount of time - outcome is likely to be an increase in trip lengths, more trips, & eventually more congestion - consequently, users, thru their modal choices, are recursively influencing the development of the urban transport system. •This vicious circle can be mitigated if urban pop. & econ. growth stabilizes, lifestyles & preferences change, or if alternatives such as public transit are more readily available.

Path to CAV heaven: guarantee mobility w/congestion pricing - why is congestion pricing essential for CAVs? - what will increase? - what can lead to more vehicles - how do CAVs make congestion pricing easy to implement? What can pricing be based on?

•Congestion pricing is *essential* since risks of gridlock w/CAVs is so great - vehicular capacities on hwys feeding centers will increase - MaaS can lead to more vehicles -- see Uber and Lyft •CAVs make congestion pricing easy to implement - pricing can be based on vehicle occupancy; emptier cars pay more

How do consumers underestimate electric vehicle range? How do consumers overestimate electric vehicle cost? Why are the lifetime cost of EVs lower than GPVs? (example)

•Consumers tend to underestimate EV-range: rsrch shows that even lower-end EVs have enough range to meet about 90% of driving needs. •Consumers also tend to overestimate the cost of EVs: electric cars are often cheaper than gas-powered cars when acct.g for fuel, repairs, & other expenses. •Rsrchrs eval.td the lifetime cost of various cars & found that EVs are often cheaper than comparable gas-powered vehicles. - reason is that the lower fuel costs of EVs relative to gas-fueled cars compensate for the higher vehicle costs of EVs - eg. battery-powered Ford Focus will prove less expensive over the course of its life than gas-powered Ford Focus.

What are buffered bike lanes? What are the benefits of buffered bike lanes? - what 3 improvements do they provide? - who do they appeal to? - what 2 things do they encourage bicyclists to do?

•Conventional BLs paired w/a designated buffer space separating the BL from the adjacent motor vehicle travel lane and/or parking lane. *Benefits* •provides greater distance b/t motor vehicles&bicyclists. •provides space for bicyclists to pass another bicyclist w/o encroaching into adjacent motor vehicle travel lane. •provides a greater space for bicycling w/o making the BL appear so wide that it might be mistaken for a travel lane or a parking lane. •appeals to a wider cross-section of bicycle users. •encourages bicyclists to ride outside of the door zone when buffer is between parked cars and bike lane. •encourages bicycling by contributing to the perception of safety among users of the bicycle network.

What does conventional tend to evaluate transport based on, and use what types of indicators to do so? • Contrarily, what is the ultimate goal of most transport activity? What factors can affect accessibility? What are the equity implications of using mobility vs accessibility-focused planning?

•Conventional planning tends to evaluate transport based on mobility (physical travel), using indicators such as traffic speed and roadway level‐of‐service. - HE, mobility is seldom an end in itself; the ultimate goal of most transport activity is accessibility, which refers to people's ability to reach desired services & activities. •Various factors can affect accessibility inclg mobility, transport network connectivity & affordability, the geog. distribution of activities, and mobility substitutes such as telecommunications and delivery services •This has important equity implications. - mobility‐based planning tends to favor faster modes & longer trips over slower modes & shorter trips, & therefore motorists over non‐drivers. - eg. evaluating transport system performance based on roadway level‐of service tends to justify roadway expansion projects even tho wider roads & incr.d traffic speeds tend to degrade walking & cycling conditions (called the barrier effect), & since most public transit trips include walking links, to reduce transit access. - accessibility‐based evaluation can consider such tradeoffs and their equity impacts.

* "I can trust it" * What is advantageous of dedicated transit lanes? Describe the 3 transit right-of-way classes

•Dedicated transit lanes - separate transit from car traffic - improves speed, reliability, & quality •Transit right-of-way classes: - *Class A*: exclusive & separated; other traffic operates in its track, no cross traffic intersects; only pssgr delay - *Class B*: exclusive but not separated; must interact w/cross traffic; signal & passenger delays - *Class C*: mixed traffic; share lane w/traffic; subject to all 3 types of routine delay

What is the definition of a bike lane? What do they enable bicyclists to do? How are they distinguished from cycle tracks? Where do conventional bikes lane run? How do they typically run with traffic?

•Defined as a portion of the roadway that has been designated by striping, signage, & pavement markings for the preferential or exclusive use of bicyclists. - enable bicyclists to ride at preferred speed w/o interference from prevailing traffic condtns & facilitate predictable behavior & mvmts b/t cyclists & motorists. - distinguished from a cycle track in that it has no physical barrier (bollards, medians, raised curbs, etc.) that restricts the encroachment of motorized traffic. •Conventional BLs run curbside when no parking is present, adjacent to parked cars on the RH side of the street or on the LH side of the street in spec. situations. - typically run in same direction of traffic, tho they may be configured in the contra-flow direction on low-traffic corridors nec. for the connectivity of a part.r bike route.

How dense is the Short North in terms of people and housing, and compared to Cbus at large? How much is public transit used in the Short North, (compared to overall region)? What about the Short North's street network and connectivity makes it particularly walkable? What about the "tissue" (building & street pattern) of Short North makes it particularly walkable? How do transit services make the Short North esp. walkable? What is the greenway situation in the Short North?

•Density: - people: 6,300/sqmi. (2,800 for Cbus overall) - housing: 8/acre (2/acre for Cbus overall) •Public transit: - sadly, a shadow of its past - but, ~25% of district's residents commute w/o car (compared to 9% of region overall) •Street network: - residential streets in the SN tend to be long & narrow - blocks along the central commercial spine are small and square - connectivity: the street network is highly connected, w/111 intersections •Tissue: - large buildings (commercial & multifamily structures) hug High St (center) - smaller structures, their narrow ends parallel to the street, line residential block •Services: - businesses are located along High St, where buses run @ 10- to 15-min headways throughout the day •Greenways: - public gardens, including Victorian-era Goodale Park - w/redevt in SN have come new green spaces in the form of residential greens & pocket parks

Which racial demographics are at a disproportionately higher risk of being killed as pedestrians? How has historic structural racism in housing and transportation decisions contributed to this? How may implicit also play a role according to one research finding?

•Drivers strike and kill POC, esp. Black or African American & American Natives or Alaska Native people, @higher rates compared to White, Non‐Hispanic, & Asian or Pacific Islander people. •Structural racism guided many of the decisions made about housing & transport. for decades, consequences still readily apparent in communities of color today. - historic Fed policies of restricting POC from getting mortgages in "White neighborhoods" - construction of the National Highway System disproportionately carved thru communities of color •Implicit bias may also play a role - rsrch has shown drivers are significantly more likely to yield to a White ped in a crosswalk than to an AA ped

What is a bike box? What are the benefits of bike boxes? - what do they increase? - what do they for bicyclists? - what 2 things do they facilitate? what do these only apply to? - what do they help prevent? - who do they provide priority for? - how do they group bicyclists together, and what advantage does this provide? - how do pedestrians benefit?

•Designated area @the head of a traffic lane @a signalized intersxn that provides bicyclists w/a safe & visible way to get ahead of queuing traffic during the red signal phase. *Benefits of bike boxes* •increases visibility of bicyclists. •reduces signal delay for bicyclists. •facilitates bicyclist left turn positioning at intersections during red signal indication. - only applies to bike boxes that extend across the entire intersection. •facilitates the transition from a right-side bike lane to a left-side bike lane during red signal indication. - only applies to bike boxes that extend across the entire intersection. •helps prevent 'right-hook' conflicts w/turning vehicles at the start of the green indication. •provides priority for bicyclists at signalized bicycle boulevard crossings of major streets. •groups bicyclists together to clear an intersection quickly, minimizing impediment to transit or other traffic. •pedestrians benefit from reduced vehicle encroachment into the crosswalk.

What should designs for intersections with bike facilities reduce, and how? What can intersection treatments resolve and coordinate with? What elements may the configuration of a safe intersection for bicyclists include? What should intersection design take into consideration? In all cases, what does the degree of mixing or separation intend to reduce? What will the level of treatment required for bicyclists at an intersection depend on?

•Designs for intersxns w/bike facilities should reduce conflict b/t bicyclists (& other vulnerable road users) & vehicles by heightening the level of visibility, denoting a clear right-of-way, & facilitating eye contact &awareness w/competing modes. •Intersxn treatments can resolve both queuing & merging maneuvers for bicyclists, & are often coordinated w/timed or specialized signals. •The configuration of a safe intersxn for bicyclists may include elements such as color, signage, medians, signal detection, & pavement markings. •Intersxn design should take into consideration existing & anticipated bicyclist, pedestrian, & motorist mvmts. •In all cases, the degree of mixing or separation b/t bicyclists & other modes is intended to reduce the risk of crashes & increase bicyclist comfort. •Level of treatment required for bicyclists @an intersxn will depend on the bike facility type used, whether bike facilities are intersecting, the adjacent st. fxn & land use.

Market theory of transportation: - What is determining market price & quantity sold a determination of, and what does this illustrate? - Where does market equilibrium occur, and natural adjustment provides what? - How does Market theory then suggest how a transportation system should achieve equilibrium, and what then is the market "price"?

•Determining market price & quantity sold is the interxn between supply & demand. - illustrates the theoretical r-ship b/t supply, demand, & prices in a market. •Market equilibrium occurs where the supply & demand curves intersect: equilibrium price - naturally adjusts supply & demand to provides the most efficient allocation of resources: where marginal revenue gained from prod.g the good = the marginal cost that consumers are willing to pay •Market theory suggests that a transportation system should achieve this type of equilibrium between travel demand & transportation supply - in the case of traffic, the market "price" is congestion.

How is the path to CAV heaven paved? Specifically, - where should ownership be discouraged? - who should retain ownership & liability? - which concept should be emphasized in planning? - what should be narrowed, and what reduced? - what should be sold primarily, and via what?

•Discourage ownership in urban areas (but not rural areas) via fees and licensing •Maintain fleets: mfg retain ownership (& liability) •Emphasize accessibility over mobility in planning •Narrow the space for traffic: Current street design standards dictate 12ft wide lanes since humans cannot drive a straight line. - CAVs can (& should) get by with much narrower lanes •Reduce parking •Sell rides not cars via MaaS

Unhealthy places in America: - how do they treat physical activity? - what negative health outcomes do they pose? - how risky are they in the US and globally?

•Discourage physical activity •Physical activity is unnecessary, unpleasant, unsafe, and unhealthy •Promote sedentary lifestyle diseases such as obesity, diabetes, heart disease, cancer •Leading risk factor for mortality in US •Fourth leading risk factor globally

What were the negative pollutive effects of drilling & refining oil? How was it treated by oil companies and government? How did rapid pumping contaminate water sources? What type of air pollution plagued areas near strikes? How were early refineries build w/o regard for environmental concerns?

•Drilling & refining polluted/soaked the ground in the fields, air, & water where oil was taken & processed - spillage was frequent. - localized pollution was serious but rarely attracted attention from oil companies or state govt pre-WW2 •Rapid pumping of oil led to the intro of salt water into the underground pools & local water supplies. •Common for thick, yellow fog laden w/sulfur to engulf houses & areas where strikes occurred •Early refineries were built with little regard for envt. concerns: - unrecovered petroleum was simply discarded in the most convenient location; - open (sulfurous) flames from burning crude were noticeable everywhere. - floods along the coast washed oil into the rivers, streams, lakes, & the Gulf of Mexico.

What are VMT taxes? How popular are they? What does Vehicle Distance-Based Pricing mean? What are 3 diff.t strategies of VMT taxes?

•Drivers pay (by the mile) based on how much they travel, at a rate that reflects the actual cost of driving. •More than 25 states have looked into taxing VMT •Vehicle Distance-Based Pricing (aka Pay-As-You-Drive, Mileage-Based, & Per-Mile pricing) means that vehicle charges are based on how much a vehicle is driven, so the more you drive the more you pay and the less you drive the more you save. •Strategies: - flat fee (fixed # of cents/mile) - variable fee based on: > time of travel > congestion levels > type of road > type and weight of vehicle > vehicle emission levels > ability of owner to pay them - combo of flat and variable fees

Why is driving style so important to emissions? What did one study find that underscores this importance?

•Driving w/more accelerations, decelerations, stops & starts increases exhaust emissions & brake‐ & tire‐wear, which in turn produces particulate emissions - study estimates that 75% of road transport particulate emissions come from tire‐ & brake‐wear, not exhausts - driving style is an increasingly important determinant of overall air quality

What was the policy approach to oil conservation in the early 20thC, what did it concentrate on, but what 2 occurrences shifted this legislation? What were state & federal authorities concerned and unconcerned about? How were Congress' efforts to pass legislation received? What did secretary of commerce Herbert Hoover propose, and what 1924 law did this lead to?

•Early 20thC, oil conservation laws in some states tried to cope w/most egregious practices of oil industry, concentrated on casing requirements & plugging wells - major discoveries in Southwest & the rise in demand for gas, legislation shifted to production controls •State & federal authorities, although concerned w/potential oil depletion, gave scant attention to oil‐field waste, & envl. problems •Congress, efforts to pass legislation to control oil-related pollution issues met w/stiff resistance from oil‐producing states. - SOC Hoover proposed curbing oil discharges - Oil Pollution Act of 1924, weaker version of Hoover's proposal offered inadequate enforcement provisions & dealt only w/dumping fuel @sea by oil‐burning vessels.

What r-ship b/t price and demand does econ. theory posit? What is price elasticity of demand? How is it operationalized? What is price elasticity of supply? Which type is pricing and taxing transportation more concerned w/? Define inelastic, elastic, and fixed demand accg to elasticity coefficient values and price sensitivity

•Econ theory dictates that the higher the price of a good or service, the less of it is demanded. •*Price elasticity of demand* is a measure used in econ to show the responsiveness, or elasticity, of the quantity demanded of a good or service to a change in its price. - % change in quantity demanded in response to a 1% change in price (holding constant all the other determinants of demand, such as income). •*Price elasticity of supply* is a measure used in econ to show the responsiveness, or elasticity, of the quantity supplied of a good or service to a change in its price. •In pricing/taxing transportation, more interest in the price elasticity of demand. •Can describe the elasticity of demand for a good as inelastic, elastic or fixed: - elasticity coefficient < 1: the supply of that good can be described as inelastic - demand insensitive to price. - elasticity coefficient > 1: the supply can be described as elastic - demand is sensitive to price - elasticity = 0 indicates that quantity supplied does not respond to a price change at all - the demand is fixed

What are the economic costs of congestion? What are the health costs of traffic?

•Economic - cost US $305 billion - avg LA driver spends 102 hrs in traffic (most in world) - on avg, Americans spend an hour/wk in traffic •Health - psychological stress - poor health - depression - violence: road rage, domestic violence

What were the shares of total primary energy consumption of the 5 major primary energy sectors in 2017 (US)?

•Electric power—38.1% •Transportation—28.8% •Industrial—22.4% •Residential—6.2% •Commercial—4.5% - electric power sector generates most of the electricity in the US, other 4 sectors consume most of that electricity. •Pattern of fuel use varies widely by sector - eg. petroleum provides ~92% of the energy used for transportation, but ~1% of the energy used to generate electricity

Place-based approach to accessibility: • What does it put an emphasis on? • What is a common place-based approach? • What can it be used to develop? • What are the advantages & disadvantages of this approach?

•Emphasis upon the relative accessibility of a location is commonly measured using aggregated data of geog. space to identify potential interactions b/t places or to identify the relative prominence or importance of a place based on available sets of opportunity - common approach is to count the potential opportunities or interxns w/in a set geog. space—traditionally measured w/in a certain distance or travel time threshold from a person's home or work locations - can be used to develop theoretical understandings of urban structures of opportunity & interxn, to understand & geographically visualize actual spatial structures, or to analyze potential maximization (minimization) of benefits (costs) of transportation network structures. ADVANTAGES - easy to implement - easy to map DISADVANTAGES - assumes simple travel (only to/from home, work) - assumes everyone has the same needs & constraints

What are the 4 functions of healthy places?

•Encourage physical, mental, & social well-being •Facilitate physical activity & access to healthy food •Minimizing exposure to risks such as poor air quality, heat stress, and injuries •Inclusive, legible (easy to read/navigate), and convivial environments that maximize social interaction

How is urban sprawl linked to poor health outcomes? What did one study find in this regard?

•Evidence that urban sprawl associates with lack of PA, obesity, and morbidity •Study by Reid Ewing et al. (2008): - sprawl index had significant associations with minutes walked, obesity, BMI and hypertension (after controlling for individual factors)

What are excise taxes? What is one of the major components of the excise program? Why is the fuel tax in the US considered as a user fee by many? How does the US differ from other countries in this regard?

•Excise taxes are taxes paid when purchases are made on a specific good, such as gasoline. - often included in the price of the product. - also on activities, such as on wagering or on hwy usage by trucks. •One of the major components of the excise program is motor fuel. - in most countries the fuel tax is imposed on fuels which are intended for transportation. - fuels used to power agricultural vehicles, and/or home heating oil which is similar to diesel are taxed at a different, usually lower, rate •In the US, the fuel tax receipts are often dedicated or hypothecated to transportation projects so that the fuel tax is considered by many a user fee - in other countries, the fuel tax is a source of general revenue.

What is a cycle track? What is it separated from? What common elements do they have? What are the benefits of cycle tracks? - what can they offer? who are they attractive too? - what do they dedicate & protect? - where does it keep motorists and bicyclists from? - what can it visually reduce? - what costs are minimized? - cost?

•Exclusive bike facility that combines the user exprience of a separated path w/the on-street infrastructure of a conventional bike lane. •Physically separated from motor traffic & distinct from the sidewalk. •Have different forms but all share common elements - they provide space that's intended to be exclusively or primarily used for bicycles, & are separated from motor vehicle travel lanes, parking lanes, & sidewalks. •In situations where on-street parking is allowed cycle tracks are located to the curbside of the parking (in contrast to bike lanes). *Benefits* •by separating cyclists from motor traffic, cycle tracks can offer a higher level of security than bike lanes & are attractive to a wider spectrum of the public. •dedicates & protects space for bicyclists in order to improve perceived comfort and safety. •.more attractive to a wider range of bicyclists at all levels and ages than less separated facilities. •keeps motorists from easily entering the cycle track. •encourages bicyclists to ride in the bikeway rather than on the sidewalk. •can visually reduce the width of the street when provided adjacent to a travel lane. •minimizes maintenance costs due to limited motor vehicle wear. •w/new roadway construction a raised CT can be less expensive to construct than a wide or buffered BL

All-electric vehicles: - what certain advantages in performance do EVs exhibit, and why? - what disadvantage of EVs is sometimes overlooked, and where may this prove to be a significant factor?

•Exhibit certain advantages in performance compared to conventional gas vehicles resulting from built-in high power battery packs - BPs drive electric motors w/inherently higher torque in lower vehicle speeds than ICE -> EVs can be much quicker & accelerate from rest faster than conventional vehicles w/o using any transmission or clutch systems •However, disadvantage of EVs that is sometimes over-looked is that the absence of an ICE minimizes the available heating capability of the vehicle's internal heating system - could prove to be a significant factor in colder climates that needs to be addressed.

How did biodiesel trends change between 2008 and 2013- , and why? What is the Renewable Fuel Standard program? - what does it require? - what did it originate with, and then get expanded by? - what does it require of each renewable fuel category in the program?

•Exports of biodiesel peaked in 2008 largely due to an unintended effect of a biodiesel tax credit in the EU - exports then dropped after the effect was eliminated. •Increased production & consumption from 2011 onward largely driven by the Renewable Fuel Standard •Quantity of biodiesel imported by the U.S. exceeded quantity exported in 2013 - + growth of net exports since 2013 is likely due to continued effort of reducing GHGs & expanding reg.ns. •Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS) is a federal program that requires transprtn fuel sold in the US to contain a min. volume of renewable fuels. - originated w/the Energy Policy Act of 2005 & was expanded & extended by the Energy Independence & Security Act of 2007 (EISA) - requires renewable fuel to be blended into transprtn fuel in increasing amounts each year, escalating to 36 bil. gal.s by 2022. - each renewable fuel category in the RFS program must emit lower levels of GHGs relative to the petroleum fuel it replaces.

What are externalities? What are internal vs external vs social costs? What grey area can there be b/t internal and external costs, and what does considering b/t one or the other depend on?

•Externalities: changes of welfare which are caused by economic activities w/o being reflected in market prices - wrt the transport sector, relevant external costs are negative externalities which occur when transport consumers/producers impose higher costs on society than they bear themselves. •Internal (also called user or private) costs are borne by a good's consumer. •External costs are borne by others. •Social costs are the total costs to society, including both internal and external impacts. •Some costs, (eg. traffic congestion & crash damages), are largely imposed by motorists on other motorists, & so are external to individuals but internal w/in a group (or sector). - whether such costs should be considered internal or external depends on the type of prob being addressed.

What is an externality? What do prices not reflect when externalities exist in a competitive market? What positive externalities may transport networks include? What negative externalities may they include? What do negative externalities provide a basis/justification for? What do positive externalities provide a foundation for regarding transportation?

•Externality: cost or benefit, not transmitted thru prices, incurred by a party who didn't agree to the action causing the cost or benefit. •In the case of externalities, in a competitive market, prices don't reflect the full costs or benefits of producing or consuming a product or service. •In addition to providing benefits to their users, transport networks impose both pos & neg externalities on non-users - pos externalities of transport networks may include the ability to provide emergency services, increases in land value and agglomeration benefits. - neg externalities are wide-ranging and may include local air pollution, noise pollution, light pollution, safety hazards, community severance and congestion. - contribution of transport systems to potentially hazardous climate change is a significant neg externality which is difficult to evaluate quantitatively, making it difficult (but not impossible) to include in transport economics-based research and analysis. - congestion is considered a neg externality by econ.ts. •Negative externalities provide a basis or justification for intervening in a market by imposing additional prices/taxes to capture these costs •Positive externalities provide a foundation for why we should support transportation, and perhaps even treat it as a public good, using pricing and taxation revenues.

* "It is a good use of my money" * What is farebox recovery? Are fares worth collecting? What different contexts raise different issues regarding free fares?

•Farebox recovery - fraction of operating cost expenses which are met by fares paid by passengers - system's total fare revenue divided by its total operating expenses •Are fares worth collecting? - costly to collect fares - time consuming: source of bus delays - can prevent dual door boarding •Free fares? - Rural/small cities: ridership is low & doesn't even pay cost of collecting fares - Universities: student services, sustainability - Downtown circulation: dev't or congestion relief

What has happened to the number of fatalities relative to vehicle-miles traveled since the early 1900s? Why is this misleading however, looking specifically at the period from 1997 to 2007 as indicative of this spuriousness? What does this suggest about using VMT rate as a measure of fatalities?

•Fatalities have been dropping since the early 1900s, but this can be misleading: - if # of miles driven is increasing substantially, can have a decrease in the rate even tho total accidents are increasing; what occurred during 1997‐2007 - rate was 1.64 fatalities per 100 mil vehicle-miles driven in 1997, and this figure had dropped to 1.36 by 2007. - during same period total fatalities decreased a lesser amount, from 42,013 to 41,059, but vehicle-miles traveled incr.d substantially, 2.562 tril. to 3.030 tril; drop in rate in large part due to growth in miles driven •Would suggest that the VMT rate may not be the best measure to use.

Traffic flow theory (this is a big one): • What are the 3 parameters, and how each are calculated? • What is the fundamental diagram of traffic flow; what is it based on? • What are the 3 interrelated curves that make up the FTF diagram? • In terms of the 3 parameters, when does free flow speed occur? • What happens to flow (V) when: - density reaches jam density? - density is less than critical density? - density is greater than critical density? • What value of density maximizes flow? What does this show about roads & traffic?

•Flow(V) = # of vehicles passing a certain pt. during a given time period, in vehicles per hour (veh/hr) •Speed(S) = rate @ which vehicles travel (mph) •Density(D) = # of vehicles occupying a certain space (veh/mi) D=V/S •Fundamental diagram of traffic flow gives a relation b/t the traffic flux (veh/hour) & the traffic density (veh/km) - based on a macroscopic traffic model involving traffic flux, traffic density, & velocity forms •Fundamental traffic flow diagram consists of three interrelated curves: 1.*Speed‐Density* ‐ the speed‐density r-ship is linear w/a negative slope; TF, as the density increases the speed of the roadway decreases. 2.*Flow‐Density* ‐ the flow‐density diagram is used to determine the traffic state of a roadway. 3.*Speed‐Flow* ‐ speed flow diagrams are used to determine the speed at which the optimum flow occurs •Free flow speed (Sf) occurs in light traffic conditions - when density reaches the critical density (D0), the freeway reaches its maximum flow (Vm) - speed at that point is decreased to S0 •When D = Dj (jam density), V=0 & all traffic is stopped. •When D < D0, V decreases and is stable/uncongested •When D > D0, V is said to be unstable/congested, & the freeway capacity decreases •Bc more vehicles are processed when V is stable, best for the D to be as close as possible to, but below, D0 - roads & traffic reach the point of max throughput just before they fail

What about hydrogen makes it hard to store? - why is overcoming this challenge important for light-duty vehicles? - what is the ideal storage capacity of H in LDVs? what does this require currently? What are 3 potential solutions to the storage problem?

•H's energy content by volume is low; makes storing H a challenge bc it requires high pressures, low temps, or chemical processes to be stored compactly. - H performs poorly compared to other fuels in terms of energy per mass and energy density •Overcoming this challenge is important for light-duty vehicles bc they often have limited size & weight capacity for fuel storage. - storage capacity for H in LDVs should enable a driving range of >300 miles to meet consumer needs. - bc H has a lower volumetric energy density than that of gas, storing this much H on a vehicle currently requires a larger tank *Solutions to the storage problem* • Compressed gas storage, using adv.d pressure vessels • Cold or cryo-compressed hydrogen storage • Materials-based H storage techs., including sorbents, chemical hydrogen storage materials, & metal hydrides

What are the health benefits of physical activity? What are the physical activity guidelines for youths and adults, and how do Americans on this?

•Health benefits of PA include: - weight control: obesity is defined as a BMI of 30+ - lower risk of heart disease, diabetes, hypertension and some cancers •PA guidelines: - Youths (6‐17): 60 minutes of moderate‐to‐vigorous activity every day - Adults: @least 150-300 minutes of moderate‐intensity aerobic activity per week - few Americans get the recommended minimum!

Why do unconventional oils have a higher carbon footprint? Specifically, what about extracting & processing them, and also using them, is more energy intensive & lower quality?

•Higher in terms of production AND consumption •Complex methods used to extract & process heavier oils before they are able to be refined into petroleum products require greater energy inputs & more energy‐intensive additives, such as hydrogen. •Their use means a reduced product yield, degraded product quality, & more oil input for comparable amounts of petroleum products.

What is horizontal equity? How does it prescribe benefits & costs should be distributed among individuals and groups, and how public policies should affect them?

•Horizontal equity (aka egalitarianism) concerns the distribution of impacts b/t indiv.ls & groups considered equal in ability and need. - TF, equal individuals & groups should be treated the same in the distribution of resources/benefits and costs. - means that public policies should avoid favoring one indiv.l or group over others, & that consumers should "get what they pay for and pay for what they get" from fees & taxes unless subsidies are specifically justified.

What is hydrogen an ideal alt.fuel candidate? - abundancy? Where is it found chemically in the US? How is it produced? How should it be produced?

•Ideal candidate as an energy carrier for both mobile & stationary app.s while averting adverse effects on the envt & reducing dependence on imported oil for countries w/o natural resources. •By far most abundant element in the universe (90% on basis of # of atoms), & one of most abundent elements in the earth's crust •On Earth, ~exclusively found in chemical compounds (such as water), as opposed to free molecular hydrogen •Prod.n of industrial H is currently based mainly on fossil fuels, but to some extent electricity is also used. - if to be alt.fuel, shouldn't be produced from fossil fuels; wouldn't lead overall to decreased GHGs.

What would be the outcomes if developers were allowed to directly face the high land costs of providing so much parking? - in terms of # spaces, availability, price, and driving behavior? What is the low estimate of the cost of a parking space in the US if priced appropriately? - how much is parking subsidized by current policy for a commute of 20 days/mth?

•If developers were allowed to face directly the high land costs of providing so much parking: - # of spaces would be a result of a careful econ. calculation r/t a matter of satisfying a legal requirement. - parking would be scarcer, & more likely to have a price, (or one higher than now), & ppl would be more careful about when & where they drove. •Under a more sensible policy, a parking space could cost *@least* $100/mth in many US cities & suburbs - on low est.d end, if a commuter drives to work 20 days/mth, current parking policy offers a subsidy of $5/day, which is more than the gas and wear-&-tear costs of many round-trip commutes. •In essence, the parking subsidy outweighs many of the other costs of driving, including the gasoline tax

What is traffic congestion? How does the demand-capacity relationship factor in? When does it occur in terms of use, and what is it characterized by?

•Impedance vehicles impose on each other, due to speed‐flow relationships, in conditions where the use of the transport system approaches its capacity. •As demand increases relative to capacity, intrxn b/t vehicles slows the speed of the traffic stream •Occurs as use increases, characterized by slower speeds, longer trip times, & incr.d vehicular queueing

•What things do New Urbanism improve? •How are individual design features enhanced, and what do such enhancements lead to? - what such reductions are seen in what kinds of neighborhoods? - how could these reductions be made even greater? •What improvements of this sort were seen in Southern Village in Chapel Hill, NC? - in what types of travel were these seen in? - how did travel in this community compare to that of the conventional community?

•Improves accessibility, improves transportation choice, & reduces traffic speeds, which tend to reduce per capita automobile ownership and use •Altho most indiv.l design features have modest impacts on total travel, their effects are cumulative & synergistic, resulting in significant total reductions in vehicle use. - residents in well-designed NU neighborhoods w/good walkability, mixed land use, connected streets, & local services tend to drive 20-35% less than residents in car-dependent areas - even greater vehicle travel reductions may be possible if NU is coordinated w/other TDM strategies, such as transit improvements, carsharing, road pricing, parking mgmt, & commute trip reduction programs. •Controlling for demographic factors, residents of a neo-tradtl cmnty (Southern Village in Chapel Hill, NC) generate 22% fewer car trips & take 30% more walking trips than residents of conventional design communities. - these include reductions in both commute & non-commute automobile travel. - in this cmnty, 17% of trips are by walking compared w/ 7% in the conventional community, tho avg per capita time spent in travel is similar between the two groups.

With CAVs, how are small decisions amplified? What implications does this have? Why may the Trolley Problem not occur with CAVs?

•In a future where all cars are self-driving, small chgs to driving behavior would make a big diff in the aggregate. - decisions made by engineers today will determine not how 1 car drives but how all cars drive •This has enormous implications across the entire spectrum of driving: e.g., how should engineers trade-off desire for speed with energy consumption and emissions of GHGs and poor air quality? *Why the Trolley Problem may not occur:* • following simple rules (such as always go right) means less liability exposure • it's not clear what CAVs will know who the ppl are - e.g. young vs old. • but, OTOH, they could know - will they be required to make these decisions since they have the information? • banishing of humans from streets "solves" the problem

Describe the operation of Hybrid electric vehicles: - what does the electric motor/generator do, and why? - what does the ICE do, and why? - what does this combined mode of operation allow?

•In a typical electric mode operation, the electric motor/generator uses power from the battery pack & acts as a motor to drive the vehicle @startup & @low vehicle speeds & acceleration where it offers high torque - the ICE, which can provide low torque @low vehicle speeds, is only engaged when higher speeds, faster acceleration or more power for charging the batteries is required & is automatically started by the motor/ generator acting as a starter. - this combined mode of vehicle operation allows the ICE to be utilized only at high efficiencies & to be normally switched off @ traffic stops where it is anyway extremely inefficient.

Induced demand theory of congestion: what does it posit? - When does diverted travel occur? Give an example - When does induced traffic occur? What are the longer terms effects?

•In short term, incr.d travel on new road space comes from 1 of 2 sources: diverted travel & induced traffic. •*Diverted travel* occurs when people divert their trip from another road (change in route) or re- time their travel (change in timing) - eg. ppl might travel to work earlier than they would otherwise in order to avoid peak period congestion; but if road capacity is expanded, peak congestion is lower & they can travel at the time they prefer. •*Induced traffic* occurs when new automobile trips are generated; can occur when ppl choose to travel by car instead of public transport, or decide to travel when they otherwise would not have - longer term effects include encouraging more sprawl and therefore more automobile dependence

In the early years of oil striking in the US, what factors led to waste and overproduction? What was major destruction regularly occurred? How was the oil squandering "legendary," specifically in the case of Spindletop and investment attraction? What did the urge to "get rich quick" contrarily serve to do? What was the "Rule of Capture"?

•In the early years, waste and overproduction was due to several factors: - poor drilling & storing techniques, natural hazards, the competitive market, simple disregard, & greed. •Great fires periodically spread across the fields; one fire burned 62 derricks & sent flames 1,000ft into the air. •The general squandering of oil was legendary - 1902, est.d that 10 mil barrels of oil @Spindletop had been wasted since the initial strike - to impress investors, oil promoters often opened the wells, sending gushers of 125 feet into the air. •The basic urge to get rich quick usually meant depleting supplies as quickly as possible, despite warnings from geologists about the dangers of extracting too much, too quickly or wasting substantial amounts along the way. •"Rule of Capture," dominated the production of oil until the 1930s - those who owned the surface property over a common oil pool could keep all the oil and gas that they took from wells, regardless of the possible drainage from adjoining property.

What are the types of bicycle infrastructure?

•In-roadway markings - sharrows - bicycle boulevards •Bike lanes - conventional - buffered - contraflow •Cycle tracks - one-way - 2-way - raised •Intersections - bike boxes - 2-stage turn boxes •Bike paths - greenways - shared use trails

What countries are the biggest consumers of crude oil, and what is it extracted & turned into? How is petroleum made, and what about this process makes it non-renewable?

•Industrial nations, w/U.S. far in the lead, are the biggest consumers of crude oil. - extracted & turned into a variety of fuel sources including gasoline, diesel, propane, jet fuel, heating oil, paraffin wax, & utilized by manufacturers as base for plastics & industrial chemicals •Made when organic matter settles in water that has lost its dissolved oxygen & is then compressed under immense heat & pressure for millions of years - no way for humans to reproduce process for mass production in nature or in a lab; when it's gone it's gone

What could battery swapping mean for EVs? What types of batteries could this apply to in the future? What about EVs currently make them best suited for local driving? - what is needed in order to facilitate the penetration of EVs as a competitive alternative to conventional vehicles? - what would play a critical role in the adoption of EVs by area, and what would need to be taken into consideration?

•Instead of recharging the battery it could be mech.ly replaced @ special stations in just a few minutes •Could apply to batteries w/very high energy densities that require significant time to recharge - batteries w/the greatest energy densities, such as metal-air fuel cells, which cannot be recharged in a purely electric way, appear to be promising future candidates for battery swaps. •Clear that until a charging infrastructure (even one that consists of simple 240V electrical outlets in convenient places) is developed, EVs will remain best suited for local driving in short ranges around the home. - in order to facilitate the penetration of EVs as a competitive alternative to conventional vehicles, mass provision of charging pts & networks must precede consumer availability of electric vehicles. •Geographic location of the charging pts would play a critical role in the adoption of EVs in each area, esp. EVs, & would have to take into consideration the concentration of both residential and office areas.

What does Mobility as a Service (MaaS) combine? - what does it aim to move away from? - what will it do for users? What are 4 major components of MaaS, in terms of: - private ownership - CAVs - friction - public and active transport

•MaaS combines mobility services from public transport, taxis, car rental & car/bicycle sharing under a single platform that's accessible from a smart phone - move away from dependence on privately owned cars or multiple transport apps - will plan your journey & also allow you to buy tickets from a range of service providers. *Mobility as a service* 1. Beyond ownership: shared for most activities 2. CAVs are part of a seamless multimodal transprtn system that can be configured on demand 3. Not frictionless - will cost time & money, & may mean being outside - but will be robust. 4. Public & active modes as the backbone; CAVs to fill niches (places, people and activities)

What events contributed to the construction of the Alaska Pipeline? Over a decade later, what event occurred that shed a negative light on the construction?

•Major oil battle of '70s •Oil exploration on the rise in late 60s after the world oil glut receded - Atlantic Richfield (ARCO) struck a massive field (est. 4.8 bil barrels) at Prudhoe Bay in '68 - growing support construction of a pipeline to run 800 mil from Prudhoe Bay south to Port of Valdez. •Envt.s fought against the pipeline, fearing that it would destroy precious wilderness areas - 1973 oil embargo undermined their case; that year Congress passed the Trans‐Alaska Pipeline Authorization Act •1000s of people poured into AK seeking jobs w/ Alyeska Pipeline Service Company - 1st oil began to flow 3 years later. •1989, collision of the Exxon‐Valdez oil tanker w/a reef in Prince William Sound became the most infamous discharge of oil since Santa Barbara spill -> part of the continuing debate over the pipeline & other efforts at exploiting Alaskan oil. - tanker burst open & discharged 1000s of gal.s of crude into waters off the coast of Alaska.

What types of costs make up the major portion of transportation costs at large? How much does each dollar spent on vehicle operating expense impose on society on average? What do external & fixed costs represent, and what does this cost profile lead to? What does failure to consider external, fixed, and non-market costs lead to? What's an example of such an outcome?

•Major portion of transportation costs are external, fixed and non-market. •On average, each dollar spent on vehicle operating expenses imposes about $2.55 in total costs to society. •External & fixed costs represent underpricing - this cost profile is inequitable and leads to economically excessive motor vehicle travel that exacerbates various econ, envtl & social probs •Failure to consider these costs can lead to decisions that result in negative net benefits. - eg. society is overall worse off if a roadway expansion saves motorists 5¢/mi in avg travel time costs but imposes 10¢/mi on avg in additional econ & envtl costs

What is the speed range over which vehicles maintain max efficiency in a broad range -- how does this differ b/t CO & VOCs and NOx emissions? What does the relationship b/t vehicle speed & emissions depend on? Why may vehicles travelling @ lower average speeds not always emit more pollutants? When are engines optimally efficient, and why is an "optimal" average speed not necessarily engine efficient? How much air pollution do vehicles travelling over the speed limit tend to cause compared to those @SL?

•Modern vehicles maintain max efficiency in a broad range from about 30-60 mph. - per‐mile emissions of CO & VOCs tend to be minimized from about 30-60 mph, & increase @ higher & lower speeds, but NOx emissions are minimized @30 mph, & increase w/vehicle speeds •Relationship b/t vehicle speed & emissions varies depending on the age of the vehicle, the pollutant, & the fuel - difficult to determine an optimal avg speed for travel, esp. when taking driving style into acct. - vehicles travelling @lower avg speeds don't always emit more pollutants bc avg speeds mask fast & slow periods, frequent acc- and decelerations •Engines are optimally efficient when driving @ a *constant* ('cruising') speed (~55-60mph), not when accelerating or decelerating (/= avg. speed) •Vehicles travelling at lower avg speeds don't necessarily emit more pollution, particularly in cities where cruise speeds are rarely maintained bc of the road layout - in fact, vehicles travelling over the speed limit tend to increase air pollution compared to vehicles travelling at the speed limit

How will more intense snow & rain events and less rain overall negatively affect transportation infrastructure?

•More intense snow & rain events could overload drainage systems, wash out roads, damage rail-bed support structures, & cause mudslides •Less rain overall could increase drought, making infrastructure susceptible to wildfires and susequently, to mudslides - visibility @airports in wildfire-prone areas would decrease

What are the New Urbanism design features for dwellings? How are work and commercial needs integrated? How about elementary schools and recreational amenities?

•Most dwellings are w/in a 5-min walk (a 2.5mi) from the center •A variety of dwelling types: - houses, towns or row houses, apartments - younger & older, singles & families, the poorer & the wealthier can find places to live •There are places to work w/in and adjacent to the nbrhd, inclg. shops, office buildings, & live-work units •There are shops sufficiently varied to meet common household needs, such as convenience stores, a post office, a bank machine, and a gym •There should be an elementary school close enough so that most children can walk from their dwelling •There are parks, trails, & playgrnds near every dwelling - this distance shouldn't be more than 1/8th a mile

Path to CAV heaven: maintain and support good transit systems - what mindset must be left behind? - use autonomous technologies where else? - use microtransit CAVs for what purpose?

•Move beyond mindset that public transit is for the poor •Use autonomous techn.s to improve bus networks •Use CAVs & microtransit to solve 1st mi/last mi access issues

What are the sources of nitrous oxides? How does it contribute to ground-level ozone formation? When are there the highest such ozone levels?

•NOx comes from anthropogenic & natural sources - industrial, commercial, residential sources, & during the combustion process in motor vehicles •Precursor to ground‐level ozone: formed when hydrocarbons (aka volatile organic compounds, or VOC) & NOx chemically react in the presence of sunlight and heat •Year‐round phenomenon, but the highest ozone levels occur during the summer - in many northern latitude cities, highest ozone concentrations usually occur between 2p-8p, May-September •Ozone produced under these conditions can then be transported many miles outside the urban formation area

Give a brief history of the Short North

•Named for being just "short" of the N edge of dwntown •Emerged after 1850 construction of nearby Union Stn. •By 1927: 1000s of jobs and 4 streetcar lines •1960s & 1970s: Exodus to the suburbs •1979: Union Station demolished •1993: Columbus Convention Center built •2000s: Revitalization, gentrification •2002: Arches rebuilt (originally from 1888 centennial of Northwest Territory)

What is Network flow equilibrium? What does it not describe, but illustrate well? What is a flow equilibrium?

•Network flow equilibrium: theory of how route choice & traffic flows w/in a network can reach a stable pattern. - can solve for this pattern mathematically. - not a good description of reality, but illustrates some fundamental principles about congestion - a flow equilibrium is (roughly) a stable flow pattern where no one has an incentive to switch routes unless someone else also switches

What are the New Urbanism design features for roads, streets, thoroughfares, and parking?

•Networks of highly connected roads & paths provide multiple routes between destinations •Streets are designed for walking & cycling •Thoroughfares are relatively narrow & shaded by rows of trees that slow traffic & create an appropriate environment for pedestrians & bicyclists •Parking lots & garage doors rarely front the thoroughfares - parking is relegated to the rear of the buildings & usually accessed by alleys or lanes

What is the physical theory of congestion? Compare to other transport modes, how do cars do in terms of throughput of people?

•Not as much a theory as a physical fact: automobiles are the least efficient way to move ppl bc of their physical size - cars only move 2,000 ppl/hr on a 3.5m wide lane in city; compared to 9,000 of regular bus, 20,000 of BRT, 100,000 of suburban rail

How are pedestrian deaths particularly alarming? Specifically, - What proportion of traffic deaths do ppl walking now comprise? - How many pedestrians were killed b/t 2008 and 2017 -- how many people is this per day and per ~2hours, and what would this be equivalent to in terms of aviation? - How many pedestrians died in 2015, 2016, and 2017, and what were the rate changes yearly from 2014 to 2017?

•Of all the ppl that die in traffic crashes on our roads, ppl walking now comprise 16.1% of all deaths, & that share has been consistently growing for >decade •B/t 2008 & 2017, drivers struck & killed 49,340 people while they were walking throughout the US. - >13 ppl/per day, or 1 person/hour and 46 minutes - equivalent of a jumbo jet full of people crashing—with no survivors—every single month. •In 2015, 5,494 people died while walking, an unprecedented increase of 11.9% compared to 2014 •In 2016, ped deaths rose by another 10.6% to 6,080. •Deaths declined slightly in 2017 to 5,977, but this is still the 2nd highest body count on record since 1990

What were the oil shocks of the 70s & early 80s accompanied by -- how did this consumption change from 1970 to 2014, and also system-wide? What trend, in this regard, was seen in the 90s and then in recent years?

•Oil Shocks of the 1970s & early 80s were accompanied by an increase in the fuel efficiency of motor vehicles - in 1970, a car was consuming on avg 800 gal.s/yr (~2.5 mpg), dropped to 660 gal.s/yr (~22mpg) in 2014 - system‐wide improvement in energy efficiency was consequently ~40% •However, the 90s saw an increase in the avg amount of fuel consumed per vehicle as commuting distances & congestion increased, especially in urban areas •Recent years, progress slowing due to low gas prices & the cont.g pop.y of SUVs & light‐duty trucks

What are oil reserves primarily a measure and probability of? What are 3 such categories of this: 1. Proven 2. Probable 3. Possible

•Oil reserves primarily a measure of geological risk - probability of oil existing & being producible under current economic conditions using current technology. •*Proven reserves* ‐ "Reasonably Certain" to be producible using current tech @ current prices, w/current commercial terms & govt consent - industry refers as P90, ie. having a 90% certainty of being produced; aka 1P •*Probable reserves* ‐ "Reasonably Probable" of being produced using current or likely tech at current prices, w/current commercial terms & govt consent - industry refers as P50, i.e. having a 50% certainty of being produced; aka 2P or proven plus probable •*Possible reserves* ‐ "having a chance of being developed under favorable circumstances" ‐ industry refers as P10, i.e. having a 10% certainty of being produced

Deepwater Horizon spill: - what caused it, and when? - how long did (has) it last(ed)? - what was the extent of the damage, spill? - what punishment was handed down to BP, and how is this continuing?

•Oil spill in Gulf of Mexico, flowed unabated for 3 mths in 2010, & may be continuing to leak •Named the largest accidental marine oil spill in the history of the petroleum industry; source was a sea‐floor oil gusher from an explosion which took 11 lives - total discharge est.d at 4.9 mil barrels, 210 mil gal.s •BP agreed to pay largest penalty in US history, $4.5bn to US authorities & agrees to plead guilty to 11 felony counts of misconduct over fatal rig explosion - not yet off the hook for envl damage to the Gulf, could face bil.s in restoration costs to waters, coastline & marine life - but deal does limit BP's exposure to further criminal charges & penalties, frees the company to focus on resolving those other civil claims

What did a California study find about which racial demographics are disproportionately affected by air pollution? What were there findings in terms of household income and car ownership in this regard?

•On avg, African Americans & Latinos breathe in ~40% more particulate matter from cars, trucks & buses than white Californians, - Asians are exposed to ~20% more pollution. •Households earning <$20,000/yr & people who don't own cars suffer vehicle pollution levels ~20%higher than the state average, the findings show.

Car inefficiency: - How much of a car's energy consumption moves it, and where does the rest go? - For engine losses and power to wheels losses, which energy diversions are most significant to each? - What are some technological innovations meant to lessen non-momentum energy consumption? - What does any improvement in fuel efficiency lead to in terms of energy consumption?

•Only ~15-20% of energy car consumes moves it •Remainder lost in the engine, power to wheels, parasitic losses (e.g. alternator, pumps), drivetrain, when the vehicle is idle, and to heat pssgr cabin - for engine losses, it is the thermal losses, such as for the radiator, that are the most significant - for power to wheels losses wind & rolling resistance are the most significant •Tech efforts made, such as hybrid cars, to lessen nonmomentum energy consumption such as using the braking system to recharge the car battery or auto shutting down the engine while vehicle is idle. •Any improvement in fuel efficiency leads to substantial reduction in the energy consumed by vehicles due to the fleet size.

Over a longer time frame, how have death rates of pedestrians and cyclists changed, and how has this reversed more recently? Specifically, - change in ped fatalities b/t 1980-2009, then 2009 to 2015? - change in cyclist fatalities b/t 1980-2010, then 2010 to 2015? - representation of total motor vehicle fatalities by ped fatalities from 1980-1985, from 1999-2009, and 2009-2015? - representation of total motor vehicle fatalities by cyclist fatalities every year from 1980-2015?

•Over a longer time frame, ped & cyclist death have decreased, but this trend has reversed more recently - ped fatalities declined by ~50%, from 8,070 in 1980 to a low of 4,109 in 2009; have increased since 2009 however, reaching 5,376 in 2015 - cyclist fatalities declined by more >33%, from 965 in 1980 to a low of 623 in 2010; have increased since 2010, reaching 818 in 2015 •From 1980 to 1985, ped fatalities represented 16-17% of total MV fatalities - from 1999-2009, % had declined to ~11-12 percent; - since then, the % of ped fatalities has increased, reaching 15% of total MV fatalities in 2015 - cyclist fatalities have represented 2% of total motor vehicle fatalities every year from 1980 to 2015.

Charging time of day: - how may PHEVs & EVs allow for more efficient use of existing electricity generation capacity through charging times? - what would increase, and what would consequentially be better balanced? what gap would be narrowed, and what would this allow? - what is the biggest potential problem with EV charging? how could this proposed charging schedule cause this? what condition would lead to this problem?

•PHEVs & EVs may allow for more efficient use of existing electricity generation capacity, which mostly sits idle during off-peak hours as an operating reserve - can be achieved by charging the vehicle's battery primarily during off-peak periods, i.e., during the night - in such a case, charging of PHEVs or EVs would increase electrical demand during the night but would allow the utilities to better balance their electricity prod.n loads, causing improved operating efficiencies. - also, increase of the off-peak demand would narrow the gap between peak & off-peak demand, thus allowing optimum use of generating units. •Most potential problem of EV charging is that of exceeding grid power capacity & grid infrastructure capability. - in theory, if all/a large proportion of private vehicles were to charge their batteries at the same time, i.e., @night, this would increase substantially the energy consumption & electricity demand. - in some cases, the increase of demand would be > available local transformer power supply causing transformer overload or the current carrying capability of the transmission or distribution grid infrastructure causing severe thermal loading of conductors.

After WW2, where did oil policy turn to, and why? What did several states adopt? Where was controlling oil production less successful, and what environmental degradation did this cause? What even in 1967 turned worldwide attention to oil spills, and how did President LBJ respond?

•Post-WW2, w/a system of production controls in place, attn turned to preventing oil field pollution - pop'n growth, urbanization, & industrial.n in the oil‐producing states in particular influenced this effort. - most importantly, incr/d demand for water by cities, farms, & industry encouraged passage of laws to prevent contamination of fresh water supplies. - several states adopted more sophisticated petroleum conservation laws to protect groundwater & reduce external damage caused by oil‐field discharges •More limited success in controlling oil pollution in Gulf Coast refining region where hydrocarbons & chemical pollutants blanketed the skies - water pollution in estuaries, tidelands, & esp. in the Ship Channel added to the environmental deterioration. •1967, supertanker Torrey Canyon ran aground off coast of England, spilling ~120k tons of crude into the sea. - LBJ initiated a study of oil pollution probs, but no major change came in federal offshore policy in US

All-electric vehicles: - what powers them? - what generates electricity? - how can battery-charging done? - what kind of electric motor? - what positive to they have, especially compared to what, but what is this critically dependent on?

•Powered *only* by an electric motor or a traction motor •Electricity typically generated by on-board re-chargeable battery packs & in some cases thru the use of capacitors or flywheels. •Battery-charging can be done in way similar to those of PHEVs: either in standard home electricity outlets or in external dedicated charging stations. •Could use either a DC or an AC electric motor. •Have potential to provide a sig. decrease of harmful GHG emissions of the transport sector compared to conventional ICE vehicles - level of emission reductions from EVs is potentially much higher than that of PHEVs - critically dependent on the efficiency & on the emissions intensity of the electricity generation system in the specific region where the vehicle will be recharging its battery pack. -

Alternative fueling stations by fuel type from 1992 to 2018: - most numerous (1992-2011), then 2011- - EVSE growth 2011-, 2016, then 2017 & 2018 - expected trends of EVSEs moving fwd - number of E85 stations since 2004, and why? - number of CNG stations 1996-2006, despite what, and why?

•Propane stations were most numerous until 2011, when they were surpassed by EV supply equipment (EVSE), or charging units. •Growth in EVSE units accelerated starting in 2011, following the 2010 increase of plug-in EVs offered by major automakers. - 2016 experienced the largest growth for EVSE in order to support the growing EV pop'n, followed closely by 2017 & 2018. •Number of EVSE is expected to increase as the population of electric vehicles continues to grow. •Number of E85 stations has been increasing steadily since 2004, as the # of flex-fuel vehicles available from major manufacturers has increased. •Number of CNG stations decreased b/t 1996 & 2006 (despite the increase in CNG sales during this time) largely because the average station size was increasing.

What is an Electric vehicle network? Who have already entered into many agreements to create these? What do the charging networks in place today offer, based on what? - what contrast is offered to this in limited locations?

•Proposed infrastructure system of publicly-accessible charging stations & possible battery swap/switch stations to charge EVs. - govt, car manufacturers, electricity utility co.s, & charging infrastructure providers have entered into many agreements to create such networks. •The charging networks that are already in place today offer conventional AC charging outlets, based on the prevailing national vehicle charging specifications, standards, & protocols. - contrast to conventional AC charging, option of fast charging, (can be either AC or DC depending on the specific country or region), is offered in a few countries

In what situations are raised cycle tracks most beneficial? - along what kinds of streets? - on what kinds of streets?

•Raised cycle tracks can be considered wherever a bicycle lane would be the standard recommendation. •They are most beneficial in situations where: - along higher speed streets w/few driveways and cross streets. - along streets on which bike lanes would cause many bicyclists to feel stress bc of factors such as multiple lanes, high traffic volumes, high speed traffic, high demand for double parking, and high parking turnover. - along streets with high bicycle volumes - on streets for which conflicts at intersxns can be effectively mitigated using parking lane setbacks, bike markings thru the intersxn, & other signalized intersxn treatments. - on streets with numerous curves where vehicle encroachment into bike lanes may be a concern.

Path to CAV heaven: - how should parking be reallocated? - what types of vehicles should be prioritized, and how?

•Reallocate parking for better uses - demand for parking will decrease - reallocate for housing, shops, offices, & parks •Prioritize lighter, smaller, lower-energy, & less-polluting vehicles - tax ownership of less fuel efficient vehicles - increase fuel taxes - implement VMT taxes & combine w/VHT taxes for congested urban areas

Household charging: - advantage and disadvantages of it? - parameters in typical US & Japanese household, and what this means for charging times? - parameters in typical European household, and what this means for charging times?

•Recharging the battery from a regular household charging system has the advantage of convenience, however the disadvantage is increased charging time & the possible absence of electrical outlets at convenient locations for charging such as the garage. •Typical US & Japanese household has a 120V outlet w/a 15 Amps circuit breaker. - for a typical FEV, a 12 to 15 kWh full battery recharge would take 10 to 12 hours. •Typical EU household outlet is 220/240V @ 30 A supply - would allow sig.ly faster charging than the 110 V;could fully recharge a 12-15 kW h battery pack in 4-5 hrs.

The SUV factor: - what figures show the greater danger that SUVs & light-duty trucks pose to pedestrians, including annual sales? - What about the design of SUVs make them more deadly, including speed? - How can they explain the disproportionate increase in ped deaths, and how have automakers & safety agencies responded?

•SUVs & light-duty trucks 2-3x more likely to kill peds, even tho seem to hit peds @same rate as sedans - fatal SUV‐pedestrian collisions increased by 81% b/t 2009-2016, compared to 46% for all vehicles. •Sales of SUVs have steadily increased over the last decade, SUVs & light trucks now make up >60% of the cars bought by Americans each year •Way SUVs are designed, w/ a larger body & higher carriage, means that peds are more likely to suffer deadly blows to the torso - higher clearance also means peds can get trapped beneath the vehicle instead of being pushed onto the hood of the vehicle or out of the way •Speed, which has also been cited as a factor in the increase of ped deaths, is a greater concern for SUVs as well because these vehicles have more HP than sedans. •SUV factor is likely why ped deaths have steadily increased even as traffic deaths have slightly decreased over the same period - SUVs are much safer for the humans inside them, deadlier for the ones outside - known by automakers and safety agencies, but blame uptick on "distracted walking & legalized weed" r/t higher fatality likelihood when struck by them & trucks

Traffic flow theory: • What are shockwaves? - why are they a major safety concern? - what can generate them? • What are phantom jams?

•Shockwaves: transition zones b/t 2 traffic states (free-flow to congestion); moves thru traffic backwards as a propagating wave; occur whenever traffic conditions Δ - also present where drivers who are idle in traffic suddenly are able to accelerate - major safety concern for transport. agencies because the sudden Δ of conditions drivers experience as they pass through a shockwave often can cause accidents. - can be generated by collisions, sudden increases in speed caused by entering free flow conditions, or by a number of other means. •Phantom jams - high traffic volumes -> unstable flows - any small disturbance can generate a "ripple effect"

Properties to consider for alternative energy for transportation: - density - transportation - storage, handling, and distribution - engine performance/envtl impact - equipment reliability - investment cost

•The fuel s'have high volumetric & mass energy density. •Ease of transprtn from production site to delivery pts. •Long-storage life of fuel, min. handling, & dist.n probs. •Engine performance expected to improve sig.ly w/r/t regulated & unregulated emissions while using alt. fuel •Equipment reliability: alt.fuel must guarantee lifetime of the equipment; reliability & operational capability not modified. •Investment cost: add.l investment on an existing engine must be small to ensure operation is competitive w/oil.

Time geography: • What do space and time create? • What kind of resource is time in relation to space? • What 8 assumptions underlie time geography? • What are the implications of these assumptions? • What problem do individuals and society both face then? • What does time geography conclude?

•Space and time create limitations •Time is a resource to overcome space - mobility: trading time for space to access activites - ability to command time and mobility resources •Underlying time geography is a small set of assumptions describing fundamental conditions for human behavior: *i. humans are indivisible* *ii. humans have limited life‐spans* *iii. humans have limited capabilities for performing multiple activities at one time* *iv. every activity has a duration* *v. movement between locations in space requires time* *vi. space has a limited packing capacity* *vii. terrestrial space at any scale is limited* *viii. every situation is rooted in past situations* •Implication is that time & space are scarce resources - humans have limited temporal resources (i & ii) that cannot be divided infinitely among activities that require time (iii & iv). - movement in space requires temporal resources (v) - movement is necessary since everything cannot happen in the same place (vi) & the space available at any scale is limited (vii). - finally, history matters: past constrains what is possible in the present (viii). •The individual & society face a similar problem: how to pack projects & activities into the limited resources of time and space. •Time geography says that human behavior cannot occur w/o the necessary condition of a feasible allocation of time and space to activities

What does the sparse spatial distribution & limited durations of activities require people to do? • What trade-off does this involve? • What determines the efficiency of this tradeoff? What does a Space-time path trace? • When is the path vertical, and when horizontal?

•Sparse spatial distribution and limited durations of activities means that the individual must be at different locations at different time periods to participate - requires the individual to allocate time to movement - @ a fundamental level, this involves the trading of time for space by the individual. - transport. & ICTs determine efficiency of this tradeoff by allowing more space to be overcome per unit time. •Space-time path traces the movement of an individual in space with respect to time. - path is vertical when the individual is stationary in space and is horizontal when she is moving through space (i.e., trading time for space).

What is an air pollutant? What form can it take, and kinds of genesis? What are primary and secondary pollutants? Are these categories mutually exclusive?

•Substance in the air that can cause harm to humans & the environment •Can be in the form of solid particles, liquid droplets, or gases •May be natural or human-made •*Primary pollutants:* directly emitted from a process, eg. ash from a volcanic eruption, CO gas from exhaust or SO2 released from factories •*Secondary pollutants:* not emitted directly, rather they form in the air when primary pollutants react or interact - important eg: ground level ozone — one of the many 2ndary pollutants that make up photochemical smog •Some pollutants may be both: emitted directly & formed from other primary pollutants.

Which states are killing pedestrians the most, and on what basis is this measured? Why are these states in particular so deadly to pedestrians, and what does this have to do with the way they developed?

•Sun Belt states of FL, AL, LA, SC, TX, & others home to some of the country's most spread‐out metro areas - among the states w/highest "pedestrian death index," measures how deadly it is for people to walk there. The - calculated based on fatality #s, controlling for pop.n & how many people walk to work, for 2008-2017. •Why the Sun Belt? - partly bc much of the growth in these places occurred in the age, & devt scale of, the automobile - previous research found that in general, the most sprawling metro areas w/wider roads & longer blocks typically cluster in the southern states. - rsrch has consistently linked these sprawling growth patterns to higher rates of both traffic‐related deaths for people walking & traffic‐related deaths overall

Describe the following New Urbanism design features: - what does the community have? - what kinds of spaces? - building layouts?

•The community has a center - a transit stop should be located at this center •Quality public spaces, including sidewalks & paths, parks, streetscapes, & public buildings •Buildings are close to the sidewalk & to each other, creating an urban sense of spatial definition

What is equity? What are the 3 key equity components?

•The distribution of benefits & costs over members of society •3 key equity components: 1. The benefits & costs being distributed 2. The pop'n groups over which benefits & costs are distributed 3. The distributive principle that determines whether the distribution is fair & appropriate

FIXED TRANSIT SERVICES: What does public transit need to be to be useful to individual riders? What does this^ explain about transit? What characterizes fixed TS, and what power does this give riders? What is the advantage of fixed services, and in terms of what? How much transit ridership in the US is fixed?

•To be useful to ppl who aren't coordinating with one another, public transit has to be predictable. - why transit is dominated by fixed services •Same path, at the same time, day after day, so that customers can plan around the pattern •Fixed services are most efficient form of transit in terms of ability to carry many pssgrs for ea. hour of the driver's time •Describes >99% of transit ridership in the United States

What is the relationship between transportation & energy at its core? What is it often a compromise between? For passengers & high-value goods, what type of compromise is made, and why? For freight transport & econ.s of scale, what type of compromise is made, and why?

•Transportation & energy is at its core a standard physics application where giving momentum to a mass requires a proportional amount of energy - often a compromise b/t speed & energy consumption, related to the desired econ. returns •Pssgrs & high value goods can be transported by fast but energy intensive modes since the time component of their mobility tends to have a high value -> conveys the willingness to use more energy - compromise of energy for speed •Econ.s of scale, mainly those achieved by maritime transport, are linked to low levels of energy consumption per unit of mass being transported, but @a lower speed; fits relatively well freight transport imperatives, particularly for bulk - compromise of speed for energy

What influences air quality near major roadways? How does traffic relate to emissions, and what things mediate this relationship? What lead to the highest concentrations seen in the morning? What vehicle-related processes elevate emissions near major roadways? What parts of the built and natural envt have an impact on pollutant dispersion, and how does the concentration of it relate to proximity to traffic? How does wind affect concentrations?

•Type of vehicles & fuel used, traffic activity, & the wind speed and direction can all have big effects on pollutant levels near major roadways •Generally, the more traffic, the higher the emissions; however, certain activities like congestion, stop‐&‐go movement, or high‐speed operations can increase emissions of certain pollutants. •Combo of rush hour & calm winds in the morning often leads to the highest concentrations during this time of the day •Emissions can be elevated near major roadways & arise from multiple vehicle‐related processes, incl. tailpipe exhaust, evaporation of fuel, brake & tire wear, & dust kicked up from traffic •The presence of sound walls, buildings & vegetation also has an impact on pollutant dispersion - typically, pollutant concentrations decrease w/dist away from traffic altho the degree of this decrease varies •Highest concentrations of roadway pollutants occur on or just downwind of a roadway - w/greater distance from a roadway, concentrations generally decrease to background levels w/in 500‐600ft - pollutant concentrations tend to be higher when winds blow from the road & wind speeds are low.

Network flow theory: • What does the User optimal (UO) pattern result from? When does equilibrium occur in this case? How is cost minimized differently? • What does System optimal (SO) result from? When does equilibrium occur in this case?

•UO pattern results from travelers minimizing their avg costs: equilibrium occurs when no traveler can reduce their travel costs by unilaterally switching routes - HE, although all travelers are on minimal cost routes, the overall system cost is not minimal. •SO results from travelers minimizing their marginal costs: their impacts on the travel costs & congestion in the network - equilibrium occurs when travelers cannot reduce the overall system cost by unilaterally switching routes.

Person-based approach to accessibility: • What data does it use, @ what scale, to examine what? • How can distance from opportunities be factored in? • What characteristics can greatly influence travel behaviors? • Space-time accessibility

•Uses disaggregate data (at the individual level) to examine what opportunities are available to an individual given personal constraints, geographic context, & the transportation and communication resources available to the person •Although distance from opportunities is a significant factor to accessibility, it can only be the 1st approximation. •Characteristics of individual identity, personal constraints, or household structure can greatly influence travel behaviors of individuals. - when such is the case, rather than locational proximity, space‐time accessibility measures are advantageous as they incorporate the effect of interactions between a person's constraints and identity, with the available urban opportunities. •The methods of space‐time accessibility enable exploration into the variations of accessibility based on individual and social differences

What were the findings of an online survey of 16,193 US adults aged 18+ and 8,858 adults with children aged 3+ in household? - How many bike each year? At least twice a week? - What share older than 3yo biked at least once in a year? older than 18yo? - How frequently did those who do bike, bike? - Of those who did bike, how many only did for recreation? - How many Americans had made at least one bike trip for tranportation?

•~100 million Americans bike each year, but only ~14 mil bike at least twice a week •~34% of Americans >3yo rode bike @least 1ce in last yr. - for adults >18yo, share was a slightly smaller 29%. - but of everyone who bikes, less than half ride more than twice a month, & just 14% bike at least twice a week. •Slightly more than half the people who bike made only recreational trips. •~15% of Americans —or 45 million people— made at least one bicycle trip for transportation in the last year.

Vehicle to grid electricity: - what does it refer to? what can V2G enabled vehicles do? - what could EVs enabled with this tech achieve? where could this take place? - what would this be beneficial to? what combination could be used to create a mutually beneficially system? - what would this benefit mean for utility providers? how would EV owners stand to gain financially? - how could EVs be used to benefit the power grid?

•V2G electricity refers to the technology of bidirectional flow of electricity b/t the EV and the grid. - V2G enabled vehicles can therefore transfer electricity both to & from the power grid as necessary. •W/this tech, EVs could use their excess battery capacity to export power back to the grid, thus potentially assist & supplement electricity supply during peak hours. - could take place either in the G2V charging stations themselves or in private home outlets •Beneficial to the electric utility: would allow for lower electricity generation costs since the more expensive peaking units would be committed to a lesser extent. - if export of electrical power combined w/off-peak import charging it would potentially even out the demand for electricity; financially beneficial to both the electric utilities and the EV owners. •For the utilities a smoother demand curve would translate to more economic unit commitment & economic dispatch. - EV owner would stand to gain from the difference of buying electricity (charging) at the low off-peak rates, while selling it to the grid at higher peak demand rates. •EVs could be used to stabilize the grid from any intermittent energy sources w/generation profiles that do not match demand profiles, such as wind power

How might AVs impose further hassles on pedestrians? Who might this disproportionately affect? What other negative effect could stricter jaywalking laws have?

•W/AVs, anti-pedestrian laws could become even more draconian, and a new excuse to hassle citizens. - jaywalking laws can be applied inequitably to target minority groups and the homeless, disproportionately affecting the poor. - stricter jaywalking laws could also shift the way ppl view walking & turn potential pedestrians into drivers—causing more congestion in the process. •The separation of pedestrians from streets to "improve" traffic—which really means privileging cars over people in downtown areas—could become a reality if we allow city planners to be seduced by carmakers.

• How have oil prices been linked w/amount of driving since the early 70s? • Nevertheless, how have annual growth rates of VMT changed since the 80s, what is this partially linked w/ and compounded by, and why is the period b/t 2009 and 2014 particularly unusual? • What could be argued then, but what fact in 2015 still challenges this?

•When oil prices rise sharply growth rates in vehicle‐miles traveled (VMT) plummet, linked also w/a concomitant recession - only during an oil shock (1973, 1979‐80 & 2008) that changes in VMT went negative - counter shocks have limited impacts, implying sharp drops in oil prices doesn't significantly boost vehicular travel; simply reduces operating costs •Declining annual growth rates of VMT in time, w/avg figures of 4% in the 80s, 2.5% in the 90s & a convergence -> zero in the 1st decade of the 21stC - partially linked w/a maturity of diffusion of the car, compounded by lower levels of econ growth - period b/t 2009 & 2014 is rather unusual since oil prices were higher yet growth of VMT remained ~0%. •Could be argued that peak mobility in the use of the automobile may have been achieved - since 2006, growth stopped & then reversed sharply - still, a sharp drop in oil prices in 2015 was associated w/vehicle‐miles growth rates around 2%.

How many people die each year from motor vehicle related incidents? For what age group is it the leading cause of death? In what countries does the vast majority of such deaths occur, and what is somewhat paradoxical about this? What proportion of these deaths are comprised of "vulnerable road users"? W/o action, how many such deaths are predicted to occur in 2020? What proportion of countries have comprehensive laws relating to the 5 key risk factors (and what are these)?

•~1.3 million people die each year. •Leading cause of death among young people, 15-29yrs •>90% occur in low‐ & middle‐income countries, even tho these countries have <half of the world's vehicles. •46% of fatalities are "vulnerable road users": peds, cyclists, and motorcyclists. •W/o action, road traffic crashes are predicted to result in the deaths of around 1.9 mil people annually by 2020. •Only 15% of countries have comprehensive laws relating to 5 key risk factors: 1. speeding, 2. drinking and driving, 3. use of motorcycle helmets, 4. seat‐belt use, 5. child restraints

What 3 main factors affect GHG impact on climate change? How is concentration measured? How does the durability of them in the atmosphere determine their global distribution? How is impact measured?

*1) How much of these gases are in the atmosphere?* •Concentration, amount of a particular gas in the air - larger emissions of GHGs lead to higher concentrations, measured in ppm, ppb, or ppt - 1 ppm is equivalent to 1 drop of water diluted into ~13 gal of liquid (roughly the fuel tank of a compact car) *2) How long do they stay in the atmosphere?* •Each of these gases can remain in the atmosphere for diff.t amounts of time, ranging from a few years to 1000s of years, all long enough to become well mixed - so the amount that is measured in the atmosphere is ~same all over the world, regardless emission source *3) How strongly do they impact the atmosphere?* •Some gases are more effective than others at making the planet warmer & "thickening the Earth's blanket." - GWP reflects how long it remains in the atmosphere, on avg, & how strongly it absorbs energy - higher GWP absorb more energy, per lb, than gases w/a lower GWP, & thus contribute more to warming Earth

Social sustainability: main concerns, what higher level necessities, what level more concerned w/, and how can its end be differently specified?

- basic human needs - higher level social & cultural necessities: ie. security, freedom, education, recreation, etc. - more concerned w/individuals than w/nations/species - can be specified in diff.t ways (eg. wellness of max # of ppl vs provision of min needs to poorest groups)

3 pillars of sustainability: measures of economic sustainability and how it treats growth differently

- efficiency, economic growth, innovation - economists tend to assume inevitability of econ. growth and don't address issue of sust. growth - sust. society may limit econ. growth & must deal w/externalities of ecosystems and LT global health

3 pillars of sustainability: focus and requirement of the environmental pillar

- focuses on natural biological processes & cont.d productivity and fcning of ecosystems - long-term eco.l sust.y requires protection of genetic resources & conservation of biological diversity

What are the 3 major threats to transportation?

1. *Sea level rise* - due to melting ice, thermal expansion - 13 of the nation's 47 largest airports have >=1 runway w/an elevation w/in the reach of moderate-high storm surge; will pose a threat to low-lying infrastructure 2. *Heat stress* - due to increased temperatures 3. *Extreme storms* - due to more water & energy in atmosphere

For what 3 reasons is achieving sustainable transportation challenging? What is urban metabolism and binge urbanity?

1. *Transport. and econ growth are coupled* - eg. sig. dec. in traffic after 2008 recession - unrel. trans. -> difficulty getting workforce to business -> econ. dec. - balancing growth and sust.y is a challenge 2. *Social dilemmas* - urban metabolism: higher the avail.y of transport, higher the metabolism - binge urbanity: easily avail. access to urban resources -> overconsumption of them 3. *Ppl crowding into cities*

Prior to mechanization, what were the 2 main forms of travel? What was the avg speed of these? Carrying capacities of overland travel? For these reasons, where did cities establish geographically and for what reasons?

1. Animal labor for land transport 2. wind for maritime transport - avg speed of 15mph - horse capacity 275 lbs, camels 440 lbs - cities emerged along river systems due to ability to trade over longer distances and maintain political, econ., and cultural cohesion over larger territory

What are 7 points supporting the WS case for growth optimism?

1. Env.l quality is a "luxury good": as income grows, env.l concerns do too proportionally - requires a pol.sys. that's responsive to the ppl 2. Richer countries/regions have greater demands and means to address env.l issues - have adv.d social, legal, and fiscal infrastructures to enforce regulations & promote programs 3. Replacement of aging/inefficient human-made cap'l w/more modern/efficient 4. Economic mix: developed economies are based on service industries which *may* be greener than industry - BUT, industry has to occur somewhere 5. Growth isn't bad: can be growth in *value* of output, can be "green growth" from tech. improvements 6. Poverty leads to env.l degradations, which leads to poverty, and so on; economic growth breaks the cycle 7. Ppl w/higher incomes have fewer children

What are the 3 premises of the unlimited substitutability assumption?

1. Nat'l resources are v.abundant 2. It is efficient to substitute human-capital for nat'l capital (increases productivity >100% relative to costs) 3. Technical progress can overcome any resource constraints

What are the 5 types of GHG sinks that serve as destinations for them, good or bad? Give examples for each

1. Physical change - eg. condensation & precipitation remove water vapor from atmosphere 2. Chemical rxns w/in atmosphere - eg. CH4 oxidizes & degrades to CO2 & water vapor 3. Physical xchg b/t the atmosphere & the other components of the planet (eg. mixing of atmospheric gases, esp. CO2, into the oceans) 4. Chemical change @the interface b/t the atmosphere & other systems (eg. CO2 reduced by photosynthesis of plants & dissolves into oceans - unfortunately this acidifies the ocean tho :/) 5. Photochemical change - halocarbons dissociated by UV light, tho has harmful effects on ozone layer

What are the 5 major transportation eras?

1. Pre-industrial (up to 1800 CE) 2. Industrial rev.n (1800-1870) 3. Emergence of modern transport. (1870-1920) 4. Fordist (1920-1970) 5. Globalization (1970-??)

What are 6 points supporting the SS case for growth pessimism?

1. Richer ppl consume more 2. Efficiency gains from tech improvement can be offset by greater use/demand for resources (Jevon's paradox) 3. Social & cultural constraints limit shifts in production & consumption 4. Structural changes in econ. complex: industrialization of trad.l economies from agri -> manuf. is highly resource-intensive 5. Rich, greener countries simply outsource high-impact industries to poorer countries 6. More ways than econ. growth to reduce pop'n growth: female empowerment, education, social programs, etc.

What 4 reasons does Strong Sust.y give for their non-substitutability assumption?

1. We're largely uncertain & ignorant about the consequences of depleting nat'l capital 2. Nat'l capital is often irreplaceable 3. Some forms of natural capital provide basic life-support functions 4. Indiv'ls are highly adverse to loss of natural capital & can't be compensated for this loss by inc.d consumption

According to Banister (2008), what are the 2 fundamental principles of the transport planning approach? How does escape theory contradict the first point?

1. travel is a derived demand, not an activity undertaken for its own sake - Escape theory: leisure mobility is an attempt to compensate for dec.g quality of life & travel opportunities sought to get away from everyday env.t 2. ppl minimize their generalized costs of travel as costs of travel + time taken for travel

What are the 3 possible cases of growth optimism vs pessimism?

• Case A: dec. in env.l degradation w/higher incomes • Case B: inc. then dec. in env.l degradation w/higher incomes • Case C: inc. in env.l degradation w/inc.g incomes

What is the socio-ecological perspective of sustainability?

• It's a dynamic, balanced and adaptive evolutionary process • co-evolution of reduction in city's use of nat'l resources and prod. of waste w/improvement in its livability

What is the ecological perspective of sustainability?

• Minimizes env.l resources & reduces the impact on env.l sinks • Stays w/in carrying capacity of supporting ecosystems

What is Space-time convergence? What do transportation technologies do w/in this context, and what has happened to the world in terms of travel? What is it equal to? Describe this using London & Edinburgh as an example

• the dramatic impact of space-adj.g tech.s on the org.n of human activities in geographic space - trans.n tech.s literally bring places closer together w/respect to the travel time required - world has shrunk over past 2 centuries w/respect to travel time - STC = chg in travel time / chg in chronological time - time-distance b/t London & Edinburgh shrunk @ avg rate of 29.3 min/yr over the period from 1650 to 1950

What were the 2 main sustainability issues of transportation in the Pre-Industrial era? Elaborate on one of them

•*Deforestation* due to shipbuilding demands for timber and metallurgy - Europe denuded of trees by 18th century; until 15th-16th centuries EU was almost completely forested - iron used for armaments and weaponry, required high temperatures to produce, thus causing 2-fold deforestation effects - NA 1st regarded as source of timber for EU •*Overgrazing* for animal transport

What 2 kinds of optimism is Weak Sust.y a paradigm of?

•*Resource optimism*: as resources become scarce, market mechanisms (ie. price) and tech. progress will shift consumption •*Env.l optimism*: rising consumption can compensate for env.l degradation such as declines in resources or increases in pollution

What were the major milestones in telecommunications between 1844 and 1895? What effects did this have on RRs and industry?

•1844: Morse builds 1st line •1852: >40,000km of lines in service in US •1866: 1st successful transatl. transmission •1895: every continent linked by lines •RRs: scheduling, safety •Industry: org.d production, separated mgmt from factories, central busi. districts arose

Describe timeline of the electric streetcar's reign in Columbus: beginning, mgmt transitions, its heyday, and its demise

•1888: expm.l electric SC ran on Chitt to Fairgrounds •1892: completely replaced SCs, owned entirely by Cbus Street Railway Co. •1893: merged w/electric light business to form Cbus Railway & Light Co. •1920s: heydey, >700mi of tracks, still cost 5 cents •1933: modernization program introduced trolley coach & bus service •1948: transition away from SCs complete :(

What were 4 major milestones/phases of air travel dev.t?

•1903: Wright brothers take 1st flight •1919: 1st commercial air service in FRA •Post-WW2: capacity, speed, & avg. income of passengers inc.d •1958: 1st successful commercial jet plane (Boeing 707)

What was the length and location of the 1st RR line? How many miles of RR were there in England in the 1850s? What transition occurred in the 1860s? What major milestone was achieved in 1869, and how did this affect East to West coast travel? Why did RRs so quickly become the dominant mode of transport, and what did this mean for canals?

•1st RR: Manchester to Liverpool (40mi) •By 1850s, 6000mi in ENG; also in West. EU and NA •Standardized & integrated in 1860s - initially linked 2 cities at a time, ea. line owned by separate co. - switch to integrated systems servicing whole nations; standardized gauges & services •1869: Transcont. RR - time from NY->SF dec.d from 6 mths to 1 wk! •Flexible form of inland transport., greater spatial coverage and could carry heavy loads - led many canals to fall into disrepair, close

In what way was the streetcar pioneering and an improvement on walking? How did they transform the expansion of cities, (spec. what did this do in Europe?), the nature of downtowns, and the structure of neighborhoods?

•1st form of urban mass transit; 3x walking speed -> expanded spatial struct. of cities •Cities now expanded along transit lines, formation of transit corridors - In EU, extended to adj. towns, which were integrated into expanding city -> urban activities beyond city limits •Dwntns became spec.d commercial districts •Neighborhoods stratified by SES: rich in early suburbs, poor in central areas

What 3 terms have been coined to describe the changing nature of place? Describe each in greater detail

•A shrinking but shriveling world ‐ Waldo Tobler - transport costs have collapsed, but relative differences are increasing at all scales - prior to IR, everyone traveled at the same speed, although perhaps at different levels of comfort - now: some ppl have cars, others use public transit; some regions have adv.d trans.n infrastruct., some don't; some fly commercial, some have private jets •An accelerated world - James Gleick (2000) - inc.g mobility @ all geographic scales - activity organization is more complex •A fragmenting world ‐ Helen Couclelis - information and communication technologies (ICTs) - activities are disconnecting from place

Describe the Walking & Horsecar Era (1800-1890): What was the accessibility time/dist. range of walking, and what effect did this have on city layouts, econ. activities, and residential areas? What did horsecars do for transit, and what did first allow in terms of city layout? What type of dev.'t was enabled by RRs, and where especially?

•Accessibility through walking of 2-4mi in ~45min; compact "circular" cities limited by walking •Econ. activities & resid.l areas concentrated in central node, imposed by reduced mobility •In absence of widespread mass transport., horsecars provided limited, expensive public transit - allowed dev.t of 1st urban transit corridors •From the 1850s, RRs enabled radial dev.t adjacent to RR stations, esp. in EU & older Amer.n cities (e.g. NY)

What is the effect of activities occurring @more places and times? What are 5 societal effects of this? Describe each

•Activities @more places & times is loosening the time regulation imposed by the industrial society 1. Shorter planning times for activities - eg. flocking behavior: indiv.s develop only vague social plans in adv. & instead allow events, meeting times, & places to evolve in real-time through texting 2. Decr.g time discipline w/r/t meeting appointments 3. Time colonization: extension of formerly time-restricted activities into other time frames 4. Demand for flexible work schedules (aka flextime) 5. Expanded operating hours for shops & other facilities - inc.g demand for 24/7 availability for both offline and online activities

What does the Fragmentation Hypothesis posit? Describe the 3 fault lines

•Activities are becoming more fragmented along three major fault lines: 1. *Spatial fragmentation* occurs bc there is no longer a close connection b/t particular places and activities. - eg. resources such as a portable computer & WiFi, plus sufficient mobility -> person can work @ home, a coffee shop, hotel room, airport, or public park. - consequently, no longer a privileged location for work; activity is split among an indefinite # of locations. 2. *Temporal fragmentation* allows greater flexibility W/R/T timing of activities. - eg. work need not occur during traditional business hours, or shopping during designated trading hours. 3. *Modal fragmentation*: no longer a single way to conduct a given activity - meeting can occur in person or via teleconferencing

What were the advantages and disadvantages of electric vehicles?

•Advantages - less vibration, smell, & noise - EVs didn't require gear chgs - better range than steam vehicles - didn't require hand cranks •Disadvantages - top speed of 20mph - range of only 30-40mi due to battery limitations

How was air transportation transformed in the '70s?

•Air transport. dramatically expanded in 1970s - inc.d passenger capacity (max of 400 in 1969) - reduced air fares thru econ.s of scale/hub-&-spoke system - opened intercont.l air transport. to mass market

What is the social equity problem w/cars?

•Americans spend more on cars than food & health care •Car mono-cultures creates social exclusion based on ability to pay/drive

Water vapor: what positive feedback loop is occurring as a result of atmospheric warming? What negative effects could this also cause? Why are the outcomes of both of these effects and the impact of water vapor so unknown and nebulous?

•As the temp of the atmosphere rises, more water is evaporated from ground storage (rivers, oceans, reservoirs, soil) - bc the air is warmer, the absolute humidity can be higher (in essence, the air is able to 'hold' more water when it's warmer), leading to more water vapor in the atmosphere - as a GHG, the higher concentration of water vapor is then able to absorb more thermal IR energy radiated from the Earth, thus further warming the atmosphere - the warmer atmosphere can then hold more water vapor, causing a 'positive feedback loop'. - huge scientific uncertainty exists in defining the extent and importance of this feedback loop. •As water vapor increases in the atmosphere, more of it will eventually also condense into clouds, which are more able to reflect incoming solar radiation (thus allowing less energy to reach the Earth's surface and heat it up) •We have poor measurements of global water vapor, so it is not certain by how much atmospheric concentrations have risen in recent decades or centuries - though satellite measurements, combined with balloon data and some in-situ ground measurements indicate generally positive trends in global water vapor.

What is the percentages of global GHG emissions by type?

•CO2: 76% •CH4: 16% •N2O: 6% •f-gases: 2%

How do cars contribute to sprawl? What fiscal burden does this resulting sprawl put on cities?

•Cars inc. the radius of a city, causing a corr.g geometric increase in the area over which the city needs to provide infrastructure and public services - when coupled w/a declining pop'n, end result is fiscal depression

According to Banister's Sustainable Mobility Paradigm, what is the most sustainable settlement form: how much of the population should it have, how dense, what kind of dev.t, and level of connection w/each other? What should it be designed for? What are the 4 major strategies to achieve sustainable transportation?

•Cities are most sustainable settlement form, should be where 70-80% (pref. >50k ppl/city) of world pop'n lives - should be designed to facilitate sust. mobility by designing cities to make cars obsolete - medium densities (>40p/hectare) - mixed-use dev.t - linked w/other cities -> hierarchy of polycentric cities •4 major strategies 1. Substitution: reducing need to travel 2. Modal shift: transport policy measures, dev.t of new trans. hierarchy w/cars @bottom 3. Dist. reduction: land-use policy measures, chgs to urban form 4. Efficiency inc.s: tech. innovation

What was were the diameters of cities for obtaining goods and for daily travel? What kinds of goods were the exception to this? What two empires formed exceptions as well?

•Cities: 30mi for provisions, 3mi for daily travel - lrgst cities before IR never had area > 12mi •Luxury goods were internationally traded (eg. silk road) •Roman empire est.d innovative road system, Chinese canal system

Describe the stages of maritime internat'l transport during the IR era: timeline of clipper ships and how advanced maritime trade; role of improved charting; composite ships; and finally major milestones of steamships and advantages of them over earlier vessels

•Clipper ships: 1st regular maritime routes in early 1800s - dominated ocean trade until late 1850s; inc.d maritime trade speed by 50% from 1750 to 1830 •Elaboration of accur. navig. charts where prevailing winds & sea currents could be used to adv. of navig. •Composite ships (mix of wood & iron) took over lrg trade prtn until ~1900 •Steamships: 1st successful use in 1807 - able to navigate irrespective of wind direction -> could access river systems, inland navigation - crossed Atlantic in 1820 (29 days NY to LVRPL) - 1838: 1st reg. services for trans.atl. passenger transport - 1840: invntn of propeller - 1860: rvltnzd by usage of steel armatures, allowed lrgr ship size

What is nitrous oxide? Where is it naturally produced? What are the main synthetic sources? How is it broken down?

•Colorless, non‐flammable gas w/a sweetish odor, commonly known as "laughing gas", sometimes used as an anesthetic •Naturally produced in the oceans and in rainforests. •Man‐made sources include the use of fertilizers in agriculture, nylon and nitric acid production, cars w/catalytic converters & the burning of organic matter •Broken down in the atmosphere by chemical rxns driven by sunlight

What is methane? Which fossil fuel is it the main constituent of? When is it released, and what are its main natural and anthropogenic sources? What happens to most of it in the atmosphere? What makes it more warming than CO2, but less prevalent?

•Colorless, odorless non‐toxic gas consisting of molecules made up of four hydrogen atoms and one carbon atom •Combustible, the main constituent of natural gas •Released when organic matter decomposes in low oxygen environments - natural sources include wetlands, swamps and marshes, termites, and oceans - human sources include the mining of fossil fuels and transportation of natural gas, digestive processes in ruminant animals such as cattle, rice paddies and the buried waste in landfills •Most is broken down in the atmosphere by reacting with small very reactive molecules called hydroxyl (OH) radicals •Extremely effective absorber of radiation, though its atmospheric concentration is less than CO2 and its lifetime in the atmosphere is brief (10‐12 years), compared to some other greenhouse gases (such as CO2, N2O, CFCs).

How did the capacity of ships change dramatically between the 1960s and '80s? Why were they slow to develop? What served as impetuses for shipbuilding?

•Crude Carriers capacity increased from 100k tons in 1960s to 550k in 1980s •Slow to develop (before globalization), required lots of labor to load & unload - but growth on Internat'l trade & WW2 gave strong impetus for shipbuilding

Why do current transport modes pose a risk to public health in terms of inactivity? What's an example of this in urban form? What correlation is seen b/t active forms of transport and obesity rates across countries

•Current transport modes have lrgly engineered physical activity out of our lifestyles - eg. most buildings have elevators in center of entrance, stairwells hidden off to side - physically inactive lifestyles are a major public health crisis •Obesity rates highest in countries w/lowest rates of walking/biking (ie. USA, AUS), lowest in countries w/highest walk/bike use (ie. SUI, NED)

What are the main assertions of both ecological and sustainable economics? What is does the conservation ethic prescribe?

•Ecological econ: consumption shouldn't deplete nat'l capital @a faster rate than it can be replaced by viable & durable human capital •Sustainable econ: prioritization of development (inc.d quality) over growth (inc.d quantity) •Conservation ethic: incr. both efficiency AND prices

How do economic growth and transport impact each other? [ REVISE THIS ]

•Econ. growth creates transport impacts which produces econ. and env.l impacts which inhibits transport services which enables econ. growth •Econ. & Env.l impacts - pollution can prevent certain activities, congestion can inc. costs •Econ. growth impacts transport - stimulates an inc.d demand for transport services, changes in the nature of the services desired •Transport enables econ. growth - "creates" raw materials by making otherwise unusable commodities accessible - "creates" labor by broadening area from which a firm can draw its workforce

What are greenhouse gases? How do they effect the greenhouse effect by differentially impacting short- and longwave radiation? Which ones occur naturally, and which synthetically?

•GHGs are gases which allow direct sunlight (relative shortwave energy) to reach the Earth's surface unimpeded, but trap longwave radiation. - as the shortwave energy (that in the visible and ultraviolet portion of the spectra) heats the surface, longer-wave (infrared) energy (heat) is re-radiated to the atmosphere. - GHGs absorb this energy, thereby allowing less heat to escape back to space, and 'trapping' it in the lower atmosphere. - many GHGs occur naturally in the atmosphere, such as CO2, CH4, water vapor, and nitrous oxide. - GHGs that are human-made include the chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and Perfluorocarbons (PFCs), as well as sulfur hexafluoride (SF6)

What 2 factors does the Global Warming Potential of a GHG depend on? What is it measured relative to? How does radiative forcing and atmospheric lifetime determine it over time? Why it is hard to specify CO2, and what then is its GWP? What is the GWP of CH4 at 20, 25, 100, and 500 years?

•GWP of a GHG depends on both the efficiency of the molecule as a GHG & its atmospheric lifetime. - measured relative to the same mass of CO2 & evaluated for a specific timescale. - eg. if a gas has a high radiative forcing but also a short lifetime, it will have a large GWP on a 20yr scale but small one on 100yr scale (radiative forcing is loosely defined as the change in net irradiance at atmospheric boundaries b/t diff.t layers of the atmosphere.) - conversely, if molecule has longer atmsphric lifetime than CO2 its GWP will incr w/the timescale cnsdrd •CO2 has a variable atmospheric lifetime, can't be specified precisely. - while >half of the CO2 emitted is currently removed from the atmosphere w/in a century, some fraction (~20%) of emitted CO2 remains in the atmosphere for many 1000s of years. - therefore, CO2 is defined to have a GWP of 1 over all time periods; serves as benchmark for GWP calculations •CH4 has atmospheric lifetime of 12 ± 3 years & a GWP of 72 over 20 yrs, 25 over 100 yrs & 7.6 over 500 yrs - decrease @longer times bc methane is degraded to water & CO2 thru chemical rxns in the atmosphere.

How have global emissions of CO2 changed since 1900? How have CO2 concentrations varied over the past 800,000 years -- what caused these variations, and what are they called? What was the ceiling of CO2 concentration during this period, what in human history has changed this, and how do concentrations now compare to that huge period of time? How much of this can be attributed to human emissions?

•Global emissions increased from 2 bil. tonnes of CO2 in 1900 to over 36 bil. tonnes 115 years later !! •Consistent fluctuations in CO2 concentrations; these periods of rising and falling CO2 coincide w/the onset of ice ages (low CO2) & interglacials (high CO2) - these periodic fluctuations are caused by changes in the Earth's orbit around the sun - called Milankovitch cycles. - over this period, atmospheric concentrations of CO2 did not exceed 300 ppm •Changed with the Industrial Revolution and the rise of human emissions of CO2 from burning fossil fuels - see a rapid rise in global CO2 concentrations over the past few centuries, and in recent decades in particular •For 1st time, concentrations didn't only rise >300ppm but are now well over 400ppm •Almost all of it can be attributed to human emissions: aerosols have played a slight cooling role in global climate, and natural variability has played a very minor role

What were the impacts of RRs on speed and integration? What was created in response to scheduling demands? What did it open up, and how is Chicago exemplary of this?

•Greatly reduced travel times - 1st ones 3x faster than stagecoach •Greater econ., soc.l, & pol. integration •Creation of standard time zones (1884) •Opened a vast pool of resources (eg. Chicago turned into giant urban center it is today bc was chosen as intermediary RR point)

What are Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)? When were they produced for? Where do they end up in the atmosphere, and why? How are they broken down, and why does this deplete ozone? How do they compare in number and impact to CO2? How have they been internationally regulated, but why do they remain atmospherically present nevertheless?

•Group of synthetic compounds containing chlorine, fluorine & carbon;not found anywhere in nature •Production of CFCs began in the 1930s for the purpose of refrigeration, subsequently utilized as propellants in aerosols, as blowing agents in foam manufacture & in air conditioning •No removal processes or sinks for CFCs in the lowest part of the atmosphere (troposphere) - as a result they are transported up into the stratosphere, b/t 10-50 km above the Earth's surface, where they're broken down by UV radiation from the Sun, releasing free chlorine atoms which cause significant ozone depletion. •Amounts of CFCs in the atmosphere are very small, measured in parts per trillion, but they do contribute significantly to the enhancement of the natural greenhouse effect, bc they are great at trapping heat. - molecule for molecule some CFCs are 1000s of times stronger than CO2 as GHGs •Since the dangers caused by CFCs to the ozone layer were first identified, their use has gradually been phased out, accg to Montreal Agreements - however, CFCs have long lifetimes in the atmosphere before they are broken down by sunlight, & consequently they will continue to enhance the greenhouse effect well into the 21st century

What effects heat waves cause to transport infrastructure? What effects could warmer temperatures in the Arctic have as well? What effects will heat stress have on people

•Heat waves could cause thermal expansion on bridge joints, buckling of pavement, & deformation of RR tracks •Incr.d temps could also upset aircraft lift-off load limits •Warmer temps in the Arctic could thaw permafrost, causing subsidence of roads, rail beds, bridge supports, & pipelines •Heat stress to people: - hotter temp.s combined w/urban heat island effects - active transportation will become uncomfortable, unhealthy, and hazardous - tension w/promoting urban densification & active transportation

What is the outcome and problems with a hypercoordinated city? What is a problem w/activity intensification? What may it be increasing? What mismatch is their b/t the speeds of 2 societal components, and what will this cause?

•Hypercoordinated city creates potential for pos fdbk loops & nonlinear dynamics; city becomes more complex & less predictable - decentralization of control & coordination weakens the fndtn of policy & planning bc they're based on centralized control & coordination. - lack of 1-to-1 correspondences b/t activities, places, & times confounds the analyst's & planner's attempts to understand & org. human activities by place & time. •Activity intensification may be incr.g social metabolism: rates of resource consumption * waste output from cities, regions & societies. - human systems sped up, but physical systems remain @same pace -> cascading & amplifying failures - making faster systems more efficient won't necessarily make them more sustainable (Jevon's paradox)

What improvement increased demand for cars w/greater range? What discovery, 2 inventions, and innovative process led to the decline of the electric car?

•Improved roads b/t cities; vehicles w/greater range needed •Discovery of oil - gas cars faster and greater range •Invention of electric starter (1912) •Wider use of mufflers •Mass production by Ford

What is the congestion problem with cars? In terms of time, accounting for delays, & commuting

•In US, 7 bil. extra hours spent due to congestion - 42 hrs/rush-hr commuter •In maj. cities, drivers have to plan 2x travel time to acct for irregular delays •Extreme commutes (>1hr both ways) are fastest growing - American commute keeps getting longer in general

Why is our current mobility not sustainable? Specifically in terms of emissions, energy use, and mode of transport

•In US, transport. is 2nd largest source of GHG emissions - also dominant in China & India •>90% of US transport. energy is from petroleum - 60% from light-duty vehicles - cars are *least-efficient* way to move ppl, but most used

What was the problem w/inland transport in the 18th century? What mode was introduced, and where, to address this issue? What then became the dominant modes of transport in the Pre-Industrial Era? What were the major constraints of this mode?

•In late 1700s, moving 1 ton cargo 30mi inland in US was *as costly* as moving it across the Atlantic •Late 1700s, canal systems began to emerge in Europe, first NED and ENG, permitting beginning of lrg mvmts of bulk freight inland and expanded regional trade - Maritime and fluvial transport. became dominant modes of Pre-Ind. era - Constrained by expensive construction & geographic coverage (only ~50% of total waterway length)

What has been the overall trend of transportation emissions since 1990, and why? How has vehicle miles traveled changed over that time as well, and what factors have contributed to this? How did average fuel economy change between 1990 and 2004, and why? How did this shift in 2005, and why?

•In terms of overall trend, from 1990 to 2017, total transportation emissions have increased due, in large part, to increased demand for travel. •Number of VMT by light‐duty motor vehicles (passenger cars & light‐duty trucks) increased by 45.9 percent from 1990 to 2017 - result of a confluence of factors: population growth, econ growth, urban sprawl, & periods of low fuel prices •B/t 1990 & 2004, avg fuel economy among new vehicles sold annually declined, as sales of light‐duty trucks increased - starting in 2005, avg new vehicle fuel economy began to increase while light‐duty VMT grew only modestly for much of the period - avg new vehicle fuel economy has improved almost every year since 2005, & the truck share is about 45% of new vehicles in model year 2016

What has recently become the biggest source of GHGs in the US? What comprises the majority of these emissions? What are the largest sources of transportation-related GHG emissions -- how much of all transportation emissions do these account for? Where do the remaining emissions come from?

•More recently, transportation has emerged as the biggest source of GHGs in the US •Majority of GHG emissions from transport. are CO2 emissions resulting from the combustion of petroleum-based products, like gasoline, in internal combustion engines. •Largest sources of transportation‐related GHG emissions include passenger cars & light‐duty trucks, including SUVs, pickup trucks, & minivans - these sources account for >half of the emissions from the transportation sector. •Remaining GHG emissions from the transportation sector come from other modes of transportation, including freight trucks, commercial aircraft, ships, boats, & trains, as well as pipelines and lubricants.

Strong sustainability: how does it regard natural capital, and define sustainability accordingly? What kind of view does it have twd economic growth? What r-ship does it posit b/t the 3 pillars?

•Nat'l capital provides fcns unsubstitutable by human-made capital •Sust.y = non-decreasing nat'l capital for future gen.s •Pessimistic view, esp. about consequences of econ. growth •3 pillars are *non-compensatory*

How much CO2 do oceans absorb yearly? How is this changing the ocean? What has this change been since the industrial revolution, and how is this almost unprecedented?

•Oceans absorb a~25% of the CO2 humans produce every year •Changing sea surface chemistry dramatically: when CO2 is absorbed by ocean, it dissolves to form carbonic acid - result, not surprisingly, is that the ocean becomes more acidic, upsetting the delicate pH balance that millions of organisms rely on •Since the IR, our seas have become ~30% more acidic, a rate not observed in 300 mil. yrs

What 2 amusement parks were built in historic Cbus and why? What did each offer? Why did they close? What did they become?

•Olentangy Park in Clintonville opened in early 1890s by CRP&L to provide place for ppl to use SC in leisure time; placed @end of SC line - lrgst amusement park in US @1 pt; roller coasters, rides, zoo animals, theater, casino, and lake house! •Another park @Indianola offered swimming pool •Both closed by WW2 due to Depression cutting down entertainment spending - Oltengany Park became appt community, Indianola shopping center and church

What is the greenhouse effect? What type of phenomenon is it -- what role have humans played in it? For instance, what change regarding it has there been since 1959? What is the scientific consensus on it historically?

•Phenomenon by which certain gases in the atmosphere trap heat that would otherwise escape to space, thereby keeping the planet warm - natural phenomenon, w/o which Earth would be prohibitively cold •However, humans are changing the strength of the greenhouse effect by increasing the proportion of GHGs in the air - eg. CO2 concentration in the atmosphere has increased from around 315 parts per mil (ppm) to over 400 ppm since 1959 •Basic principles of the GH effect were discovered in the 19th century, accepted by virtually all scientists

What is the Keeling Curve, and what is it the first significant evidence of? What has more recent research added to his findings, and what does this suggest about the source of the growth of CO2 concentrations?

•Plot of the ongoing change in concentration of CO2 in Earth's atmosphere since 1958 - 1st significant evidence of rapidly increasing CO2 levels in the atmosphere •More recent rsrch has shown that pre-industrial levels of CO2 (from 1000‐1750 AD) ranged b/t 275 & 285 ppm - all of this growth appears to stem from human activity, due to the use of fossil fuels, so that today, about one in four CO2 molecules in the atmosphere comes from us

What telecommunications dev.t occurred after the 1970s, and how did this change its function and infrastructure? What other network was installed to support it?

•Post-1970s, telecommunications successfully merged w/info tech.s - TC became medium for doing business - fiber optic cables gradually replaced copper wires; multiplied capacity to transmit info - network of satellite comm.n created to support info xchg

What transportation infrastructure did Eisenhower have built in 1956? What did this increase? What secondary effects were caused?

•Post-WW2: major hwy construction - Eisenhower Nat'l Syst. of Interstate Defense Highways (1956) - now known as Interstate Hwy System •Inc.d residential & employment decentralization •Suburban ring hwys & sub-centers ("edge cities")

What developments in public transportation, (2 modes specifically) were seen in the era of emergence of modern transport. systems? What were the societal effects of these?

•Public transport.: electric nrg widely used in 1880s - streetcars, notably in West EU & US -> 1st urban sprawl - allowed separation b/t work & residence - underground metros began to be constructed in large agglomerations (eg.London in 1863) •Bicycle: 1st shown @Paris Exhibit. in 1867 - initially adopted for leisure by rich, but soon used by working class to commute

Why did canals emerge as the first dominant mode of inland transport: what were the limitations of roads and adv.s of canals in comparison? What were 2 of the main canals built, and the total mileage of canals and waterways @their peak?

•Roads were ineffective to carry heavy loads, 1st coach services had speeds of only 5.5mph in 1750s - By 1820s turnpikes greatly improved overland transport, but only profitable for hauling compact & valuable goods - Four horses could pull 1.5 tons only 18mi/day over well-mntnd turnpike VS 100 tons 24mi/day via canal •~1700s-~1850s •Bridgewater Canal (1761) in England, Erie Canal (1825) in US •2000mi of canals in ENG by 1830, 4,250mi of navigable waterways by 1850

What are 4 oft cited reasons for why the IR happened?

•Scientific method: 17th cent shift to rational approach to laws of nature •Property rights: strengthening of democr. instit.ns and rule of law -> protection of private ownrshp •Capital markets: institutionalized capital allowed accumulation & investment in econ. ventures •Comm. & transport infrastruc.: dev't of mech.d trans. systems supported dist.n of resources & set comparative adv.s

What is the function of absorbed shortwave radiation? How does the earth stay in thermal equilibrium, what is its thermal equilibrium, and what kind of energy is expelled to stay at this equilibrium? What portions of the outgoing longwave radiation go where -- where does the 69% absorbed go, and the 31% reflected go? How do human activities affect this equilibrium?

•Short wavelength radiation is absorbed by the earth which heats the earth to a finite temperature - earth wants to stay in thermal equilibrium, so must re-radiate this energy •Earth has an equilibrium temperature of about 80F - @ this temp, the wavelength of the emitted radiation is in the infrared (longwave radiation) •What happens to the outgoing infrared radiation? - 15% is directly radiated back by the cloud-free land surface: 6% of that is absorbed by the atmosphere and 9% goes directly back into space - 60% is re-radiated back into space by the net emission of the atmosphere and the clouds - Thus, the total radiated back into space is 69%; this means that 31% is temporarily stored as energy and emitted back later •Of this 31%, 24% is used to facilitate evaporation - this heat is later released through condensation, process is called latent heat - 7% is stored by the earth's crust and then re-radiated at later times through a complicated heat exchange network of convection and conduction •Human activities increase atmospheric ability to absorb longwave radiation, thus producing net warming over time

85th percentile rule: - How are speed limits set, and what is the historical basis for this? - What is the SL based on, and then subsequently considered? - Thus, what are agencies setting SLs on the basis of, what is this approach referred to as, and what then is their concentration on? - What do these agencies often do when the rule is being consistently violated, what may this then lead to, and what conundrum may this leave residents and officials with?

•Speed limits set so only 15% of drivers in violation - developed in 1954 for rural highways, yet still used today for urban streets •Based on the observed operating speeds for each road segment; specifically, 85th% speed of free‐flowing traffic under good weather & visibility conditions - considered the max safe speed for any given location •Many agencies set posted SLs by what 85% of motorists "feel" is comfortable & safe for the roadway - often referred to as the "engineering approach" for setting speed limits - those agencies then concentrate enforcement on "irresponsible" driving above that posted speed limit. •HE, when these agencies recognize that 85% of ppl are driving faster than the posted SL (frequently occurs), they often choose to raise it so that more ppl will be in compliance & enforcement will be easier - thus, raising SL to match the 85th% speed may lead to even higher operating speeds & thus contribute to a cycle of speed escalation & reduced levels of safety - leaves residents & elected officials in a conundrum bc many ppl intuitively know that higher speeds have a direct correlation w/both real & perceived safety on their roadways.

What were streets before the 1920s? What hazard did cars then pose and to who specifically? What was the backlash to this, and the response of interest groups to the backlash?

•Streets were public spaces before 1920s •Once cars introd.d to cities, death skyrocketed - disproportionately children & elderly - led to backlash against cars (eg. Cincy proposed governors limit cars to 25mph) •"Motordom" fought back during 20s - automakers, dealers, and enthusiast groups worked to legally redefine street - shame pedestrians who didn't use new crosswalks

What are 3 ways ICTs can affect mobility, complicating the relationship b/t the 2?

•Substitute: decrease mobility - Eg. online shopping or telecommuting •Complement: increase mobility - Eg: email friends and colleagues; travel websites. •Modify: chg but neither incr. nor decr. mobility - changing the location and timing of activities without a net increase or decrease in frequency - Eg. timing of events such as meeting friends for dinner

What is the safety problem with cars?

•Traffic accidents are *leading cause of death* for Americans 5-34 - also becoming leading cause of death overall in poor/mid-income countries - 90% of crashes due to preventable human error

What is the distinction b/t sustainable transportation and sustainable mobility? What is the def'n of sustainable transportation accg to the Brundtland guidelines?

•Transportation: trad.l term that focuses on transport. infrastruct. & services •Mobility: more contemporary, comprehensive term, includes humans •Sustainable transportation: transport. that meets current mobility needs w/o compromising the ability of future gen.s to meet mobility needs

What were the sustainability issues of the IR transport era?

•Use of non-renew. resources (ie. coal) •Air pollution (eg. Great London Smog of 1952 killed ~4,000) •First major GHG releases into atmosphere

What was the trouble w/urban horses: financial accessibility; limitations & demands; prevalence in cities & waste problems?`

•Used for freight & leisure by rich; too exp. for widespread personal mobility •Any given animal could only work so many hrs/day •Had to be housed, groomed, fed, and cared for every day •SC co. had to pay for huge amt.s of waste - many sys.s needed >=10 horses in stable for ea. HC - as many as 4 horses per 7 humans in KC, 8:20 in Cbus - b/t 20-50lbs of manure & 1gal urine per horse - one gov't est: 95% of disease-carry. flies bred in horse dung - dead horses also clogged streets

What is carbon dioxide? When is it produced? What removes it from the atmosphere, but how do these mechanisms also release it? How does the absorption and release of it vary temporally and geographically? How has its atmospheric presence changed since industrialization?

•colorless, odorless gas consisting of molecules made up of two oxygen atoms and one carbon atom. •produced when an organic carbon compound (such as wood) or fossilized organic matter, (such as coal, oil, or natural gas) is burned in the presence of oxygen. •removed from the atmosphere by CO2 "sinks", such as absorption by seawater and photosynthesis by ocean-dwelling plankton and land plants, including forests and grasslands - seawater is also a source of CO2 to the atmosphere, along with land plants, animals, and soils, when CO2 is released during respiration •Absorption/release oscillates seasonally and hemispherically -- released in winter, absorbed in summer •Increased from 280 to 400ppm in atmosphere since industrialization

What relationship is seen b/t economic and transportation concerns? What 3 other trends are seen w/growing mobility? According to Zahavi, what portion of peoples' daily expenditures do they spend on travel?

•strong pos r-ship b/t econ dev.t & demand for mobility: - as a country/region becomes richer, tends to travel farther & faster •Other trends from growing mobility: - inc.g commuting distances - dramatic growth of non-work travel - inc. in the diversity of activity and travel patterns •Portions spent on travel: - typically 3-5 percent in developing countries - auto ownership: stabilizes @10-15 percent at ownership levels of 0.2 car per capita

What are space adjusting technologies? What is the consequence of them? What are the 2 majors types?

•techn.s that chg the nature of exper.d space w/r/t the time, cost, & effort needed to traverse that space - consequently, they redistribute human activities in space & time. - major ones include physical trans.n & info. and comm.n tech.s (ICTs)