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Social institutions

- systems and structures that shape the activities of groups and individuals in society. social institution- it is a structure, not a place. Politics, education, and religion are examples of institutions.

politics

- the methods and tactics of managing a nation or state, as well as administering and controlling its internal and external affairs. - Politics can also mean influencing the activities of groups and individuals.

Chapter 14

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US healthcare system Approaches

Curative medicine Preventative Medicine Palliative care

religion promoting Inequality

Some religions have anti-gay or racist doctrines. Some Protestant sects refuse to ordain gay clergy and many Christian churches treat gay and lesbians differently based on the belief that homosexuality is a sin. Until 1978 Mormons believed that people with dark skin were cursed by God and forbid African Americans to marry in their temples.

A national risk

The 1983 A Nation at Risk Report which was released by the national Commission on Excellence in Education stated that the U.S. was falling behind other nations. Politicians responded with various initiatives to close the achievement gap. At the same time standards and testing was emphasized by the federal government. Teachers are now under pressure to "teach to the test" and other programs such as music, art, sports, and field trips have been cut from the curriculum.

America- A secular Society

The Separation of church and state is a time-honored tradition and American principle however we have not always maintained it in practice. ex. The dollar bill says "In God We Trust" School, bank, and government holidays are organized around Christian holidays. In 2003 there was a controversy over displaying the Ten Commandments in public buildings.

Locavores...

These are "local" eaters who are making an effort to reduce their environmental impact on the planet. Most supermarket food has traveled hundreds or even thousands of miles before arriving at your neighborhood store. It takes resources (electricity and fuel) to process, package, refrigerate, and ship food long distances. Locavores are willing to give up a certain amount of convenience in order to support local, independent, sustainable farmers and food producers. Locavores often set out to eat what is grown within a 100 mile radius of their homes.

Community Colleges

Two year institutions that provide students with general education and facilitates transfer to a four-year university as well as vocational and technical training. Popular community college programs include - law enforcement and nursing. More than 80% of firefighters, police offers, and EMTs and 50% of nurses and health care workers are trained at community colleges.

preventative madicine

aims to avoid or forestall the onset of disease by making lifestyle changes - regular exercise, proper diet and nutrition, stress reduction.

curative medicine

treats the disease once it has become apparent.

Chaperter 10

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Disease Patterns as Social Epidemiology

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Medicine as a social institution

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School to prison Pipeline

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2002 Campaign Reform Act

2002 Campaign Reform Act (McCain-Feingold Act)  A bipartisan campaign reform act authored by Republican Senator John McCain and Democratic Senator Russell Feingold.  It limited the amount of money that could be spent on political campaigns by groups and individuals, specifically on advertising.

527 Political committees

527 Political Committees:  Organizations that have no official connection to a candidate but raise and spend funds like a campaign.  There is a loophole in the law however that allows individuals, corporations, and unions to donate an unlimited amount of money to 527 groups which then spend it on promoting a particular agenda.  They are named "527" groups after the section of the tax code that authorizes their existence.

democracy

A political system in which all citizens have the right to participate by electing representatives to represent their interests and make laws. The U.S. is a democracy, but historically did not allow all citizens to participate.  Women were not given the right to vote until 1920.  African Americans were historically excluded in large numbers from voting until 1965 Voting Rights Act.  Native Americans were legally excluded from voting in federal elections in 1924.  Residents of the District of Columbia were not allowed to vote for president until 1961.

Authoritarian

A political system that denies ordinary citizens representation by and control over their own government. - Political power is concentrated in the hands of a few elites who control military and economic resources.

HIV/AIDS around the world

AIDS is a pandemic, since it appeared in the 1980's, 25 million people have died of AIDS and 33 million people are currently infected with HIV. In wealthier countries AIDS sufferers have access to antiretroviral drugs. New treatment regimens can entirely eliminate the transmission of HIV from mother to baby. Both are very expensive. U.S. researchers have funded studies comparing the performance of new AIDS drugs on an experimental group (U.S. patients) to a placebo group (patients in Africa) who received no treatment. Critics have compared the study to the infamous Tuskegee Syphilis experiment.

Ancient Greece, Middle Ages, Enlightenment

Ancient Greece  Formal secular education began in ancient Greece around the 8th century B.C.  Students studied philosophy, mathematics, music and gymnastics. Middle Ages (476 - 1300)  This is the period in Europe between the fall of Roman Empire and the beginning of the Renaissance.  The church became the main educator with schools in monasteries and cathedrals.  These schools focused on training students to become priests. European Enlightenment (17 Leading thinkers of the day emphasized knowledge, reason, logic, and science over religious tradition.  They believed that the future of modern society depended upon the enlightened self-knowledge, achieved through learning.

Structural Functionalism

Approach to Medicine and Health - Disease is a threat to social order: and sick people cannot fulfill their roles and contribute to society Explaining Drug and Alcohol Addiction - People who become addicted to drugs or alcohol may be responding to strains in the social system and their own lives.

Conflict Theory

Approach to Medicine and Health - Health and the health care system are seen as valuable resources that are unequally shared in society Explaining Drug and Alcohol Addiction - Those in power can define social policy and create laws regarding medicine and health care, people of lower social status are more likely to be scrutinized as problem drinkers or drug addicts and may be unduly punished

Symbolic Interactionism

Approach to Medicine and Health - The meaning of health and illness are dependent upon historical, cultural and situation context. Explaining Drug and Alcohol Addiction - People learn to use alcohol and drugs in social interaction and are influenced by peers and other groups; they may attach different meaning and values to substances and behaviors

Types of political systems

Authoritarian monarchy democracy

Race/ Ethnicity and Health

Because African Americans and Hispanics are disproportionately poor, they have higher rates of death and disease, and shorter life expectancy than whites. Minorities are more often exposed to unhealthy surroundings in the workplace and residential neighborhoods. Asian Americans and Hispanics in 2006-2008 had the greatest percentage of populations residing in counties whose air quality did not meet EPA standards for particulate matter and ozone compared with other racial and ethnic populations.

Charter school

Charter Schools: Public schools run by private entities. They are meant to give schools and parents more control over education. Charter schools are meant to be innovative and some offer special emphasis - arts or science. There is no evidence that charter schools perform any better than regular public schools.

Disenfranchised from voting

Criminal Record - All states except Maine and Vermont do not allow convicted felons to vote while in prison. 35 states do not allow felons on parole to vote. Voter Registration - Voter I.D. laws in some states make it more difficult for certain people to vote. Usually this has a disproportionate effect on minorities, young people, and poor people. This problem has grown since the Supreme Court overturned portions of the Voting Rights Act in 2013. Irregularities in Ballots and Vote Counts - In the 2000 presidential election (Bush v. Gore) Florida delayed the state's ability to declare a winner for weeks. In the end 200,000 votes were not counted.

Deprivation amplification

Deprivation Amplification: when our individual disease risks (based on our heredity and physiology) may be amplified by social factors. The actions of big corporations and the responses of government influence people's environments and risk for disease. The solution to these health problems is not going to be solved just at the individual level (people need to eat healthy, exercise, and quit smoking) but needs to be addressed at the societal level (access to affordable healthy foods).

The changing Meaning of HIV/AIDS

Early 1980's - HIV/AIDS was poorly understood and largely associated with stigmatized or outsider groups such as gay men, intravenous drug users, and Haitians. Prevention through safer sex and drug practices was the only real defense. By the mid 1990s treatment included multiple drugs to extend a patients lifespan. HIV was treated as a chronic illness. The transformation from a "killer" disease to a manageable illness has resulted in what researchers call "safe-sex fatigue" where people had a relaxed attitude about wearing condoms.

Education and Inequality

Education and Inequality  Stratification systems in schools often mirror stratification systems in the larger society based on gender, race/ethnicity, and social class.  Female students, minority group students, poor and working class students, and students with disabilities do not received the same educational benefits as other groups.

Epidemic

Epidemic: When a significantly higher number of cases of a disease occur during a particular time period. Examples: polio, influenza, whooping cough, botulism

Epidemiology/ Epidemiologist

Epidemiology: The study of disease patterns to understand the cause of illness, how it is spread, and what interventions to take. Illness and its effects on entire populations: For many centuries major illnesses such as cholera, typhus, yellow fever, and smallpox swept across vast stretches of the globe wiping out large parts of the population on several continents. Epidemiologists: These physicians swing into action whenever a new disease emerges or an unexpected outbreak of a previously eradicated disease resurfaces. Example - H1N1 influenza (swine flu) epidemic of 2009 Epidemiologists were able to establish a connection between hundreds of unrelated patients. They analyzed the genetic makeup of the virus, and confirmed that people were suffering from a strain of influenza that had not previously infected humans.

Extrinsic Religiosity

Extrinsic Religiosity: refers to a person's public display of commitment, such as attendance at religious services.

Health and the problem of food deserts

Food Desert: A community in which the residents have little or no access to fresh, affordable, healthy foods. Most food deserts are located in urban areas that have convenience stores and fast food restaurants, but few or no stores with fresh fruits, vegetables, meats and other healthy foods. Food deserts are often located in low-income, minority neighborhoods. In these neighborhoods the risk of obesity, diabetes, andheart disease increases 50% for African Americans, and 65% for Hispanics. Origins of Food Deserts In the 1960's & 1970's grocery chains began leaving urban areas due to perceived problems with security, profitability, real estate costs, and parking. 20% of Chicago's 3 million residents live in neighborhoods without supermarkets. Residents must shop at corner mini-marts, drug stores, and liquor stores.

Social Inequality, Heath, Illness

Health and Illness are influenced by social hierarchies and structure of inequality: Race/Ethnicity Gender Social Class People from higher socioeconomic (SES) groups can afford more and better healthcare services. People with higher SES also have greater access to better nutrition, cleaner neighborhoods, and exercise which positively impact their health. People with lower SES have higher rates of disease, higher death rates, and a shorter life expectancy.

Intrinsic religiosity

Intrinsic religiosity: refers to a person's inner religious life or personal relationship to the divine.

Official Curriculum vs. Hidden Curriculum

Official Curriculum: to promote personal improvement and social mobility. The Hidden Curriculum:  Values or behaviors that students learn indirectly over the course of their schooling.  It promotes rules and regulations and produces a submissive and obedient workforce that is prepared to take orders and perform repetitive tasks.  It usually serves to maintain the status quo, specifically the dominant culture and prevailing socioeconomic hierarchy.

Pandemic

Pandemic: When a significantly higher number of cases of disease spreads through an especially large geographical region spanning many countries, even continents. Places such as the CDC (Centers for Disease Control) in the U.S. and WHO (World Health Organization) monitor and define pandemics. Examples: smallpox, bubonic plague, typhus, cholera

PAC's and Super PAC's

Political Action Committees (PACs)  Organizations that raise money to support the interests of a select group or organization. Examples: National Association of Realtors $3.7 million, Honeywell International - $3.6 million, American Bankers Assoc $2.8 million. Super PACs  In 2012 Super PACs were able to raise unlimited sums of money from corporations, unions, and individuals and spend it for or against candidates.

Simulacrum

Simulacrum: a simulation that becomes as good as the original.  Postmodern sociologist Jean Baudrillard has claimed that "the image has come to replace the real."  He meant that we have lost the ability to distinguish between what is real and what is fake. Examples include the popularity of "fake news" programs.  Although they are a satire and parody of real news, there are many instances where they generate real news, thus blurring the line between fake and real.

Belief, Rituals, Sacred, Profane

Religion includes: Beliefs: propositions and ideas held on the basis of faith Rituals: practices based on those beliefs Sacred: the holy, divine, or supernatural Profane: the ordinary, mundane, or everyday.

Religiosity

Religiosity: Refers to the regular practice of religious beliefs. It is often measured in terms of frequency of attendance at worship services and the importance of religious beliefs to an individual.

Schools in the American Colonies

Schooling was initially informal and done in the home. Only a handful of privileged students attend formal schools.  The oldest public school (Boston Latin High School) was founded in 1635. The first college (Harvard) was founded in 1636.

Who Rules america

Sociologist William Domhoff  Studied the power elite in America.  Found that many of them were born into powerful families who control large corporations, attended the same prep schools and Ivy League Colleges. Political Scientist Thomas Dye  In his research he identified 5,778 individuals (.002% of the population) as the elite who wield power.  Most are white males, although a few are minorities and women.

voting in the US

Sociologists are interested in studying the decades long decline in voter turnout. 2008: 61% (increase in percentage of 18-29 year old people voting)

Explanations of Addiction

Structural Functionalism Conflict Theory Symbolic Interaction-ism

Religion as agents of social change

The Abolition of Slavery Quakers played a major role in the abolition of slavery and were the first whites to denounce slavery in the American colonies and Europe. Baptists and Methodists also supported the abolitionist movement. Civil Rights Movement Protestant churches led by a team of Christian ministers, including Reverent Martin Luther King, Jr. were pivotal during the civil rights movement in fighting for equal rights.

patriotism and protest

The U.S. Constitution guarantees freedom of the press and freedom of speech. Why then when we criticize some action or policy of the government are we called unpatriotic?  People protesting against the Vietnam War were called "un-American."  In 2010 the Museum of Contemporary Art (MOCA) in Los Angeles painted over a commissioned mural after viewing its anti-war message.

authoritarian (totalitarianism)

The most extreme type of authoritarian system.  Totalitarian governments are usually headed by a dictator.  The government uses surveillance technology, media, and weapons to control its citizens.  Through ideological propaganda they shape the thoughts, values, and attitudes of citizens. Ex. Kim Jong Il of North Korea who was in office from 1994-2011. When he died his son Kim Jong Un took over.

Tracking

The placement of students in educational "tracks" or programs of study (reading groups, college prep, remedial, gifted vocational-tech, etc.) that determine the types of classes students take and the education they receive.

Pygmalion in the classroom

The researchers conducted an experiment where they randomly divided elementary school students into two groups. They falsely told teachers that one group (experimental group) was more likely to bloom academically than the other group (control group). The study shows that teachers' expectations can influence (even subconsciously) how students are labeled and learn.

Religion in the US vs. Religion in the world

US has variety of religion Religion in the world is covered by major religion

The Sociology of medicine, health and illness

What it means to be healthy or sick is determined by a society. Different cultures have different definitions of what it means to be healthy. In the U.S. we consider people with slim athletic body types to be healthier than people with larger builds. "Healthy" teeth are not just free of cavities, but are also straight and white. In other cultures, irregularly shaped or uneven teeth are not viewed as "bad" or "unhealthy." - In 2010 California saw an unprecedented increase in whooping cough cases. Fresno County - an agricultural area with vaccination-averse immigrants. Many of these immigrants did not have access to vaccines, feared the medical establishment because of their undocumented status, or came from countries that don't vaccinate.

voter participation

Why are voter participation rates so much lower in the U.S. compared to other democratic nations?  The top reason people give for not voting is that they are too busy. How does age effect the likelihood that a person will vote?  72% of people age 55+ vote  Only 47% of people age 18-24 vote

Definition of health and illness

World Health Organization's (WHO) definition of health: a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.

monarchy ( Absolute Monarchy )

have complete authority over their subjects (similar to a dictator). Examples:  Saudi Arabia  Brunei  Morocco

Progressive vs. traditional education

progressive Education: - critical thinking -Express you idea -hand on learning Traditional Education: - Follow the rules - do as your told - teach to the test - Hierarchy structure

Monarchy ( Constitutional monarch )

royal figures whose powers are defined by a political charter and limited by a parliament.  Many constitutional monarchies in places such as Japan, Thailand, Great Britain, and Sweden still have royal families as national figureheads however they have no political power.

power

the ability to impose one's will on others.

authority

the legitimate, non-coercive exercise of power.

Medicalization (past and today )

the process by which some behaviors or conditions that were once seen as personal problems are redefined as medical issues. Past - Obesity was viewed as a lack of will power -pregnancy and birth were a natural process -death once considered a natural part of life and occurred in the home. Today - Today obesity is treated medically with surgery and drugs - Today pregnancy is a :medical Condition" that needs treatment through a Cesarean section -Today death is something we go to great medical lengths to delay and 75% of people die in hospitals or nursing home.

Authoritarian (dictatorship)

 A type of authoritarian system  In most instances a dictator does not gain power by being elected. -General Augusto Pinochet came to power in Chile in 1973 through a military coup and was in power until 1990. He killed many political dissidents and citizens who spoke out against the government.

pluralist model

 According to this model power is shared by a variety of organizations and institutions each with its own resources and interest.

Higher Education

 Before 1900 fewer than 2% of Americans finished high school, less than 1% went to college.  In the late 1800's federal lands were set aside to develop land-grant universities. They focused on teaching agriculture, science, and engineering as well as classical studies. Most ended up becoming large public universities (ex. Iowa State University, University of California, Michigan State University)  After WWII, the G.I. Bill paid for 15 million veterans to attend college. It allowed those from all social classes to get a college education.

Media Influence on politics

 Fundraising, gathering money to spend on media exposure and advertising has become first order of political business for candidates.  Today the media is more likely today to emphasize human interest stories, personalities, high-profile spectacles, and planned events.  In the past the media was more likely to explain the background of issues and the implication of policy debates.

monarchy

 Governments ruled by a king or queen.  Sovereignty is vested in a successive line of rulers within a family.

2010 Citizens United v. Federal Election commission

 In 2010 a conservative group "Citizens United" wanted to air a film critical of Hillary Clinton which seemed to violate the Campaign Reform Act.  The case went to the Supreme Court and in a 5-4 decision the court said that corporations, associations, and unions may spend their own money to support or oppose political candidates. It is based on the controversial idea that "corporations are people" and therefore these groups have a First Amendment Right to free speech.

the media as the fourth Estat

 In addition to the 3 branches of government (executive, legislative, and judicial), the media plays a key role in the political process.  Although the media was originally intended to inform and educate people and serve as a watchdog group on government, they are also in the business of entertainment.  The media has a tremendous amount of power to sway and manipulate our thoughts and feelings and impact the political process.

Schools in the United states

 Massachusetts was the first state to enact a law in 1852 which made schooling mandatory for all children age 16 and younger.  Education spread rapidly during the 1800's with schools established in all states and territories.

New Media and Politics

 New media that has developed on the internet have moved beyond providing information.  New media stresses interaction, networking, and user-generated content.  The internet is the leading source of campaign news for young people.

special interest groups

 Organizations formed expressly to raise and spend money in order to influence elected officials and public opinion.  It includes corporate organizations, lobbies, political action committees (PACs), and committees.  Campaigns that spend more money usually win elections.  Incumbents (those already occupying political office) are usually able to raise more money because of their high profile position.

power Elite model

 Sociologist C. Wright Mills (1956) was the first to propose a theory of the power elite.  A relatively small number of influential individuals who occupy the top positions within the major economic, political, and military institutions in society control much of the key decision-making processes in the U.S. The Power Elite - The Bohemian Club  Many of the most powerful men in the United States spend two weeks of every summer in a campground north of San Francisco called Bohemian Grove. The Power Elite - The Bohemian Club  Many of the most powerful men in the United States spend two weeks of every summer in a campground north of San Francisco called Bohemian Grove.

Styles Over Substance

 Sound bytes - short audio or visual snippets taken from press releases, press conferences, photo opportunities, or sometimes protests are a feature of modern politics.

government

 the formal, organized agency that exercises power and control in modern society.  Governments are vested with power and authority to make laws and enforce them.

Religiosity of Americas

56% of Americans say religion is very important to them. 39% say they go to religious services once a week. Studies indicate that Americans are more religious than people in other industrialized nations.

Unchurched Spirituality

About 17% of Americans claim no religious affiliation. 1% describe themselves as atheists 2% describe themselves as agnostics 12% describe themselves as spiritual but not religious Some organized religions still include elements of sexism, racial prejudice, homophobia, anti-Semitism, and conformity that turn people off.

Health in Developing nations

Acute diseases still pose a threat to people living in the developing world. The most common killers still include respiratory infections, diarrheal diseases, tuberculosis, and malaria.

Health in the US today

Advances in medicine and public health have wiped out many acute diseases (ex. polio) The leading causes of death in the U.S. are cerebrovascular disease (stroke), cancer, heart disease.

What is Religion

Any institutionalized system of shared beliefs and rituals that identify a relationship between the sacred and the profane.

Religion

Any institutionalized system of shared beliefs and rituals that identify a relationship between the sacred and the profane. Sociologists do not evaluate the truth of any system of beliefs; instead they study the ways that religions are shaped by society, and the way that religions influence society.

Global climate Changes and the spread Disease

Climate affects availability of fresh water and farmable land, where people live, and migration patterns. When people live in very close quarters, the risksrise for malnutrition, water-borne illnesses such as cholera, and other infectious diseases rise. Small increases in temperature can multiply the numbers of vector organisms (animals, birds, insects that carry and spread pathogens).

Distance Learning

Correspondence courses have been available for hundreds of years. It was a way for people in rural areas to get an education by completing educational courses through the mail. Today distance learning only involves an internet connection and allows students to take courses online. In 2010 25% of college students were taking at least one class online.

Chronic Diseases

Develop over a longer period of time and may not be detected until later in their progression. They can sometimes be related to environment, lifestyle, and personal choices. Ex. Cancer, hypertension, Type 2 diabetes.

Acute disease

Diseases that have a sudden onset, may briefly incapacitate a person and are either curable or fatal. Ex. common cold, pneumonia, measles.

concierge Medicine

Doctors provide direct care or house calls for cash 24 hours a day. It is a growing niche in medicine that avoids many of the bureaucratic nightmares of belonging to health management organizations (HMOs). Patients can develop more personal relationships with their doctors. For patients it takes away the feeling of being on a conveyor belt and treated like a number, being rushed through the process.

palliative care

Focuses on symptom and pain relief and provides a supportive environment for critically ill or dying patients.

Savage Inequalities

Former teacher Jonathan Kozal conducted an ethnographic study of public schools in East St. Louis, Chicago, New York City, Camden, Cincinnati, and Washington, DC. He compared these poor schools to those in the suburbs. He describes urban schools as unhappy places located among bleak, tall housing projects with barbed wire, drug free zone signs, guarded doors, police, steal window grates. These are places that make learning very difficult.

Fundamentalism

Fundamentalism is a more traditional practice of religion which emphasizes a literal interpretation of religious texts. Fundamentalism is on the rise in the United States and worldwide. Declaring loyalty to a traditional religious group promises certainty for people in the face of change. Fundamentalist Christians in the U.S. have also become highly involved in political movements against abortion and same sex marriage and for prayer in public schools and religion in politics.

Credential Society

He argues that educational expansion is best explained by status group struggle. He argues that educational credentials, such as college diplomas, are primarily status symbols, rather than indicators of actual achievement. The rise of "credentialism" does not indicate that society is becoming more expert but that education is increasingly used by dominant groups to secure more advantageous places in the occupational and social structure for themselves and their children. The inflation of "credentials" over time corresponds to their decreasing value. Ex. In the early 20th century pharmacists did not have official credentials, but instead went through an apprenticeship process. Today pharmacists need a 4 year bachelors degrees and then 4 years of graduate school.

Emile Durkheim on religion

He studied religion to understand how it maintained cohesion and regulated society, and how and why people created it. Durkheim found that across the world when people come together and gather they feel intense bonds and emotions. That feeling was then objectified onto a symbol to express what they were feeling when they were collectively together. The symbol can be a plant, animal, cross, star, moon, Buddha, etc. Religions involve regular ceremonial and ritual activities in which a group of believers meet together. Ceremony and ritual in Durkheim's view are essential to binding the members or groups together.

Gender and health

Health is one place where gender inequality benefits women over men, as they are generally healthier and have a longer life expectancy. Traditional male gender role expectations may result in men who work in more dangerous occupations and engage in more risky lifestyle behaviors (smoking, drinking, drug use, driving fast, etc.)

Home Schooling

It is the education of school-aged children under their parents' supervision outside a regular school campus. Research shows that homeschooled students on average have significantly higher academic achievement than public school students. Questions remain about the possible academic and social disadvantages of students who do not socialize in typical school environments.

Health prior to 1900 in the US

Most people were concerned about becoming afflicted with acute diseases. The leading causes of death in the U.S. were influenza, pneumonia, tuberculosis, and gastroenteritis.

NCLB ( No child left Behind )

NCLB (No Child Left Behind Act) in 2002 was in theory put forth to promote equal education. However in practice its emphasis on standardized tests over other measures of student learning have been criticized. Teachers are now under pressure to "teach to the test" and other programs such as music, art, sports, and field trips have been cut from the curriculum.

Impersonal and time consuming heathcare

On average it takes Americans 3 weeks to get an appointment with a doctor. Once you arrive, you may sit for 20 minutes in the waiting room, then sit in the exam room in a flimsy paper gown while waiting for the doctor. On average you only have 10 minutes with the doctor to give a history, describe your symptoms, receive your diagnosis, and discuss treatment.

Early College High Schools

Philanthropies such as the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, the Carnegie Corporation, and Ford Foundation have contributed $120 million in funding to launch early college high schools. These schools are collaborative partnerships between public school districts and colleges. with no more than 75-100 students per grade and can therefore provide personalized academic attention. The goal of these programs is to engage low-income and underrepresented students by offering them challenging work while providing guidance and support.

Functions of religion

Religion shapes everyday behavior by providing morals, values, rules, and norms. Judeo-Christan commandment - "Thou shall not kill" Buddhist commitment to reconcile strife Qur'anic requirement to not drink alcohol and consume impure foods Religion gives meaning to people's lives and try to answer questions such as: How did we get here? What is our purpose in life? Why do bad things happen to good people?

School vouchers

School vouchers allow parents to send their children to a private school of their choice using a voucher (payment from the government). Opponents argue that vouchers do not improve public education, but do the opposite by draining funds awayfrom vulnerable public schools. It is an effort to defundand privatize public education. Critics argue that if parents use vouchers to pay for private religious schools it threatens the separation of church and state.

Cults

Small intense close-knit groups outside of the mainstream that are focused on individual leaders. Examples - David Koresh and the Branch Davidians, UFO Heaven's Gate, Manson Family, Warren Jeffs Polygamist FLDS .