Test 2 Hist 207 B Chapters 19-21

Eighteenth Amendment

"After one year from the ratification of this article the manufacture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquors within, the importation thereof into, or the exportation thereof from the United States and all territory subject to the jurisdiction thereof for beverage purposes is hereby prohibited."

"Cross of Gold" Speech

"Having behind us the producing masses of this nation and the world, supported by commercial interests, the laboring interests and the toilers everywhere, we will answer their demand for a gold standard by saying to them: 'You shall not press down upon the brow of labor this crown of thorns; you shall not crucify mankind upon a cross of gold.'"

Seventeenth Amendment (1913)

"The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each State, elected by the people thereof, for six years; and each Senator shall have one vote. The electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the state legislature." This was a major victory for progressives who turned to state governments in need of reform. Progressives looked at state legislatures as ill-paid, relatively undistinguished members, generally incompetent often corrupt, and totally controlled by party bosses.

Election of 1892

Benjamin Harrison was the Republican nominee, Grover Cleveland was once again nominated by the Democrats, and a third party, the People's Party, nominated James B. Weaker as its candidate (he advocated for substantial economic reform). Cleveland won 277 electoral votes to Harrison's 145 and had a popular margin of 380,000. Weaver was far behind.

Allies

Britain, France, and Russia later joined by Italy, U.S., and Japan

William Jennings Bryan

Bryan delivered one of the most famous political speeches in American history: the "Cross of Gold" speech. After hearing the speech the Democratic Convention of 1896 voted to adopt a pro-silver platform. And the next day, Bryan was nominated for president. Later, the Populist voted to nominate Bryan as their candidate as well. Bryan's nomination made many people nervous, especially the business and financial community; thus, they contributed a lot of money to the Republican campaign. Bryan was the first presidential candidate in U.S. history to stump every section of country systematically. He traveled 18,000 miles and addressed approximately 5 million people. On election day, McKinley polled 271 electoral votes to Bryan's 176 and received 51.1% of the popular vote to Bryan's 47.7%.

Prohibition

By 1916, nineteen states had passed prohibition laws. America's participation in World War I, which made the use of grain for alcohol seem wasteful and unnecessary, provided the last push to the advocates of prohibition. In 1917, with the support of rural fundamentalists who opposed alcohol on moral and religious grounds, progressive advocates of prohibition steered through Congress a constitutional amendment. In 1919, after ratification by every state in the nation except Connecticut and Rhode Island, the Eighteenth Amendment became law, to take official effect in January 1920.

Armistice

By November the German army had been worn down, their civilian population suffering from an increasingly effective blockade, their soldiers captured by the hundreds of thousands, their U-boats neutralized by a convoy system, and their rear harassed by airplane bombardment. Facing invasion, the Germans sought an armistice. On November 11, 1918 representatives of the warring parties signed an armistice in a railway car in the French forest.

Lincoln Steffens

By the 1900s, many muckrakers were turning their attention to government and specifically to the urban political machines. Among the most influential was Steffens, a reporter for "McClure's" magazine. His works on "machine government" and "boss rule" in cities, written in a tone of moral rage, helped arouse similar emotions for urban political reform.

W.E.B. Du Bois

By the beginning of the 1900s a powerful attack on the philosophy of Washington was emerging. The chief spokesman for this new thesis was Du Bois, a sociologist and historian and one of the first African Americans to receive a degree from Harvard. In "The Souls of Black Folk" (1903), Du Bois launched a public challenge on the philosophy of Washington, accusing him of agreeing with white efforts to sustain segregation and of limiting the aspirations of his race. Instead, Du Bois encouraged talented African-Americans to accept nothing less than a full university education and aspire to the professions. They should also fight for their civil rights, not simply wait for them to be granted as a reward for patient striving.

William Howard Taft II

-Second Problem: This was a highly publicized controversy that broke out late in 1909 which helped destroy Taft's popularity with reformers for good. Already from the start, many progressives were unhappy with Taft's decision to replace Roosevelt's secretary of interior, James R. Garfield, a conservationist, with Richard A. Ballinger, a conservative corporate lawyer. Suspicion of Ballinger grew when he attempted to refute Roosevelt's removal of nearly 1 million acres of forests and mineral reserves from private development. In the middle of this strange occurrence, Louis Glavis, an Interior Department investigator, charged Ballinger with having once conspired to turn over valuable public coal lands in Alaska to a private syndicate for personal profit.

Socialism II

-Some socialists agreed with the radical goals of European Marxists ( a complete end to capitalism and private property) -Others wanted more moderate reform that would allow small-scale private enterprise to survive but would nationalize major industries. -Some believed in working for reform through electoral politics. -Some favored militant direct action Moderate socialists who advocated peaceful change through political struggle dominated the Socialist Party. However, the party refused to support the nation's war effort in WWI. The growing wave of antiradicalism during the war subjected the socialists to a lot of harassment and persecution, leading to socialism's decline.

Women's Jobs

-Teaching: About 90 percent of all professional women were teachers -Nurses: Nursing had become primarily a women's field during and after the Civil War. By the early 1900s, it was adopting professional standards. And many women entered academia- often earning advanced degrees at predominantly male institutions like the University of Chicago, MIT, or Columbia, and then finding professional opportunities in the new and expanding women's colleges.

Muckrakers

A journalist who exposes scandal, corruption, and injustice; the term was especially popular during the progressive era. This name was coined by Theodore Roosevelt who accused them of raking up muck through their writings. These journalists first major target were the trusts and the railroads which the muckrakers considered powerful and deeply corrupt. Exposes of the great corporate organizations began to appear as early as the 1860s, when Charles Francis Adams Jr. and others uncovered corruption among the railroad tycoons. Decades later, journalist Ida Tarbell produced a scandalous study of the Standard Oil trust.

Jane Addams and the Hull House

A key aspect of progressive thought was the belief in the influence of the environment on individual development. Nothing produced more suffering than crowded immigrant neighborhoods. One solution to the problems of such communities was the "settlement house". The most famous was Hull House, which opened in 1889 in Chicago as a result of the efforts of the social worker Jane Addams. It became a model for more than 400 similar institutions throughout the nation.

Social Justice

A movement that seeks justice for whole groups or societies rather than individuals. Advocates of social justice are likely to believe in a more egalitarian society.

Red Scare

A period of intense popular fear and government repression of real or imagined leftist radicalism; usually associated with the years immediately following World War I. This fear began in 1919 when the Bolshevik government announced the formation of the Communist International (or Comintern), whose purpose was to export socialism around the world. Nearly thirty states enacted new peacetime sedition laws imposing harsh penalties on promoters of revolution. Spontaneous acts of violence against supposed radicals occurred in some communities, and universities and other institutions tried to expel radicals from their ranks.

Socialism

A political theory that advocates government (rather than private) ownership and management of the means of production and distribution. Although never a large force to rival the two major parties, socialism gained considerable support during the early years of the twentieth century. In the election of 1900, the Socialist Party of America attracted the support of fewer than 100,000 voters; in 1912, its leader and continuing presidential candidate, Eugene V. Debs received nearly 1 million ballots. This political group was strongest in urban immigrant communities, particularly among Germans and Jews, it also attracted the attention and loyalty of a decent amount of Protestant farmers in the South and the Midwest.

Conservationist

A proponent of the protection of land for carefully managed development, as opposed to a preservationists, who seeks to protect nature from developing altogether. Roosevelt was the first president to take an active interest in the new and struggling American conservation movement. Roosevelt also supported public reclamation and irrigation projects. In 1902, Roosevelt backed the National Reclamation Act, which provided federal funds for the construction of dams, reservoirs, and canals in the West - projects that would open new lands for cultivation and provide cheap electric power.

Retreat from Idealism

Economic problems, labor unrest, racial tensions, and the intensity of the antiradicalism they helped create-all combined in the years immediately following the war to produce a general sense of disillusionment. That became particularly apparent in the election of 1920, when the Republican presidential nominee Warren Gamaliel Harding promised a return to "normalcy." Wilson was disappointed as the Democratic nominees, James Cox and Franklin Roosevelt tried to keep Wilson's ideals alive.

Wilson's War Agenda

Even though German crimes on the seas, the offer to Mexico, and the threats to American commerce provided the immediate causes for war, Wilson had greater goals in mind. Wilson hoped that American intervention, by earning him a seat at the postwar negotiating table, would usher in a new era. In the place of militarism, secret alliances, violence, and autocracy would come democracy, freedom of travel and commerce, open diplomacy, and self-determination.

Grangers

Farmers had been trying to organize politically for several decades before the 1880s. The first major farm organization was the National Grange of the Patrons of Husbandry, founded in 1867. Because of this new group, a network of local organizations tried to teach new scientific agricultural techniques to their members. When the depression of 1873 caused a sharp decline in farm prices, membership rapidly increased and the goal of the organization changed. Goal: Promote political action to curb monopolistic practices by railroads and warehouses. Success: At their highest, Grange supporters controlled the legislatures in most of the midwestern states. The result was the Granger Laws of the early 1870s, by which many states imposed strict regulations on railroad rates and practices. Loss of power: -Destruction of the new regulations by official courts -Political inexperience of the Grange leaders -Return of prosperity in the late 1870s All produced a dramatic decline in the influence of the association.

The Party System

From the end of Reconstruction until the late 1890s, the electorate was divided almost evenly between the Republicans and the Democrats. Sixteen states were consistently Republican, and fourteen states (mostly in the South) were consistently Democratic. The congressional balance was similarly stable, with the Republicans usually controlling the Senate and the Democrats usually controlling the House.

Central Powers

Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire

Ballinger-Pinchot Dispute

Glavis took his evidence to Pinchot, still director of the U.S. Forest Service. Pinchot took the charges to the president. Taft investigated them and decided they were groundless. Unsatisfied with this result, Pinchot leaked the story to the press and asked Congress to investigate the scandal. The president discharged him for insubordination, and the congressional committee appointed to study the controversy, dominated by Old Guard Republicans, pardoned Ballinger. But reformers all over the U.S. supported Pinchot. The controversy aroused much public passion. By the time it was over, Taft had alienated the supporters of Roosevelt completely - and irreparably.

Rutherford B. Hayes

Hayes's presidency demonstrated the pressure that factional conflicts had on the ability of the president to make changes. Hayes tried to satisfy both the Stalwarts and Half-Breeds during his time in office but he ended up satisfying neither side. The battle for patronage dominated all of Hayes's presidency. His one important initiative- an effort to create a civil service system- attracted no support from either party. Also, his early announcement that he would not run for a second term only weakened his power further.

Cleveland's Second Term

His second term was much like his first. Again, he supported a tariff reduction, which the House approved but the senate weakened. Cleveland condemned the result but allowed it to become law as the Wilson-Gorman Tariff.

Affects of McKinley Tariff

However, Republicans had misread public sentiment. Many voters saw the high tariff as a way to cater to the producers and starve consumers. The party suffered a huge reversal in the 1890 congressional election. The Republicans's substantial Senate majority was slashed to 8; in the House, the party retained only 86 of the 332 seats, losing its majority in that chamber. The Republicans were unable to recover until two years later.

Pendleton Act of 1883

In 1883 Congress passed the first national civil service measure which required that some federal jobs be filled by competitive written examinations rather than by patronage. Few offices fell under civil service in the beginning, but its reach steadily grew.

Ocala Demands (1890)

In 1889, the Southern and Northwestern Alliances agreed to a loose union. In 1890, the Alliances held a national convention at Ocala, Florida and issued the Ocala Demands, which were a party platform. In the 1890 off-year elections, candidates supported by the Alliances won partial or complete control of the legislature in twelve states. They also won six governorships, three seats in the U.S. Senate, and around fifty in the U.S. House of Representatives. Many of the successful Alliance candidates were Democrats who had benefited from Alliance endorsements.

"Open Door" in Asia

In 1904, Japan attacked Russia at Port Arthur in a province in China that both Russia and Japan wanted to control. Roosevelt agreed to mediate an end to the conflict. At a peace conference in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, in 1905, Roosevelt pressured Russia to accept Japan's territorial gains. Meanwhile, the Japanese agreed to stop fighting and expand no farther. Simultaneously, Roosevelt negotiated a secret deal with the Japanese to ensure that the U.S. could continue to trade freely in the region. Roosevelt received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1906 for his mediation of the Treaty of Portsmouth.

National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)

In 1905, Du Bois and a group of his supporters met at Niagara Falls and launched the Niagara Movement. In 1909, they joined with sympathetic white progressives to form the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). In the years that followed, this new organization worked for equal rights.

Triangle Shirtwaist Company Fire

In 1911, a fire swept through the factory of the Triangle Shirtwaist Company in New York; 146 workers, most of them women, died. Many of them had been trapped inside the burning building because management had locked the emergency exits to prevent dallying. For the next three years, a state commission studied the disaster and the conditions of factories in general. In 1914, the commission issued a series of reports calling for major changes in the conditions of modern/factory labor. When the recommendations of the reports reached the New York legislature, its most effective supporters were two Tammany Democrats: Senator Robert Wagner and Assemblyman Alfred Smith. With the support of Murphy (leader of Tammany Hall) and the backing of other Tammany legislators, they helped pass a series of pioneering labor laws that imposed strict regulations on factory owners and established effective mechanisms for enforcement.

Reasons for party loyalties

-Region (North v South) -Religion: The Democratic Party attracted most of the Catholic voters, while the Republicans Party appealed to northern Protestants -Ethnic differences: Democratic Party was popular among recent immigrants and poorer workers; while the Republican Party appealed to citizens of old stock and much of the middle class

New Technology in Warfare Repercussions

-Required elaborate maintenance: Faster machine guns needed more ammunition; motorized vehicles needed fuel, spare parts, and mechanics capable of servicing them. The logistical difficulties of supply became a major factor in planning of strategy and battles. Late in the war, when the Allied armies were advancing toward Germany, they frequently had to stop for days at a time to wait for their equipment to catch up. -Statistics of death: Russia lost 1.8 million soldiers; Germany, 2 million; France, 1.4 million; the British Empire, 1 million; Austria-Hungary, 1.5 million; Italy, 460,000; United States, 116,000. Approximately 5 million civilians died during the war, as well.

Corporate Oversight

In 1914, Wilson proposed two measures to deal with the problem of monopoly, which took shape as the Federal Trade Commission Act and the Clayton Antitrust Act. The Federal Trade Commission Act created a regulatory agency that would help business determine in advance whether their actions would be acceptable to the government. The agency would also have authority to launch prosecutions against "unfair trade practices," and it would have wide power to investigate corporate behavior. Wilson eagerly signed the Federal Trade Commission Bill, but he seemed to lose interest in the Clayton Antitrust Bill, which proposed stronger measures to break up trusts. Wilson did little to protect this one from assault from conservatives, which greatly weakened it.

Economy during War

In 1916, Wilson established the Council of National Defense, made up of members of his cabinet, and the Civilian Advisory Commissions, which set up local defense councils in every state and locality. However, this early administrative structure proved to be useless, and members of the council urged a more centralized organization. The new administrative structure that slowly grew was dominated by a series of "war boards," one to oversee the railroads, one to supervise fuel supplies (coal), and another to handle food, etc. The boards generally succeeded in meeting essential war needs and at the same time not paralyzing the domestic economy.

Anti-Imperialist League

Included some of the nation's wealthiest and most powerful figures: Mark Twain, Andrew Carnegie, Samuel Gompers, Senator John Sherman, and others. -Some anti-imperialists believed that imperialism was immoral, and against the American value of human freedom. -Others feared "polluting" the American population by introducing "inferior" Asian races into it. -Industrial workers feared being replaced by cheap laborers. -Conservatives worried about the large standing army and entangling foreign alliances that they thought imperialism would require.

The Philippine War

Lasted from 1898-1902 and was one of the most vicious wars. It involved 200,000 American troops and resulted in 4,300 American deaths. However, compared to the Filipinos killed, the number is very small. It seems that 50,000 natives died in the war. Led by Emilio Aguinaldo, who claimed to lead the legitimate government of the nation, Filipinos harassed the American army of occupation from island to island for over three years. Once the Americans realized that the Filipinos were loyal to Aguinaldo they began to practice more vicious and brutal tactics. Captured Filipino guerrillas were treated as murderers and not POWs.

Louis Brandeis

Many reformers argued that the federal government should work to break up the largest combinations and enforce a balance between the need for bigness and the need for competition. This viewpoint came to be identified with Louis D. Brandeis, a lawyer, and later, justice of the Supreme Court, who wrote widely about the "curse of bigness" (most notably in his 1913 book "Other People's Money"). Brandeis insisted that government should regulate competition in a manner that would ensure that large combinations did not emerge.

Gold Standard Act

McKinley sent a commission to Europe to explore the possibility of a silver agreement with Great Britain and France. The effort produced nothing. The Republicans then enacted the Gold Standard Act of 1900, which confirmed the nation's commitment to the gold standard.

The Fourteen Points

On January 8, 1918, Wilson appeared before Congress to present the principles for which he believed the nation was fighting. He grouped the war aims under fourteen headings, widely known as the "Fourteen Points." They fell into three broad categories. 1. Wilson's proposals contained a series of eight specific recommendations for adjusting postwar boundaries and establishing new nations to replace the destroyed Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman Empires. 2. Five general principles would govern international conduct in the future: freedom of the seas, open covenants instead of secret treaties, reductions in armaments, free trade, and impartial mediation of colonial claims.

Palmer Raids

On New Year's Day, 1920, Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer and J. Edgar Hoover, orchestrated a series of raids on alleged radical centers throughout the country and arrested more than 6,000 people. Most of those arrested were released, but about 500 who were not American citizens were deported.

The Panic of 1893 II

Once the depression began, it quickly spread. Within six months, more than 8,000 businesses, 156 railroads, and 400 banks failed. Already low agricultural prices fell even more. Up to 1 million workers, 20% of the work force, was unemployed. Although conditions improved slightly beginning in 1895, prosperity did not fully return until 1901.

Municipal Reform

One approach to municipal reform was the city manager plan, by which elected officials hired an outside expert-often a professionally trained business manager or engineer- to take charge of the government. The city manager would presumably remain untainted by the corrupting forces of politics. By the end of the progressive era, almost 400 cities were operating under commissions, and another 45 employed city managers.

Ida B. Wells-Barnett

One of the many issues that the NAACP and other African-American organizations focused on was lynching in the South. The most determined opponents of lynching were southern women, and the most effective campaigner was a black woman Ida B. Wells-Barnett, who worked on her own (at great personal risk) and with organizations such as the National Association of Colored Women and the Women's Convention of the National Baptist Church to try to expose lynching and challenge segregation.

Municipal Reform II

Other urban areas had to settle for lesser victories. -Some cities made the election of mayors nonpartisan (so that the parties could not choose the candidates) -Moved the elections to years when no presidential or congressional races were in progress (to minimize the influence of the large turnouts that party organizations produced). -Reformers tried to make city councilors run at large, to limit the influence of ward leaders and district bosses -They tried to strengthen the power of the mayor at the expense of the city council, on the assumption that reformers were more likely to succeed in getting a single mayor elected than they were to win control of the entire council.

Conflict with Mexico

Porfirio Diaz was overthrown by Francisco Madero, who seemed hostile to American businesses in Mexico. Wilson wanted someone else so he encouraged Victoriano Huerta to take over early in 1913. However, Wilson was again unhappy with the way that Huerta's government gained power. So Wilson began to support constitutionalist Carranza. When Carranza took Mexico City in 1914, Huerta fled the country. When Carranza refused to accept American guidelines for the creation of a new government, Wilson was furious. Wilson considered supporting Pancho Villa, but when Villa's military position deteriorated, Wilson abandoned him and granted recognition to Carranza. Villa was furious over this American betrayal and retaliated in early 1916 by shooting sixteen American mining engineers in northern Mexico and seventeen more Americans across the border in New Mexico.

Philippines

President McKinley was hesitant to support annexation. But according to the people around him there were no good choices. Returning the Philippines to Spain would be "cowardly and dishonorable," turning them over to another imperial power (France, Germany, or Great Britain) would be "bad news and discreditable." And granting the Filipinos independence was not considered for very long because Americans thought the Filipinos were inferior. The Treaty of Paris signed in December 1898, confirmed the armistice and brought a formal end to the war. Spain was not too happy about giving up the Philippines but a $20 million check seemed to ease the resistance.

Progressivism II

Progressives did not agree on the form their interventions should take, and the disagreements resulted in a variety of reform impulses. One powerful movement was the spirit of "antimonopoly," the fear of concentrated power and the urge to limit and disperse authority and wealth. Another progressive belief was the emphasis on the importance of social cohesion: the belief that individuals are part of a great web of social relationships, that each individual's well-being is dependent on the welfare of society as a whole. Furthermore, the progressives were deeply faithful in the possibilities of applying to society the principles of natural and social sciences.

Puerto Rico

Puerto Ricans had been fighting for independence for many years and in 1898 Spain granted the island a degree of independence. But before the changes took effect, control of Puerto Rico switched to the United States. In 1900, the Foraker Act ended military rule and established a formal colonial government. Fights for independence continues, and in 1917, Congress passed the Jones Act, which declared Puerto Rico to be United States territory and made all Puerto Ricans American citizens. The Puerto Rican sugar industry expanded as it took advantage of the American market. When international sugar prices were high, Puerto Rico did well. When they dropped, the island's economy dropped, pushing many plantation workers into extreme poverty.

Roosevelt and "Civilization"

Roosevelt believed in using American power to influence the world, he once stated this by quoting the proverb "Speak softly, and carry a big stick." However, he had two different ideas on how he should exert American power: this distinction was between the "civilized" and "uncivilized" nations of the world. "Civilized" nations were predominantly white and Anglo-Saxon or Teutonic; "uncivilized" nations were generally nonwhite, Latin, or Slavic. Civilized nations were also producers of industrial goods, while uncivilized nations were suppliers of raw materials and markets for industrial products. Roosevelt believed that a civilized nation had the responsibility of intervening in affairs of uncivilized nations to preserve order and stability.

The Panama Canal II

Roosevelt did not approve of this new deal and so he found a way to shortcut the Colombian government. In 1903, Philippe Bunau-Varilla (chief engineer of the French canal project) with the support of the U.S., helped organize and finance a revolution in Panama. Roosevelt sent troops from the U.S.S. Nashville there to "maintain order." American presence prevented Colombian forces from suppressing the rebellion, and three days later Roosevelt recognized Panama as an independent nation. The new Panamanian government readily agreed to the previous terms, and the Canal opened in 1914.

James A. Garfield

The 20th president of the U.S., he was a veteran congressman from Ohio who identified with the Half-Breed group. Garfield won a decisive electoral victory but his popular-vote margin was thin. Garfield started off his presidency by defying the Stalwarts and supporting civil service reform. Due to this, he found himself in a conflict with Conkling and the Stalwarts, which, was never resolved. On July 2, 1881, four months after his inauguration, Garfield was shot twice while standing in the Washington railroad station.

Boxer Rebellion II

The Boxer Rebellion was very important for the U.S's role in China. McKinley and Hay had agreed to American participation in ending the Boxer Rebellion in order to secure a voice in the settlement of the uprising and to prevent the partition of China by the European powers. Hay now won support for his Open Door Policy from England and Germany and induced the other participating nations to accept compensation from the Chinese for the damages the Boxer Rebellion had caused. China remained a territory and the United States gained access to its lucrative trade.

Boxer Rebellion (1900)

The Boxers were a secret Chinese martial-arts society who were very nationalistic and launched a revolt against foreigners in China. The Boxer Rebellion spread quickly across eastern China, attacking Westerners wherever they were found- including Christian missionaries. But the peak of the revolt was a siege of an entire Western foreign diplomatic corps, which took refuge in the British embassy in Peking (Beijing). The imperials power sent an international expeditionary force into China to rescue the diplomats. In August 1900, it went into the city and broke the siege.

Grover Cleveland

The Democratic candidate in the 1884 elections. Cleveland was the reform governor of New York and was chosen by the Democrats because some liberal Republicans (mugwumps) stated that they would ditch the Republican Party for an honest Democrat. Cleveland was respected, even liked, for his opposition to politicians, grafters, pressure groups, and Tammany Hall. Cleveland had doubted the effectiveness of protective tariffs. He believed the existing high rates were responsible for the annual surplus in federal revenues, which made Congress pass "reckless" and "extravagant" legislation (he frequently vetoed these).

National War Labor Board

The National War Labor Board, established in April 1918, served as the final mediator of labor disputes. It pressured industry to grant important rights to workers: an eight-hour day, the maintenance of minimal living standards, equal pay for women doing equal work, recognition of the right of unions to organize and bargain collectively. In return, it insisted that workers forgo strikes and that employers not engage in lockouts.

War Industries Board (WIB)

The War Industries Board was created in July 1917 to coordinate government purchases of military supplies. It did not really work at first, until March 1918 when Wilson reconstructed it and placed it under the control of Wall Street financier Bernard Baruch. Baruch decided which factories could convert to the production of which war materials, and he set prices for the goods they produced. When materials were limited, Baruch decided to whom they should go. When corporations were competing for government contracts, he chose among them.

Espionage Act (1917)

The government also began to suppress dissent. The Espionage Act of 1917 gave the government new opportunities with which to combat spying, sabotage, or obstruction of the war effort. The Sabotage Act and the Sedition Act both passed in 1918, and they expanded the meaning of the Espionage Act to make illegal any public expression of opposition to the war; in practice, they allowed officials to prosecute anyone who criticized the president or the government. The most frequent targets of the new legislation were anticapitalist groups like the Socialist Party and the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW).

American Medical Association (AMA)

The idea of professionalism had been a fragile one in America even as late as 1880, but as the demand for professional services increased, so did the pressures for reform. Among the first to respond was the medical profession. In 1901, doctors who considered themselves trained professionals reorganized the American Medical Association (AMA) into a national professional society. By 1920, nearly two-thirds of all American doctors were members. The AMA quickly called for strict, scientific standards for admission to the practice of medicine. State governments responded by passing new laws requiring the licensing of all physicians.

Women's Suffrage Triumph

The principal triumphs of the suffrage movement began in 1910, when Washington became the first state in fourteen years to extend suffrage to women. -California followed in 1911 -Four other western states in 1913 -Illinois became the first state east of the Mississippi to embrace women suffrage -1917 and 1918, New York and Michigan-two of the most populous states in the U.S.- gave women the vote. -By 1919, thirty-nine states had granted women the right to vote in at least some elections; fifteen allowed them full participation.

Imperialism

The process where an empire or nation pursues military, political, or economic advantage by extending its rule over external territories and peoples. Americans began more interested in this when they heard of the imperialist fever raging through Europe as most European nations participated in the "Scramble for Africa." Alfred Thayer Mahan presented "The Influence of Sea Power upon History" (1890), among other works and argued that countries with sea power were the great nations of history. He was the most effective believer in imperialism.

Eugenics

The pseudo-scientific movement that attributed genetic weakness to various races and ethnicities; also describes efforts to control or isolate supposed hereditary traits through selective breeding, sterilization, immigration restriction, and other forms of social engineering. A special federal commission of "experts" led by Senator William Dillingham of Vermont, issued a study filled with statistics and scholarly testimony. It argued that the newer immigrant groups-largely southern and eastern Europeans- had proved themselves less integrated than earlier immigrants. Immigration, therefore, should be restricted by nationality.

"New Nationalism"

This was the real signal of Roosevelt's decision to assume leadership of Republican reformers, this speech came on September 1, 1910, in Osawatomie, Kansas. In it he described a set of principles, which he labeled the "New Nationalism." He stated that social justice was possible only through a strong federal government whose president acted as the "steward of the public welfare." He supported graduated income and inheritance taxes, workers' compensation for industrial accidents, regulation of the labor of women and children, tariff revision, and firmer regulation of corporations.

Unstable Economy

Throughout most of 1919 and 1920, prices rose at an average of more than 15% a year. Finally, late in 1920, the economic bubble burst as inflation began killing the market for consumer goods. Between 1920 and 1921, the gross national product declined nearly 10%; 100,000 businesses went bankrupt; and nearly 5 million Americans lost their jobs. The raging inflation of 1919 wiped out the modest wage gains workers had achieved during the war; many laborers were worried about job security as veterans returned to the workforce; arduous working conditions continued to be a source of unhappiness. Employers furthered the resentment by using the end of the war to take back the benefits they had been forced to concede to workers in 1917 and 1918-most notably, recognition of unions. Therefore, the year 1919 saw an unprecedented strike wave.

Alice Paul

To some women, however, the victory seemed less than complete. Alice Paul, head of the militant National Women's Party (founded in 1916), never accepted the conservative "separate sphere" justification for suffrage. She argued that the Nineteenth Amendment alone would not be sufficient to protect women's rights. Women needed more: a constitutional amendment that would provide full, legal protection for their rights and would make all discrimination on the basis of gender illegal. But Alice Paul's argument found limited favor even among many of the most important leaders of the recently triumphant suffrage groups.

Progressivism

Towards the end of the nineteenth century many Americans had realized that rapid industrialization and urbanization had created a growing crisis. Most agreed that the nation's most pressing need was to impose order and justice on a society that seemed to be approaching chaos. By the early twentieth century, this outlook became known as progressivism. From the late nineteenth century until at least the end of WWI, progressive reformers brought into public debate issues like the role of women in society, racial equality, the rights of labor, and the impact of immigration and cultural diversity. Progressives were optimistic that society was capable of improvement and that continued growth and advancement were the nation's destiny. But progressives agreed that progress could not continue to occur recklessly, as they had in the late nineteenth century.

Free Silver

Two groups of Americans were particularly determined to undo the Crime of '73. One was the silver-mine owners, eager to have the government take their excess silver and pay them much more than the market price. The other group included dissatisfied farmers, who wanted an increase in the quantity of money-an inflation of the currency- in order to raise the prices of farm products and easing payment of the farmers' debts. The inflationists demanded that the government return to the "free and unlimited coinage of silver" at the old ratio of 16 to 1 (16 oz of silver = 1 oz of gold).

Wilson's War Message

Wilson asked Congress for a declaration of war on April 2, 1917. German U-boats had claimed American lives and treasure. The country's honor could not tolerate such disrespect. But knowledgeable of divisions in public opinion, Wilson looked to invest the moment with higher meaning. The war would make the world "safer for democracy" and safeguard "the rights of mankind." The president said that America would not fight for material gain or territory, but to guarantee a future of free trade, self-governance, peace, and justice. Opposition to the war would also not be tolerated.

Conflict with Mexico II

Wilson ordered General John J. Pershing to lead an American force across the Mexican border in pursuit of Villa. There were two more conflict between the U.S. and Mexico but before a full war could erupt, Wilson withdrew American troops from Mexico; in March 1917, Wilson finally granted formal recognition to Carranza's regime.

Other professions

-By 1916, lawyers in all forty-eight states had established professional bar associations. Law schools all around the country greatly expanded accordingly. -Businessmen supported the creation of schools of business administration and set up their own national organizations: the National Association of Manufacturers in 1895 and the United States Chamber of Commerce in 1912. -Farmers responded to the new reforms by forming a network of agricultural organizations designed to spread scientific farming methods, through the National Farm Bureau Federation

Theodore Roosevelt II

-The "Square Deal" was something that Roosevelt capitalized on as being one of his accomplishments. In 1902, when a strike by the United Mine Workers endangered coal supplies for the winter, Roosevelt asked both the operators and the miners to accept impartial federal mediation. When the mine owners refused, Roosevelt threatened to send federal troops to seize the mines. The operators finally relented. Arbitrators awarded the strikers a 10% wage increase and a nine-hour day. -The Hepburn Railroad Regulation Act of 1906 was established to restore some regulatory authority to the government by giving the Interstate Commerce Commission the power to oversee railroad rates. -Roosevelt also pressured Congress to enact the Pure Food and Drug Act, which restricted the sale of dangerous or ineffective medicines. -The Meat Inspection Act was somewhat inspired by "The Jungle" a novel published by Upton Sinclair in 1906. Which consisted of appalling descriptions of conditions in the meatpacking industry. This act helped eliminate many diseases once transmitted in impure meat.

American Soldiers

-The typical doughboy (as American soldiers were called) in the Great War was a white, single, poorly educated draftee in his early twenties. -Women were prohibited from regular military service but could sign up for things like nursing, clerical work, and telephone operation. - As many as 400,000 African-Americans joined the military, the majority being conscripted. However, the American army was a strict Jim Crow army. Units were segregated, white officers were in charge, and black people generally performed menial labor. Yet two combat divisions, the Ninety-Second and Ninety-Third, were composed entirely of African-American soldiers. -Basic training: marched, drilled, and practiced maneuvers. Every backpack contained a copy of Wilson's war message. For the large number of foreign-born soldiers-about 20% of the wartime army, speaking forty-six different languages-military service acted as a tool of assimilation.

New Technology in Warfare

-Trench warfare: A result of the destructive power of newly improved machine guns and higher-powered artillery. Trenches sheltered troops while allowing limited, and usually inconclusive fighting. -Tanks and flamethrowers proved capable of piercing entrenched positions. -New chemical weapons such as poisonous mustard gas, required troops to carry gas masks at all times. Also, these gases made it possible to attack entrenched soldiers without direct combat. -Airplanes were used for bombers, fighters, and reconnaissance aircraft. -Most modern part of the military during WWI was the navy. Battleships used technologies such as turbine propulsion, hydraulic gun controls, electric light and power, wireless telegraphy, and advanced navigational aids.

Sinking of the Lusitania

2. Germany had resorted to submarine warfare. Unable to challenge British domination on the ocean's surface, the Germans announced early in 1915 that they would sink enemy vessels on sight. On May 7, a German submarine (U-boat) sank the British passenger liner Lusitania without warning, causing the deaths of 1,198 people, 128 of them Americans. Even though the ship was carrying passengers and munitions, Americans thought of the attack as an unprovoked act on civilians.

The Zimmermann Telegram

3. In January 1917, the German foreign secretary Arthur Zimmermann sent a telegram to the German ambassador in Mexico instructing him to offer the Mexicans to join a military alliance and Germany would help Mexico take back territory in the states of Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona. By March, when Wilson released the intercepted and decoded telegram-and after three U.S. ships were torpedoed by U-boats- war with Germany seemed impending.

"League of Nations"

3. The body that would help implement these new principles and territorial adjustments and resolve future controversies. Even though many of the nations disapproved of a lot of Wilson's proposals, he did manage to get approval for some of his ideas. His most important triumph was the creation of a permanent international organization to oversee world affairs and prevent future wars. On January 25, 1919, the Allies voted to accept the "covenant" of the League of Nations.

Marcus Garvey

A black Jamaican man who began to attract a wide following in the United States, after the red summer, with his ideology of black nationalism. Garvey advocated for African-Americans to reject assimilation into white society and to develop pride in their own race and culture. His Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) launched a chain of black-owned grocery stores and urged the creation of other black businesses. Later, Garvey began encouraging his supporters to leave America and return to Africa, where they could create a new society of their own. In the early 1920s, the Garvey movement experienced rapid growth for a time, but it began to decline after Garvey was convicted in 1923 on charges of business fraud. He was deported in 1925. But the allure of black nationalism survived in black culture long after Garvey left.

Enforcement of the Interstate Commerce Act

A five-person agency, the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) was to administer the act. However, it had to rely on the courts to enforce its rulings. For almost two decades after its passage, the Interstate Commerce Act - which was not really enforced and narrowly interpreted by courts- had little practical effect.

People's Party/Populism

A reform movement of the 1890s that promoted federal government policies to redistribute wealth and power from national titans to common people; more generally, refers to a political doctrine that supports the rights of the people over the elite. In July 1892, 1,300 delegates met in Omaha, Nebraska, to proclaim the creation of the new party, approve an official set of principles, and nominate candidates for the presidency and vice presidency. Although the election of 1892 demonstrated the potential of this new party, there were signs of the limits of Populist opinions. Populism was very attractive to farmers (small farmers), but it never attracted significant labor support. Also, a race issue was prevalent when Alliances argued whether or not to include African-Americans into the party.

Dominican Republic Crisis

A revolution had overthrown the corrupt and bankrupt government of the Dominican Republic in 1903, but the new regime was also unable to repay the country's $22 million in debts to European nations. Roosevelt established an American receivership, assuming control of Dominican customs and distributing 45% of the revenues to the Dominicans and the rest to foreign creditors. This system lasted for more than three decades.

Philippine War II

A spirit of savagery grew among some American soldiers, who came to view the Filipinos as almost less than human and, at times, seemed to enjoy arbitrarily murdering them. Reports of such brutalities soured the American public on the war. But in March 1901, Aguinaldo was captured, signed a document to urge his people to stop fighting, and declared his allegiance to the U.S. Fighting continued intermittently until 1906, but American possession was secure in 1901. In the summer of 1901, the military transferred authority over the islands to William Taft. The Americans built roads, schools, bridges, and sewers; instituted administrative and financial reforms; and established a public health system. On July 4, 1946, the islands finally gained their independence.

Jingoes

A term coined in the late nineteenth century to refer to advocates for expanded U.S. economic, political, and military power in the world. Jingoes believed that domestic tensions might be resolved by a more dominant foreign policy and stronger American nationalistic spirit - or even by war. Their goal was to restore American strength and unity.

Committee on Public Information (CPI)

A vast propaganda campaign orchestrated by the CPI, under the leadership of the progressive journalist George Creel. The CPI supervised the distribution of over 75 million pieces of printed material and controlled much of the information available for newspapers and magazines. Creel motivated journalists to practice "self-censorship" when reporting war news, and most complied by covering the war as the government wished. By 1918, government-distributed posters and films were offering lurid (and exaggerated) portrayals of the savagery of the Germans. In this environment, songwriters and other artists produced popular works that heavily favored the war.

Interstate Commerce Act (1887)

After the failure of state legislatures to regulate commerce, it was clear that effective railroad regulation could only come from the federal government. Congress responded to public pressure in 1887 with the Interstate Commerce Act, which banned discrimination in rates between long and short hauls, requires that railroads publish their rate schedules and file them with the government, and declared that all interstate rail rates must be "reasonable and just."

Modern Military System

After the war with Spain, the issues with the American military system became obvious. McKinley appointed Elihu Root, a corporate lawyer in New York, as secretary of war to supervise a major change of the armed forces Root's reforms: -Enlarged the regular army from 25,000 to a max of 100,000. - Established federal army standards for the National Guard, making sure that never again would the nation fight a war with volunteer regiments trained and equipped differently than those in the army. -Sparked the creation of a system of officer training schools, including the Army Staff College (Command and General Staff School) at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas and the Army War College in Washington. -1903 a general staff (named the Joint Chiefs of Staff) was established to act as military advisers to the secretary of war. All of these changes meant that the U.S entered the twentieth century with something resembling a modern military system.

The Farmers' Alliances

As early as 1875, farmers in parts of the South were banding together in Farmers' Alliances just as the Granges were weakening. By 1880, the Southern Alliance had more than 4 million members; a comparable Northwestern Alliance was establishing itself in the plain states and the Midwest, basically replacing the Grange. Organization: Similar to the Grange, the Alliances formed cooperatives and other marketing mechanisms. They established stores, banks, processing plants, and other facilities to free their members from relying on the "furnishing merchants" who kept many farmers in debt. Larger Goal: An effort to build a society in which economic competition led to cooperation.

Immigration Problem

All reformers agreed that the growing immigrant population had created social problems, but there were many conflicts on how to solve these issues. Some progressives believed that the best solution was to help the new residents adapt to American society. Others argued that the U.S. should limit the flow of new arrivals. In the first decades of the century, pressure to find the answer was growing. New scholarly theories argued that the introduction of immigrants into American society was polluting the nation's racial stock.

IWW "Wobblies"

Among the militants was the radical labor union the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) known to opponents as the "Wobblies." Led by William Haywood, the IWW sought a single union for all workers and was one of the few labor organizations to champion the cause of unskilled workers. The Wobblies were believed to have been responsible for dynamiting railroad lines and power stations and committing other acts of terror in the first years of the twentieth century.

Woodrow Wilson II

By the fall of 1914, Wilson believed that the New Freedom program was essentially complete and that agitation for reform would die down. He refused to support the movement for national woman suffrage. When congressional progressives tried to enlist his support for new reform legislation, Wilson dismissed their proposals as unconstitutional or unnecessary. However, the congressional elections of 1914 ruined the president's complacency. Democrats suffered major losses in Congress, and voters who in 1912 had supported the Progressive Party began returning to the Republicans. Wilson realized that he would be unable to rely on a divided opposition when he ran for reelection in 1916. By the end of 1915, therefore, Wilson started to support a second flurry of reforms. -January 1916, he appointed Louis Brandeis to the Supreme Court making him the first Jewish man and the most advanced progressive to serve there. -Wilson supported a measure to make it easier for farmers to receive credit -Supported another measure creating a system of workers' compensation for federal employees.

Trusts

By the mid-1880s, fifteen western and southern states had passed laws prohibiting combinations that restrained competition. But bigger corporations found many loopholes to escape these limitations, such as incorporating in states like New Jersey and Delaware, that offered them special privileges. Many supporters of antitrust legislation believed that if any laws were to be effective, the law would have to come from the federal government.

Liberty Bonds

By the time the war ended, the federal government had spent $32 billion for war expenses-an incredible amount of money for that time. The entire federal budget had rarely exceeded $1 billion before 1915, and as recently as 1910 the nation's entire gross national product had been only $35 billion. Thus, in order to raise money, the government relied on two measures. 1. It launched a major drive to solicit loans from the American people by selling "Liberty Bonds" to the public. By 1920, the sale of bonds, along with patriotic appeals, had produced $23 billion. At the same time, new taxes were bringing in an additional $10 billion.

Sherman Silver Purchase Act (1890)

Congress' response to the demands of inflationists. The Sherman Silver Purchase Act of 1890 required the government to purchase silver and pay for it in gold. But the government allowed only existing silver coinage, not any newly mined silver money. Simultaneously, the gold reserves were gradually dropping. President Cleveland believed that the main cause of the weakening gold reserves was the Sherman Silver Purchase Act. Therefore, Congress answered Cleveland's request and repealed the Sherman Act- not without complaint. This repeal led to a bitter conflict that split the Democratic Party.

John Muir

Despite his agreement with Pinchot's vision of conservation, Roosevelt also shared some of the concerns of the naturalists (those committed to protecting the natural beauty of the land and the health of its wildlife from human intrusion). Early in his first term, Roosevelt spent four days camping in the Sierras with John Muir, the nation's leading preservationist and the founder of the Sierra Club. Roosevelt also added significantly to the National Park System, whose purpose was to protect public land from exploitation or development.

Dollar Diplomacy

Foreign policies, especially those of the Taft administration in Latin America, that privilege American economic interests. Taft and his secretary of state, Philander C. Knox, worked aggressively to extend American investments into less-developed regions. This policy was particularly distinguishable in the Caribbean. Ex: When revolution broke out in Nicaragua in 1909, the U.S. sided with the rebels and sent American troops to take the customs houses. As soon as peace was restored, Knox encouraged American bankers to offer significant loans to the new government, thus increasing Washington's financial leverage over the country.

Benjamin Harrison

Former senator of Indiana, the Republican candidate for the election of 1888. This election was one of the most corrupt elections in American history. Cleveland won the popular vote by 100,000, but Harrison won an electoral majority of 233 to 168. Harrison was a very passive president, he had few beliefs and opinions and he made no effort to influence Congress. However, during his time in office, public opinion was beginning to force the government to confront and address some of the pressing social and economic issues of the times, specifically, the power of trusts.

Woodrow Wilson III

In 1916, Wilson supported the Keating-Owen Act, which forbade the shipment of goods produced by underage children across state lines, giving an expanded importance to the constitutional clause assigning Congress the task of regulating interstate commerce. After the Court struck down Keating-Owen, a new law attempted to achieve the same goal by imposing a heavy tax on the products of child labor-even though the Court struck that down too. -Also supported measures that used federal taxing authority as a vehicle for legislating social change -Smith-Lever Act of 1914 offered matching federal grants to support agricultural extension of education. Over time, these innovative uses of government overcame most of the constitutional objections and became the foundation of a long-term growth in federal power over the economy.

Tariff Issue

In December 1887, Cleveland asked Congress to reduce the tariff rates. Democrats in the House approved a tariff reduction, but Senate Republicans passed a bill of their own, actually raising the rates. The resulting deadlock made the tariff an issue in the election of 1888.

Sherman Antitrust Act (1890)

In July 1890, both houses of Congress passed the Sherman Antitrust Act. For over a decade after is passage, the Sherman Act -indifferently enforced and gradually weakened by the courts- had no impact. As of 1901, the Justice Department had instituted many antitrust suits against unions, but only fourteen against business combinations.

Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti

In May 1920, two Italian immigrants, Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti, were charged with the murder of a paymaster in South Braintree, Massachusetts. The case against them was weak and filled with nativist prejudices and fears; but because both men were confessed anarchists, they faced a widespread public presumption of guilt. They were convicted and eventually sentenced to death. Over the next several years, public support for Sacco and Vanzetti grew to great proportions. But on August 23, 1927, amid widespread protests in the U.S. and around the world, Sacco and Vanzetti, still proclaiming their innocence, died in the electric chair.

The Federal Reserve Act

It created twelve regional banks, each to be owned and controlled by the individual banks of its district. The regional Federal Reserve bans would hold a certain percentage of the assets of their member banks in reserve; they would use those reserves to support loans to private banks at an interest (or "discount") rate that the Federal Reserve system would set; they would issue a new type of paper currency-Federal Reserve notes-that would become the nation's basic medium of trade and would be backed by the government. Most important, they would be able to shift funds quickly to troubled areas- to meet increased demands for credit or to protect imperiled banks. Supervising and enforcing the entire system was a nation Federal Reserve Board, whose members were appointed by the president.

Spanish-American War (1898)

John Hay, the American ambassador to England, called the Spanish-American war "a splendid little war," an opinion that most non-deployed Americans shared. Declared in April, it was over in August, sort of because Cuban rebels had already greatly weakened the Spanish. Only 460 Americans were killed in battle or died of wounds, however, some 5,200 died due to disease: malaria, dysentery, and typhoid, along with others. In about a week, U.S. troops won four decisive battles in the area around Santiago in southeast Cuba- one of them the Battle of Kettle Hill. On July 3, Admiral Pascual Cervera tried to escape the harbor. The waiting american squadron destroyed his entire fleet. On July 16, the commander of Spanish ground forces in Santiago surrendered. On August 12, an armistice ended the war. Under the terms of the armistice, Spain recognized the independence of Cuba, ceded Puerto Rico and Guam to the U.S., and accepted continued American occupation of Manila.

The Panic of 1893

Launched the most severe depression the nation had experienced up to that point. It started in March 1893, when the Philadelphia and Reading Railroad was unable to meet payments on loans and declared bankruptcy. Two months later, the National Cordage Company failed as well. Combined, these two corporate failures triggered a domino affect. The stock market collapsed, then many of the major New York banks who were heavy investors in the market, began to fail as well. This caused a contraction of credit, which meant that many of the new, aggressive, and loan-dependent businesses soon went bankrupt. Analysis: The depression demonstrated how everything in the American economy was somehow connected. And it showed how dependent the economy was on the health of railroads, which continued to be the nation's most powerful corporate and financial institutions.

Half-Breeds

Led by James G. Blaine of Maine, they favored reform.

Stalwarts

Led by Roscoe Conkling of New York, the Stalwarts favored traditional, professional machine politics. Fought the Half Breeds for control of the Republican Party

The Panama Canal

Most celebrated foreign policy accomplishment of Roosevelt's presidency. This canal linked the Atlantic and the Pacific by building a channel through Central America. Although the Panama route was not at sea level, (like the route in Nicaragua) it was shorter than the one in Nicaragua, and construction was already about 40% done. Because Colombia owned this territory, John Hay was sent to negotiate an agreement with Colombian diplomats. Tomas Herran, signed an agreement giving the U.S. rights to a six-mile-wide "Canal Zone"; in return, the U.S. would pay $10 million and an annual rental of $250,000. However, the Colombian senate refused to acknowledge this treaty. Colombia sent a new representative to Washington to demand $20 million from the Americans and a share of the payment to the French.

Queen Liliuokalani

Native Hawaiians did not simply accept their subordination without protest. In 1891, they elevated a powerful nationalist to the throne: Queen Liliuokalani, who sought to challenge the growing American control of the islands. However, she remained in power only two years. In 1890, the U.S. had eliminated the exemption from American tariffs in Hawaiian sugar trade. The effects were dismal to the economy of the islands, and American planters concluded that the only way for them to recover was to become a part of the United States (hence, exempt from its tariffs). In 1893, they staged a revolution and called on the U.S. for protection. After the American minister ordered marines from a warship in Honolulu harbor to go ashore to aid the American rebels, the queen yielded her authority. Hawaii was officially annexed in 1898.

Theodore Roosevelt

Roosevelt was a public idol, never before, and few since, had a president attracted such attention and devotion. Yet for all his popularity among reformers, Roosevelt was conservative. As president, Roosevelt rarely openly rebelled against the leaders of his party. He believed that reform was a tool less for remaking American society than for protecting it against more radical challenges. -Although Roosevelt was not a trustbuster, he made a few highly popular efforts to break up combinations. In 1902, he ordered the Justice Department to invoke the Sherman Antitrust Act against a great new railroad monopoly in the Northwest, the Northern Securities Company, a $400 million enterprise pieced together by J.P. Morgan and some others. Roosevelt filed more than forty additional antitrust suits during the remainder of his presidency, but he made no serious moves to reverse the trend toward economic concentration.

Yellow Journalism

Sensationalist reporting, particularly in newspapers of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, so named for the color of a character in one of the papers' comic strips. Had a huge influence in the Spanish-American War. The two major newspapers New York World and New York journal, avidly published exaggerated reports of Spanish atrocities toward the Cuban rebels, fanning popular anger toward Spain. When the American battleship Maine mysteriously exploded in Havana in 1898, both papers (without evidence) immediately blamed Spanish authorities. In the aftermath of the Maine scenario, the more conservative press attacked yellow journalism. Growing numbers of critics tried to discourage yellow journalism, which "respectable" editors both hated and feared. Regardless, the techniques the "yellow" pioneered in the 1890s helped map the way for a tradition of colorful, popular journalism now known as "tabloids."

"Great White Fleet"

Sixteen U.S. battleships of the new American navy that were painted white for the voyage. This voyage was an unprecedented trip around the world.

Settlement Houses

Staffed by members of the educated middle class, settlement houses looked to help immigrant families adapt to the language and customs of their new country. Young college women-unmarried women- were important participants in the settlement house movement. Working in a settlement house, a protected site that served mostly women, was consistent with the widespread stereotype that women needed to be sheltered from difficult environments. The clean and well-tended buildings that settlement houses created were not only an example for immigrant women, but an appropriate area for elite women as well. The settlement houses also helped establish another important institution of reform: the progression of social work. A growing number of programs for the professional training of social workers began to appear in the nation's top universities.

Theodore Roosevelt III

Starting in 1907, Roosevelt proposed even more reforms: an eight-hour day for workers, broader compensation for victims of industrial accidents, inheritance and income taxes, and regulation of the stock market. Conservatives blocked many of his ideas, widening the rift between the president and the conservative wing of his party. Roosevelt was also a conservationist who used his power to restrict private development on millions of acres of undeveloped land (mostly in the West) by adding them to the previously modest national forest system. When conservatives in Congress restricted his authority over public lands in 1907, Roosevelt and his chief forester, Gifford Pinchot, seized all the forests and many of the water power sites still in public domain before the bill became law.

Nineteenth Amendment (1920)

Suffragists won the ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment, which guaranteed voting rights to women through the nation. "The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any state on account of sex."

William Howard Taft

Taft was a cautious and moderate jurist, who strictly regarded the legal process; when he was nominated for president conservatives expected him to abandon Roosevelt's aggressive use of presidential powers. By being average to basically everyone. Taft won the election of 1908. However, four years later, Taft would leave office the most defeated president of the twentieth century, his party deeply divided and the government in the hands of a Democratic administration for the first time in twenty years. -First problem: called Congress into special session to lower protective tariff rates. But Taft made no effort to overcome the opposition of the congressional Old Guard, arguing that in doing so he would violate the constitutional doctrine of separation of powers. The result was the Payne-Aldrich Tariff, which barely reduced tariff rates at all.

The Populists' Reform Program

The Populists stated their program in more detail in the Omaha platform of 1892. They suggested a system of "subtreasuries", a network of government-owned warehouses where farmers could deposit their crops, to allow them to borrow money from the government at low rates of interest until the price of their products went up. They also called for the abolition of national banks, the end of absentee ownership of land, the direct election of United States senators, and other means to improve the ability of the people to influence the political process. Later, they called for regulation and then government ownership of railroads, telephones, and telegraphs. Furthermore, they demanded a system of government-operated postal savings banks, a gradual income tax, the inflation of the currency, and the remonetization of silver.

McKinley Tariff (1890)

The Republicans wanted to focus more on the issues of tariffs. Representative William McKinley of Ohio and Senator Nelson W. Aldrich of Rhode Island drafted the highest protective measure ever proposed to Congress. Known as the McKinley Tariff, it became law in October 1890.

Henry Cabot Lodge

The Senator of Massachusetts who was against the ratification of the Treaty of Versailles. He was one of the men who was principally concerned with constructing a winning issue for the Republicans in 1920. Lodge was the chair of the Foreign Relations Committee, who hated the president and used every possible strategy to obstruct the treaty. Public opinion favored ratification, so at first Lodge could only play for time. Gradually, however, his opposition to the treaty manifested into a series of "reservations"-amendments to the League covenant further limiting American obligations to the organization. Wilson might have still won approval if he agreed to some minor changes in the language of the treaty. But Wilson refused to yield.

Selective Service Act

The United States did not have a large enough standing army to provide the necessary ground forces in 1917. Even with recruitment efforts, enlistments proved inadequate. Despite protests, Wilson won passage of the Selective Service Act in mid-May. From a prewar total of 121,000 enlisted soldiers, the army grew to more than 4 million, 2 million of whom went to France. Draftees made up 72% of all American soldiers in the war.

"Bull Moose" Party

The battle for the Republican nomination in the election of 1912, ended in Taft's victory. At the Chicago convention 254 delegates were present to make the decision between Roosevelt and Taft. Roosevelt needed fewer than half the disputed seats to win the nomination. But the Republican National Committee, dominated by the Old Guard, awarded all but 19 of their votes to Taft. Roosevelt summoned his supporters back to Chicago to launch the new Progressive Party and to nominate himself as its presidential candidate. Roosevelt approached the battle feeling "fit as a bull moose," giving his new party its nickname. However, Roosevelt was also aware that his cause was basically hopeless, partly because many of the revolutionaries who had supported him during the primaries refused to follow him out of the Republican Party. It was also because the Democratic candidate was Woodrow Wilson.

"Roosevelt Corollary"

The conflict between Venezuela and Germany demonstrated to Roosevelt that European intrusions into Latin America resulted from aggression, instability, and irresponsibility within the Latin American nations. Thus, in 1904 Roosevelt announced an extension to the Monroe Doctrine. The "Roosevelt Corollary" stated that the United States had the right to oppose European intervention in the Western Hemisphere, and was able to intervene in the domestic affairs of neighboring countries if those neighbors proved unable to maintain order and national sovereignty on their own.

Coxey's Army

The depression caused major social turmoil, especially among the unemployed workers. In 1894, Jacob S. Coxey, an Ohio Populist, began advocating a massive public works program to create jobs for the unemployed. When Congress obviously ignored his proposals, Coxey organized a march of the unemployed -known as "Coxey's Army"- to Washington D.C., to present his demands to the government.

Social Gospel

The effort to make faith into a tool of social reform. The Social Gospel movement was chiefly concerned with redeeming the nation's cities. Ex: The Salvation Army (began in England but spread to U.S.) was one example of the fusion of religion with reform. It was a Christian social welfare organization with a somewhat military structure, it had recruited 3,000 "officers" and 20,000 "privates" by 1900 and offered both material aid and spiritual service to the urban poor. Moreover, many ministers, priests, and rabbis left their traditional work to serve in the troubled cities. Charles Sheldon's book "In His Steps" (1898) told the story of a young minister who abandoned a comfortable life for work among the needy, and it sold more than 15 million copies. The Social Gospel was never the dominant element in the movement for urban reform. But the engagement of religion with reform helped bring to progressivism a moral commitment to redeem the lives of even the least favored citizens.

Catalyst of World War I

The major powers of Europe were divided between two competing groups: the "Triple Entente" consisted of Britain, France, and Russia and the "Triple Alliance" which united Germany, Italy, and Austria-Hungary. The conflict emerged from conflicts between a nationalist movement and the Austro-Hungarian Empire. On June 28, 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, was assassinated in Sarajevo. Austria immediately blamed Serbia for the murders and issued impossible ultimatums. Russia, Serbia's ally, mobilized its armies along the border with Austria-Hungary. Germany, faced with provocation against their ally and concerned about a two-front war against Russia and France, declared war against both. Germany's later assault on France ran through neutral Belgium, which caused Britain to declare war on Germany.

Open Door Policy

The metaphor Secretary of State John Hay used in 1898 to characterize the access to Chinese markets he desired for the U.S.; it was later expanded to refer to a policy granting equal trade access to all countries. Russia openly rejected the policy, and the other powers in Europe and Japan, claimed to accept them in principle but to be unable to act unless all the other powers agreed. Hay refused to accept those terms so he announced that all the powers had accepted the principles of the Open Door in "final and definitive" form and that the United States expected them to observe those principles.

Robert La Follette

The most celebrated state-level reformer. Elected governor in 1900, he helped turn Wisconsin into a "laboratory of progressivism." Under his leadership, Wisconsin progressives won approval of direct primaries, initiatives, and referendums. They regulated railroads and utilities. They passed laws to regulate the workplace and provide compensation for laborers injured on the job. They established gradual taxes on inherited fortunes, and they nearly doubled state fees on railroads and other corporate interests.

Women Suffrage

The movement began to gain a lot of its strength after its most prominent leaders began to justify suffrage in "safer", less threatening terms. Suffrage, some supports began to argue, would not challenge the "separate sphere" in which women lived. Instead, they claimed that because women occupied a distinct sphere- because as mothers and wives and homemakers they had special experiences and special sensitivities to bring to public life- woman suffrage would make an important contribution to politics.

Fight over Hetch Hetchy

The opposing opinions of the early conservation movement came to a head beginning in 1906 in a controversy over the Hetch Hetchy Valley in Yosemite National Park. While many San Francisco residents worried about finding enough water to serve their growing population, Hetch Hetchy seemed to be an ideal place for a dam, which would create a large reservoir for the city. In 1906, San Francisco experienced a devastating earthquake and fire. Widespread sympathy for the city strengthened the case for the dam, and Roosevelt turned the decision over to Pinchot, who approved its construction. For more than ten years, a battle raged between naturalists and the advocates of the dam, a battle that consumed John Muir for the rest of his life. To Pinchot, the needs of the city were more important than the claims of preservation. Muir helped place a referendum question on the ballot in 1908, believing that the residents of the city would oppose the project. Instead, San Franciscans approved the dam and its construction began after WWI.

Supporters of Imperialism

Theodore Roosevelt was an example of an imperialist who saw the acquisition of empire as a way to renew the nation. -Some businessmen saw opportunities to control the Asian trade -Republicans saw some advantages in gaining valuable territories through a war fought and won by a Republican administration -Strongest argument in favor of annexation was the fact that the United States already possessed the islands.

Temperance Movement

There had been a major temperance movement before the Civil War, mobilizing large numbers of people in a crusade with strong religious overtones. In 1873, the movement gained a new wind. Temperance advocates formed the Women's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU), which was led after 1879 by Frances Willard. By 1911, it had 245,000 members and had become the single largest women's organization in American history to that point. In 1893, the Anti-Saloon League joined the temperance movement and, along with the WCTU, began to press for the legal abolition of saloons. Gradually, the goal became the complete prohibition of the sale and manufacture of alcoholic beverages.

Statehouse Progressivism

Two other important changes were proposed by Populists in the 1890s: the initiative and the referendum. The initiative allowed reformers to avoid state legislatures by submitting new legislation directly to the voters in general elections. The referendum provided a method by which actions of the legislature could be returned to the electorate for approval. By 1918, more than twenty states had enacted one or both of these reforms. The direct primary and the recall were other efforts to limit the power of party and improve the quality of elected officials. The primary election was an attempt to remove the selection of candidates from the bosses and give it to the people. The recall gave voters the right to remove a public official from office at a special election, which could be called after a sufficient number of citizens had signed a petition. By 1915, every state in the nation had instituted primary elections for at least some offices. The recall required more strenuous effort, but a few states (like California) adopted it as well.

High Voter Turnout

Voter turnout in presidential elections between 1860 and 1900 averaged over 78 percent of all eligible voters.

Chester A. Arthur

Was the vice president in the 1880 election. He was a Stalwart from New York, and being that, the Republican Party managed to retain the presidency because their ticket included a Stalwart and a Half-Breed. When Garfield was assassinated, Arthur assumed the role of president. Arthur's whole political life had been spent devoted to Conkling, but once he became president he tried to follow an independent course and even to promote reform. To the disappointment of the Stalwarts, Arthur kept most of Garfield's appointees in office and supported civil service reform.

"New Freedom"

When Wilson was elected governor of New Jersey in 1910, he earned a national reputation for winning passage of progressive legislation. As a presidential candidate in 1912, Wilson presented a progressive program that came to be called the "New Freedom." Roosevelt's "New Nationalism" supported economic concentration and using government to regulate it. Wilson sided with those who (like Brandeis) believed that bigness was both unjust and inefficient, and that the proper response to monopoly was not to regulate it but to destroy it.

Great Migration

White attitudes did not change towards African-Americans after the war, but black attitudes were deeply affected. This lack of recognition accentuated African-American bitterness, and increased the determination to fight for civil rights. During the war, nearly half a million African-Americans had migrated from the rural South to industrial cities in search of the factory jobs the war was generating. This was the beginning of what became known as the Great Migration. Large black communities arose in northern cities, part of the twentieth-century transformation of the black population from a generally southern rural one to a northern urban one.

Woodrow Wilson

Wilson received 42% of the popular vote and won 435 of the 531 electoral college votes. Wilson was a bold and forceful president. He exerted firm control over his cabinet, and he entrusted real authority only to those who were loyal to him. Wilson also had the advantage of having Democratic majorities in both house of Congress. Wilson's first win as a president was the substantial lowering of the protective tariff. The Underwood-Simmons Tariff provided cuts significant enough to introduce real competition into American markets and thus to help break the power of trusts. To make up for the loss of revenue under the new tariff, Congress approved a graduated income tax. This first modern income tax imposed a 1% tax on individuals and corporations earning more than $4,000 a year, with rates ranging up to 6% on incomes over $500,000 annually.

Wilson's Neutrality

Wilson wanted the U.S. to remain neutral in the war, however, there were a few provocations that caused the U.S.'s entrance. 1. Economic realities made it impossible for the United States to deal with the opposing sides equally. The British had imposed a naval blockade on Germany to prevent munitions and supplies from reaching the enemy. As a neutral country, the United States had the right to trade with Germany, but the British blockade made that impossible. Thus, a truly neutral response to the blockade would have been to stop trading with Britain also. But while the U.S. could survive without trade with the Central powers, it could not as easily break from trade with the Allies. So America continued trading with Britain. By 1915, the U.S. had transformed from a neutral power into the arsenal of the Allies.