TEXES History 8-12 (Exact same World and US Histories as Social Studies 7-12)

Islam

Appeared around 650 AD and is an extension of Judaism and Christianity. Muslim Empire eventually grew out of the Arabian Peninsula and went all the way around the Mediterranean at its height in 1000 AD. The primary prophet is Muhammad.

Christianity

Appeared around 30 AD and rose out of Judaism. Spread to Europe during the Holy Roman Empire where it became the religion of the empire. It is the second largest religion in the world today. The primary prophet is Jesus.

Mathematics

Abstract study of topics encompassing quantity, structure, space, change, and has no generally accepted definition. Predates writing, and each society had their own numeral system. Study of it began with the Ancient Greeks between 600-300 BC.

Ancient Greek Civilization

All of Greece sits on a peninsula. This allowed Greeks to travel all over the Mediterranean region. The Interior plain was very sunny and dry and most plain were ringed by mountains. The Athenian Plain is one of the most fertile plains in the country. The rugged coastline ended up being of great strategic importance because it offered citizens protection from foreign invaders.

Emergence and Benefits of Free Enterprise

American trade was threatened in the early 1800s. The Embargo and Non-Importation Acts were unpopular, and there were inventions that helped start the industrial revolution.

Philosophies

Ancient Greece was a democracy. The word is derived from the roots, demos and kratis. Believed that the power was pure and direct, should be a city states and was ruled by police, politics, and policy. Laws were enacted starting in 621 BC with the Code of Laws. In 594 BC, the council abolished enslavement for debtor citizens to vote and court of appeals established. From 560-527 BC, the end of landowner requirement to vote and the divided estate among peasants struggle went on. From 510-506 BC the class division had been abolished and the assembly membership council was broadened to 500 people. 461 BC-429 BC offices were allowed to all citizen, office holders paid. Ancient Rome was a republic with the voters electing leader. Three branches of government with the assembly of centuries, assembly of the tribes, and the senate. Established the separation of powers with checks and balances. The powers of the censor and consul were established. The power of veto, tribune, dictator, and the judges were established and citizenship requirements were established.

Judaism

Appeared around 2200 BC and developed ethical monotheism. There were two Jewish kingdoms at Israel and Judea. The primary prophet is Moses.

Development of Ancient Greece

Athens was the most powerful city state for the arts, learning, and philosophy. Home of Plato's Academy and Aristotle's Lyceum and was the cradle of Western Civilization. Defeated by Sparta in the Peloponnesian War. Sparta was a prominent city state in ancient Greece and emerged as a political entity around the 10th century and became dominant in 650 BC. Overall leader in Greco-Persian War. Domination ended in the Battle of Lectura in 371 BC when Thebes won the battle. The Athenian democracy was developed around 550 BC. Only 20% of the population was eligible to vote. Assembly meetings were the central events of democracy. Spartan totalitarianism was where two kings ruled militaristically. Kings were just figureheads, only those who had gone through.

FDR's Approach to Reform

Bank Holiday, for four days the banks were closed and the government inspected and examined banks stability before reopening which increased consumer confidence to reinvest in American banking. The Federal Securities Act of 1933 appleaded to new investors was a law the required corporations offering new stocks or bonds to register them with the Federal Trade Commission aimed to prevent fraud and misrepresentation. the SEC, Securities and Exchange Commission of 1934 prohibited banks from speculating in stocks using depositors money by separating commercial banking from investment banking. FDIC or the Federal Deposit Insurable Corp. insures deposits up to a limited amount. The Tennessee Valley Authority, or TVA started in the Tennessee Valley area which was plagued by floods and erosion and provided flood and erosion control, improved river navigation, irrigation, hydro-electric power for millions and served as a model for river projects around the US and the world. Examples include the Hoover Dam. The Dust Bowl was solved by tree planting in the Great Plains to prevent future catastrophes by breaking winds, anchoring soil and holding moisture.

Characteristics of Established Civilizations

Government, division of labor, learned persons, capital goods, towns, transportation structures, military, efficient food production, defined culture, and spatial exchange.

African Cultures

Before 1500 people lived in small tribes and villages and were herders and farmers that were ruled by chiefs. The societies were aged related and sex related. There was a strong role of women. Empires before 1500 ran south of Egypt along the Red Sea such as Cush and Axum. There were city states on the East African Coast such as Mogadishu and Malindi. In South Central Africa there was a great gold mining empire. Great Zimbabwe is still standing and is the best example of what a society would look like. There were also the empires in West Africa such as Ghana, Mali, Songhai, and Nok.

Hoover's Federal Works Programs

Began giving loans to businesses. Reconstruction Finance Corporation began trying to fix the bank failures of 1931, giving loans to banks, industry, and other institutions in financial straits, established a 'federal breadline' for businesses' but eventually failed to restore prosperity. Also tried to enact public works projects such as building dams and highways, but were unsuccessful as well. Spent $500 million more on public works than in 1928.

Second New Deal

Began in 1934, situations improved but unemployment was still high at 11 million, which was 22% of the work force. In 1935, Roosevelt told America the federal government had to take a greater responsibility for economic well being of the people. The Social Security Act of 1935 included benefits for the retired, unemployment insurance, and health and child welfare programs. Federal grants matched by state grants to aid widows, dependent children, blind, and other handicapped persons. Critics such as Hoover warned this was substituting government control for free enterprise. Emergency Relief Administration Act enacted in which the president established the Workers Progress Administration which was headed by the former CWA leader Harry Hopkins. WPA was the Works Progress Administration aimed to give people work as soon as possible. $11 billion in appropriation 1935-1943. Constructed 800 landing fields, 125,000 public buildings, 651,000 miles of roads, 75,000 bridges and 8,000 parks. Employed over 8.5 million people, including artists and writers. the NYA was the National Youth Administration, which became the junior 'WPA' and created jobs of 1.5 million high school students and over 600,000 college students. REA, Rural Electrification Administration, to bring electricity to rural America.

China

Began with the Xia dynasty around 2010 BC. Medicine began in the Shang dynasty with herbal cures, acupuncture, massage, exercise and dietary therapy. The Chinese also discovered the pulse and how to measure it, in addition to studying balance. Balance is known as yin and yang, or having good health in entire body. Practiced acupuncture as being a method to relieve the body of pain and to treat/prevent disease. Technology included the abacus, lanterns, compass, gunpowder, paper, and printing. The Tang dynasty was a time of great innovation. Saddles and stirrups were developed around 200 BC, and the earliest representation of them was found to date to 320 CE in a Jin dynasty tomb. The wheelbarrow dates to 118 AD from the Han dynasty. Paper is considered one of the great inventions of China and has been traced to 105 CE during the Han dynasty. Porcelain is one of China's great inventions and was developed in the Shang dynasty and is derived from pottery.

John Locke

Believed in the right to life, liberty, and property. Many of his philosophies helped play into American government. Locke's theory of mind is often cited as the origin of modern conceptions of identity and the self, figuring prominently in the work of later philosophers such as Hume, Rousseau and Kant. Locke was the first to define the self through a continuity ofconsciousness. He postulated that the mind was a blank slate or tabula rasa. Contrary to pre-existing Cartesian philosophy, he maintained that we are born without innate ideas, and that knowledge is instead determined only by experience derived fromsense perception.

Hoover's Economic Policy

Believed that the economy was sound and would recover unaided and that moral leadership would eventually bolster the economy. Also believed that the government should not directly intervene in the economy, government sponsored relief programs would undermine the public's self-reliance. Hoover tried to convince Americans that conditions were improving to bolster confidence when nothing had changed.

Areas Explored by Balboa and Magellan

Both represented Spain and were trying to find a Western route to Asia from the Americas. Balboa discovered the South Sea (Pacific ocean) and started the conquest of it by going through the Isthmus of Panama. Became the first expedition to sail from the Atlantic Ocean into the Pacific Ocean (then named "peaceful sea" by Magellan; the passage being made via the Strait of Magellan), and the first to cross the Pacific. His expedition completed the first circumnavigation of the Earth, although Magellan himself did not complete the entire voyage, being killed during the Battle of Mactan in the Philippines.Died on April 27, 1521

Greeks and War

Greco-Persian war was also called the Persian War. Lasted from 499-49 BC. Persian empire was trying to conquer the Greeks by absorbing the Greek colonies. Ended with Peace of Callias in 449. Peloponnesian War was fought between Athens and Sparta from 431-404 BC. Divided into three phases Ended in 404 when the Spartans crushed the Athenian fleet and they surrendered the following year.

South Asia

Buddhism was the largest contribution. The Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Plan allowed Buddhism to penetrate society. Hinduism was also encouraged, but not as much. Reincarnation and vegetarianism were two aspects that a Hindu must follow in order to achieve nirvana. They also believed certain animals were sacred and there was a caste system. The dynasties over here contributed a seasonal calendar built around irrigation systems.

Egypt

Developed one of the first forms of practical mathematics. This involved being able to count up to one million. They developed the concepts of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, in addition to fractions. They also developed methods to calculate the area of rectangles and triangles and the volume of pyramids and cylinders. Medicine involved setting bones using wood splints and cushioned with linen. They had a calendar that was 365 days long and was divided into 12 months of thirty day with five extra days at the end of the year.

Ancient Egyptians

Civilization of NE Africa. Coalesced around 3150 BC and ended around 332 BC when Egypt fell under Greek rule. Nile River is the basis of the entire society and is the longest river in the world. Most of the historical and cultural sites of the society lay along the riverbanks. The Sahara desert which constitutes most of Egypt's territory and is sparsely inhabited. Divided into two regions, the north and south and the two were united in 3000 BC. The Old Kingdom was a name given in the year 3rd BC when Egypt attained its first continuous peak. Middle Kingdom was a period in history from 2055 BC to 1650 BC. The New Kingdom referred to the Egyptian Empire covers the Eighteenth-Twentieth Dynasties of Egypt. Cleopatra was a member of the Ptolemaic dynasty, a family of Greek origin that ruled after Alexander the Great's death. Giza Pyramids are on the Giza plateau contains three pyramid complexes in which the Great Sphinx is located

Belgian Colony

Congo was a colony from 1908-1960.

Spanish Empire in the New World

Conquered the Aztec empire in Mexico and Central America. The visit coincided with an Aztec prophecy. Arrived in 1520, conquered the Aztecs by 1521. New diseases such as small pox, measles, influenza ravaged the Aztecs. Francisco Coronado visited the Southwestern United States, particularly New Mexico, hoped to conquer the mythical Seven Cities of Gold. Explored the Colorado River Valley. Hernando de Soto was the first European to have crossed the Mississippi River. Ranged throughout the southeastern United States searching for gold, silver and a passage to China. De Soto died in 1542 on the banks of the Mississippi River in Arkansas or Louisiana. Explored Peru

German Colonies

Consisted of Togo, Cameroon, Tanzania, Namibia, Northeast new Guinea, Bismarck Archipelago Islands. Formed in the late 19th century. Although most of Germany's African and Pacific colonies were occupied by the Empire's enemies in the first weeks of World War I, the German colonial empire officially ended with the effective date of theTreaty of Versailles on 10 January 1920 after its defeat in the war. Colonies viewed as being an indicator of nationhood.

Agriculture

Consists of irrigation (application of water to land or soil) and domesticated animals such as cow and oxen to help harvest. Was key to the development of sedentary human civilization.

Internationalism

Cooperation between nations, United Nations, Esperanto. Partisans of this movement, such as supporters of the World Federalist Movement, claim that nations should cooperate because their long-term mutual interests are of greater value than their individual short term needs.

Language

Culture and diversity is enabled by this. Its role is chiefly to facilitate communication and to make specific and detailed thought possible. Legacies from one generation to another give identity and pride with a sense of belonging to a community or even a nation that maintains a distinct culture and is how people interact in many ways and is how legacies are passed down.

Byzantine Culture

Economy was among the most advanced in Europe and Mediterranean for many centuries. Trade was the biggest foundation of their economics. All the power in the empire was centered on Constantinople, which flourished and became the largest and wealthiest city in Europe. Had a centralized government. The senate and civil administration really didn't have any kind of power next to the emperor. The most popular trade route was the Silk Road which reached its peak during the empire. The art of the empire glorified Christianity. Forms were spread by trade and conquest to Italy and Sicily and influenced on Renaissance art. Classical antiquity was cultivated in the empire, especially in science. Cultivated literature, philosophy, and law within classical antiquity. Byzantine Law formed after Roman Law and politics.

Muslim

Empire began around 610 with Muhammad receiving visions and his crowd of followers growing. City states began appearing around 632. Medicine and free hospitals began developing around the Islamic Golden Age. Important advances in human anatomy were made. The few doctors also advanced knowledge of vision and skeletal knowledge, as well as the use of plants as remedy. Surgical procedures were practice for the first time and established the free hospitals for the needy and poor. There was a rapid expansion during the 7th century and urbanization and maritime routes became increasingly popular. Astrolabe was used by navigators to help locate and predict positions of the sun, moon, and stars. They also used the compass starting in 1232 in order to direct transportation. The sail lateen was adopted from the Romans after Muslim conquests.

Rise of European Nations

England rose to prominence once William the Conqueror successfully invaded England from France and became King of England. He created the 'Small Council' which evolved into Parliament. Henry II expanded England's territory to include western France and established the judicial system. The Magna Carta remains that cornerstone of English law and their constitution. In France, Louis IX reigned 1226-70 and was known for his Christian faith. He established and maintained the French justice system. He commissioned the Establishment which was a set of ordinance and customs designed to guide judges. He also led several Crusades. France beat England in Hundred Years War and England lost its power on the continent.

Italy and Libya

Established in 1934 in what represents present-day Libya. Italian Libya was formed from the colonies of Cyrenaica and Tripolitania which were taken by Italy from the Ottoman Empire in 1912 after the Italo-Turkish War of 1911 to 1912. started in 1911 and was characterized initially by a major struggle with Muslim native Libyans that lasted until 1931. During this period, the Italian government controlled only the coastal areas of the colony. After the Italian Empire's conquest of Ottoman Libya in the 1911-1912 Italo-Turkish War, much of the early colonial period had Italy waging a war of subjugation against Libya's population. Ottoman Turkey surrendered its control of Libya in the 1912 Treaty of Lausanne, but fierce resistance to the Italians continued from the Senussi political-religious order, a strongly nationalistic group of Sunni Muslims. This group, first under the leadership of Omar Al Mukhtar and centered in the Jebel Akhdar Mountains of Cyrenaica, lead the Libyan resistance movement against Italian settlement in Libya. Italian forces under the Generals Pietro Badoglio and Rodolfo Graziani waged punitive pacification campaigns which turned into brutal and bloody acts of repression. Resistance leaders were executed or escaped into exile. The forced migration of more than 100,000 Cyrenaican people ended in Italian concentration camps. After two decades, Italy predominated. In the 1930s, the policy of Italian Fascism toward Libya began to change, and both Cyrenaica and Tripolitania, along with Fezzan, were merged into Italian Libya in 1934.

Renaissance

Focused on the study of humanities, which consists of grammar, rhetoric, history, and poetry. It is the revival of interest in Greek and Roman culture. Most scholars retranslated Greek and Roman works from Arabic. early Christian writings were studied. The arts focused on the human form through painting and sculpture. Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Raphael and Giotto were the most famous artists of this time. Petrarch, Machiavelli, and Shakespeare are the most well known authors of this time. It was also a time of great scientific precedence with the invention of the barometer, microscope, thermometer, and the scientific method. Famous scientists included da Vinci, Copernicus, Galileo, Gutenberg, Kepler, Leibniz, van Leeuwenhoek, Hooke, Boyle, and Priestley and Lavoisier. Their contributions include the heliocentric theory, proved earth rotates on axis, invented the printing press, discovered elliptical orbit of planets, created calculus, discovered bacteria, discovered cells, father of Modern chemistry, and discovered oxygen. Philosophers and their works include Descartes who wrote Discourse on Method and Newtn who wrote Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy.

Socialism

Government owns the means of production, government/central planning. socialism includes a diverse array of political philosophies, ranging from reformism to revolutionary socialism. Proponents of state socialism advocate the nationalisation of the means of production, distribution and exchange as a strategy for implementing socialism.

French Empire

French Indochina came to be around 1885. France obtained control over northern Vietnam following its victory over China in the Sino-French war (1884-1885). French Indochina was formed in October 1887 from Annam, Tonkin, Cochinchina (which together form modern Vietnam) and the Kingdom of Cambodia; Laos was added after theFranco-Siamese War in 1893. The federation lasted until 1954. In the four protectorates, the French formally left the local rulers in power, who were the Emperors of Vietnam,Kings of Cambodia, and Kings of Luang Prabang, but in fact gathered all powers in their hands, the local rulers acting only as figureheads. French troops landed in Vietnam in 1858 and by the mid-1880s they had established a firm grip over the northern region. From 1885 to 1895, Phan Đình Phùng led a rebellion against the colonizing power. Nationalist sentiments intensified in Vietnam, especially during and after World War I, but all the uprisings and tentative efforts failed to obtain any concessions from the French overseers. French West Africa was a federation of eight French colonial territories in Africa: Mauritania, Senegal, French Sudan (now Mali), French Guinea, Côte d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast), Upper Volta (nowBurkina Faso), Dahomey (now Benin) and Niger. The capital of the federation was Dakar. The federation existed from 1895 until 1960. France invaded Madagascar in 1883 in what became known as the first Franco-Hova War.[66] At the end of the war, Madagascar ceded the northern port town of Antsiranana (Diego Suarez) to France and paid 560,000 francs to Lambert's heirs.[67] In 1890, the British accepted the full formal imposition of a French protectorate on the island, but French authority was not acknowledged by the government of Madagascar. To force capitulation, the French bombarded and occupied the harbor of Toamasina on the east coast, and Mahajanga on the west coast, in December 1894 and January 1895 respectively.[68] A French military flying column then marched toward Antananarivo, losing many men to malaria and other diseases. Reinforcements came from Algeria andSub-Saharan Africa. Upon reaching the city in September 1895, the column bombarded the royal palace with heavy artillery, causing heavy casualties and leading Queen Ranavalona III to surrender.[69] France annexed Madagascar in 1896 and declared the island a colony the following year. All focused on trade to generate economic prosperity.

Rome

Galen was one of the most prominent Romans. He also contributed greatly to anatomy, physiology, pathology, pharmacology and neurology. Architecture and engineering in Rome is famous for advanced accomplishments. They mastered the art of building arches into bridges, aqueducts and producing buildings with multiple stories. Roads were very common at the time of the ancient Romans and were vital to the Roman state. Built amphitheaters which contained many arches and were used for large oratories or plays. Most architecture commonly used was cement and concrete.

Long term Effects of German Unification

Germany and France developed a deep hatred for each other leading to future conflicts in WWI and WWII. Germany's military became much stronger and became a force to contend with in a very short amount of time.

FDR's Approach to Relief

Had a pragmatic approach to Relief, Recovery, and Reform- The Hundred Days. Created relief programs to reemploy and put money back into the economy. the Civil Conservation Corps was a law that put 2.5 million men back to work building dams, clearing beaches, building campsites and planting trees. Federal Emergency Relief Administration had $500 million provided by Congress for FERA appointment to go to states as direct aid. The Civil Works Administration, administrator Harry Hopkins of FERA persuaded FDR to allow FERA throughout eh CSW to put 2.5 million people back to work instead of receiving direct aid 'handouts'.

British Empire

Had holdings in Egypt, Sudan, Nigeria, the Gold Coast, Kenya, Uganda, Somalia, South Africa, Rhodesia, India, Burma, Pakistan, Malaysia, New Guinea, Belize, Australia, and New Zealand. By 1922 the British Empire held sway over about 458 million people, one-fifth of the world's population at the time.The empire covered more than 33,700,000 km (13,012,000 sq mi), almost a quarter of the Earth's total land area. As a result, its political, legal, linguistic and cultural legacy is widespread. At the peak of its power it was often said that "the sun never sets on the British Empire" because its span across the globe ensured that the sun was always shining on at least one of its numerous territories. The growth of Germany and the United States eroded Britain's economic lead by the end of the 19th century. Subsequent military and economic tensions between Britain and Germany were major causes of the First World War, during which Britain relied heavily upon its empire. The conflict placed enormous financial and population strain on Britain, and although the empire achieved its largest territorial extent immediately after the war, it was no longer a peerless industrial or military power. The Second World War saw Britain's colonies in South-East Asia occupied by Japan, which damaged British prestige and accelerated the decline of the empire, despite the eventual victory of Britain and its allies. India, Britain's most valuable and populous possession, achieved independence two years after the end of the war.

Spanish Empire

Had most of the west coast of South America, particularly in Peru, Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay, and Chile. All had rebelled by the middle of the 19th century. Canary Islands received after war with the Portuguese in 1479. Conquest of the Canary Islands occurred in 1402.Canary Islands still a claim of Spain. Morocco and Rio de Oro have had vast Spanish influence starting in the 16th century, and established colonies in Morocco and had several enclaves. Spain lost authority in 1957. Rio de Oro is one of the two territories that formed the Spanish province of Spanish Sahara after 1969; it was originally taken as a Spanish colonial possession in the late 19th century. Its name seems to come from an east-west river which was supposed to have run through it formerly. The river was thought to have largely dried out - a wadi, as the name indicates - or have disappeared underground.

Greek Contributions to Civilization

Homer was the author of the Iliad and the Odyssey and is revered as the greatest of the Greek poets and is described as the teacher of Greece. Herodotus was an ancient Greek historian and lived from 484-25 and is called the Father of History. Was the first to test accuracy to a certain extent and arranged them in a constructed narrative and wrote The Histories. Thuycydides was a Greek historian and Athenian general and has been dubbed father of scientific history because of his strict standards of evidence gathering and analysis. Also father of political realism. Wall painting goes back to the Minoans and Mycenaeans and the most well known is the elaborate frescoe of the Grave of Phillipp. Mosaics were copied or adapted paintings that often depicted mythological subjects. Scuplture was painted in strong and bright colors. Limited to clothes and hair. Math was developed in the 7th century BC to 4th AD. Use of generalized mathematical theories and proofs is key difference between Greek math and others. Thales, Pythagoras are the most highly regarded. Science is based on logical thinking and mathematics, Miletus is regarded as being the father of science. Based on everyday life. Philosophy arose in the 700 BC and dealt with political, philosophy, ethics, metaphysics, ontology, logic, and biology. Religion consisted of gods and goddesses. Based on polytheism, heriarchies of deities. Zeus had power over all others.

Hoover's Attempt to Fix Economy

Hoover's extended an invitation to US business leaders for a series of economic conferences. Business leaders promised to not reduce wages and prices, to be patient through the 'short' rough time that was broken by Sept. 1931. Agricultural marketing Act with the Federal Farm board, sought to stabilize farm prices and discourage the growing of surplus crops with farm cooperatives and federal loans for produce storage costs. Cut into income taxes, instigate consumer spending, failure due to ambitions of Americans without income.

Italian Unification

In 1831 Giuseppe Mazzini founded the Young Italy Movement and worked towards the creation of an Italian republic. In 1852 the Count Camille de Carvour was the chief Minister of Sardinia. He wanted to unite Italy under the leadership of Sardinia. Giuseppe Garibaldi was active in Mazinni's Young Italy movement. Austria only considered Italy a geographic idea and not a country. In 1859 they were pushed into war with Sardinia by Count Cavour. In 1860 Garibaldi invaded Sicily. Unification occurred when Sardinia got Lombardy from a skirmish with Austria. In 1860, Sicily and Papal States, Parma, Moderna, and Lucca were added to Italy. In 1861 the vote for national unity under the leadership of King Victor Emmanuel II of Sardinia and Italy was unified as a constitutional monarchy.

American Cultures

In Mexico, the Olmecs and Toltecs were the first civilizations. The Aztecs were the first great civilization and invaded about 1200 AD. They were the first to practice metal working. They also practiced weaving and pottery, but were especially known for their elaborate calendar and math systems. In Peru the Incas reached their height about 1400 and lived in the Andes and along the west coast of South America. In Mexico and Guatemala the Mayans built large pyramid temples and vast cities, there are some descendants still there.

US 1815-77

In the north, farmland was 65% of total land in US, railroad tracks were 71% of entire country, 85% of the countries factories were in the north land, and the population was 63% of the total population between the north and south. In the south, only 35% of the land was farmland, very little railroad access with only 29% of the entire countries railroad, and only had 15% of the countries factories, and only had 37% of the country's population lived in the South.

Spanish Unification

Originally there were five separate kingdoms in Spain. Portugal, Castile-Leon, Navvare, and Aragon were all Christian, but Granada was Muslim. With the Marriage of Isabella and Ferdinand, Castile-Leon and Aragon formed one combined kingdom. They captured Granada from the Muslims in 1492. Castile Leon and Aragon united with Navarre and Granada formally around 1500. Jews and Muslims were evicted from the new country unless they were willing to convert to Christianity.

Capitalism

Individuals own means of production and decide what and when to buy. There is general agreement that capitalism became dominant in the Western world following the demise of feudalism.

German Unification

Napoleon I controlled Prussia and the Germans were forced to serve in French army of occupation and abolished the Roman Empire. Created the Confederation of the Rhine which split German northern states off from southern states controlled by Austria. Napoleon I wanted a huge French Empire. William I King of Prussia named Otto von Bismark in control of the Prussian Parliament. Prussia allied with Bavaria and other more southerly German states. Bismark proved war with France by releasing Ems Dispatch. Spain offered Prince Leopold the crown of Spain and France said no to German rulers on either side of France and Napoleon III declared war on July 19, 1870. The Franco-Prussian War was declared a Prussian victory on January 18, 1871. Victory party was held at Versailles and Germany was declared unified. Berlin became the capital, William I installed as Kaiser of United Germany. France was forced to give Alsace-Lorraine to Germany and pay war reparations. Germany created a constitutional monarchy with twenty-five German 'states' that were united in a federal government and the Kaiser ruled with Parliament.

Explorers Searched for Northwest Passage

John Cabot was the first European since the Vikingsto explore the mainland of North America and the first to search for the Northwest Passage. Jacques Cartier was a French explorer who discovered Canada and settled the first town at Quebec and Montreal. Felt that the St. Lawrence River was the passage to China, was the Northwest passage.

Alexander the Great and Hellenism

King of Macedon. Lived 356-323 BC. Tutored by Aristotle until 16 years of age. By 30 had created one of the largest empires of ancient world. Succeeded Father in 336 after he was assassinated. His conquests after lead to great cultural diffusion from India, Babylon, Persia, and Asia Minor. Hellenism occurred between Alexander the Great and emergence of ancient Rome. Greek cultural influence and power at zenith in Europe and Asia. Experienced prosperity and progress in the arts, literature, math, science and it spread throughout the Mediterranean.

Mesopotamia

Known as the land between the rivers and corresponds to modern day Iraq. Reigned from 3100 BC to 539 BC. Tigres River and Euphrates River and are the two most important rivers in W. Asia. Mesopotamia is located between the two rivers. The Sumerians were an ancient civilization and historical region in southern Mesopotamia and settled between the 4500-4000 BC by non-Semitic people. Developed one of the first forms of writing. The Babylonians emerged as an independent state in 1894 BC. Created an empire out of territories of former Akkadian empire.

No Direct Relief

Lower income taxe failed due to so many American families without any source of income. Public works projects failure due to Hoover's rejection of the idea of government borrowing money to pay them. the RFC failure was due to banks keeping funds to strengthen their own finances rather than passing them onto the community. RFC officials were reluctant to loan money Congress had given them. "Bonus Army" March, veterans demanding war bonuses not due until 1945. Hoover called on General MacArthur to disperse the camp of veterans.

India

Mathematics emerged in here around 1200 BC and was composed in Sanskrit. Aryabhata was the first in line of great mathematical astronomers and worked on the approximation of the year. He also discovered the length of the year, which he calculated by using the stars. Discovered that earth rotates on an axis and advocated an astronomical model that was based on a heliocentric model. Explained eclipses in terms of shadows cast by and falling on earth. The concept of zero is implicit in Aryabhata's system as a place holder for powers of 10. Decimals were first recorded here and are known as the nine signs.

Sickness of Industries

Mining, railroad, and textile industries were in decline. The coal industry began to decline in 1923 when the general public began to turning to other sources of energy such as oil, natural gas, and hydro-electric power. The railroads began getting competition from automobiles and trucks. The cotton and wool textile industry began suffering due to increased production of silk and rayon.

Stone tools

Most are associated with pre-historic societies. Has been used to make a wide variety of different tools throughout history, including arrow heads, spear points, etc. Can be made of ground or chipped stone. They enabled pre-historic societies to hunt, plant, and conduct day to day life. They used to make clothing, furniture, and to put food on the table and to have the food you need to cook the food and therefore need the means to do so.

Geographic Features Needed to Establish Civilizations

Nearness to fresh water, fertile land and adequate rainfall, a hospitable climate, close or on transportation routes, and is in a defensible position are all necessary components for civilization. Water is necessary to sustain any kind of life, and plants are required to sustain any kind of life around the land, and in order for the plants to prosper, the land must be fertile. In order for plants to grow well, the climate must be hospitable to sustain any kind of life. Trade needs to be established with other societies in order for the society in question to grow. Most societies have enemies, and in order to protect the society from invader, the land must have natural or political barriers to keep them out.

Growth of Labor Unions

New Deal programs add more protection for workers. Strengthened the AFL by the National labor Relations Act, often called the Wagner Act. Created the National Labor Relations Board, provided governing body for labor relations. United Mine Workers union for workers in mass producing industries and was headed up by John L. Lewis. CIO Committee for Industrialized Organization, formed by Sidney Hillman, David Dubinksy and John L. Lewis in 1935. They organized industrial unions of skilled and unskilled workers, later renamed Congress of Industrial organizations.

Geographic Patterns Influenced Economic Development

Northeast US was the hub for industry and agriculture. Southeast was the hub for agriculture and cotton, the Mississippi/Missouri Valley was the hub for trade between the north and south with the steamboats and flatboats. Industry and trade thrived along the Great lakes. The southwest was the hub for ranching and the west was the hub for agriculture.

Columbus and the Americas

On the evening of 3 August 1492, Columbus departed from Palos de la Frontera with three ships: a larger carrack, the Santa María ex-Gallega("Galician"), and two smaller caravels, the Pinta ("Painted") and the Santa Clara, nicknamed the Niña (lit. "Girl") after her owner Juan Niño of Moguer. he indigenous people he encountered, the Lucayan, Taíno, or Arawak, were peaceful and friendly. He remarked that their lack of modern weaponry and even metal-forged swords or pikes was a tactical vulnerability, writing, "I could conquer the whole of them with 50 men, and govern them as I pleased. Columbus also explored the northeast coast of Cuba, where he landed on 28 October. On 22 November, Martín Alonso Pinzón took the Pinta on an unauthorized expedition in search of an island called "Babeque" or "Baneque", which the natives had told him was rich in gold. Columbus, for his part, continued to the northern coast of Hispaniola, where he landed on 5 December.There, the Santa María ran aground on Christmas Day 1492 and had to be abandoned. Columbus was received by the native cacique Guacanagari, who gave him permission to leave some of his men behind. Columbus left 39 men, including Luis de Torres, the Converso interpreter, who spoke Hebrew and Arabic, and founded the settlement of La Navidad at the site of present-day Môle-Saint-Nicolas, Haiti.[47] He kept sailing along the northern coast of Hispaniola with a single ship, until he encountered Pinzón and thePinta on 6 January.

Wheel

One of the main components of transportation and is one of the six simple machines. First appeared around the mid-4th millennium BC and was developed to help with the agricultural demands and to transport people from one place to another.

1929 Stock Market Crash

Overbuying of shares forced prices up beyond value, and overreaction of the public about this caused panic and people began selling their stocks. The crash occurred on October 24, 1929 and banks across the nation were drained of money.

Nationalism

People of a similar culture, language and tradition have their own government, self-rule, self-determination. nationalism as a recent phenomenon that requires the structural conditions of modern society.[1] There are various definitions for what constitutes a nation, however, which leads to several different strands of nationalism. It can be a belief that citizenship in a state should be limited to one ethnic, cultural, religious, or identity group, or that multinationality in a single state should necessarily comprise the right to express and exercise national identity even by minorities

Roman Contributions

Philosophy began in 200 BC and writing occurred by 50 BC. First philosophers were Lucretius, Cicero, and Seneca. most important branch was stoicism, originated in Hellenistic Greece. Roman law was comprised from the Twelve Tables and Corpus Juris Civilis. Legal system applied in most of Europe until the 18th century. Basis of legal practice in western Europe and their colonies. American and English common law influenced. Roman engineering improved roads, built aqueducts, bridges and dams and perfect the arch. Roman architecture adopted aspects of Greek architecture and perfected arches and domes. Roman sculpture was influenced by the art of Greece largely borrowed ideas and themes from them. Perfected their techniques. Later Christianity became main focus of sculpture. Roman art includes painting, sculpture, and mosaic. Literature included Cicero, Virgil and Plutarch, Greek literature was a vast influence. Latin was the official language. Cicero wrote On the Republic and On the Laws. Known orator and philosopher. Roman astronomy was discovered by Ptolemy who wrote Planetary Hypotheses. Medicine was founded by Galen who contributed most to pharmacology. Roman military strategy was intertwined with the Roman state much more closely than any modern European nation. Roman state existed as a means to solely to support and finance the roman military.

Portuguese Exploration to India

Portuguese explorer Prince Henry, known as the Navigator, was the first European to methodically explore Africa and the oceanic route to the Indies. From his residence in the Algarve region of southern Portugal, he directed successive expeditions to circumnavigate Africa and reach India. In 1420, Henry sent an expedition to secure the uninhabited but strategic island of Madeira. In 1425, he tried to secure the Canary Islands as well, but these were already under firm Castilian control. In 1431, another Portuguese expedition reached and annexed the Azores. It was only on the return voyage that he actually discovered the Cape of Good Hope, in May 1488. Dias returned to Lisbon in December of that year, after an absence of sixteen months.The discovery of the passage around southern Africa was significant because, for the first time, Europeans realized they could trade directly with India and the other parts of Asia, bypassing the overland route through the Middle East, with its expensive middlemen. The official report of the expedition has been lost. the first European to reach India through sea. This discovery was very significant and paved the way for the Portuguese to establish a long lasting colonial empire in Asia. The route meant that the Portuguese wouldn't need to cross the highly disputed Mediterranean nor the dangerous Arabia, and that the whole voyage would be made by sea. After decades of sailors trying to reach India with thousands of lives and dozens of vessels lost in shipwrecks and attacks, Gama landed in Calicut on the 20 May 1498. Reaching the legendary Indian spice routes unopposed helped the Portuguese Empireimprove its economy that, until Gama, was mainly based on trades along the Northern and coastal West Africa. These spices were mostly pepper and cinnamon at first, but soon included other products, all new to Europe which lead to a commercial monopoly for several decades. Gama headed two of the armadas destined for India, the first and the fourth, the biggest armada, only four years after his arrival from the first one. For his contributions he was named in 1524 as the Governor of India, under the title of Viceroy, and given the newly created County of Vidigueira in 1519.

Roman Empire

Post Republican period characterized by an autocratic form of government and large territorial holdings around the Mediterranean in Europe, Africa, and Asia. First two centuries were known as the Pax Romana and reached greatest expanse from 98-117 AD. Christianity became the prime religion of the empire. Defeated the Phoenicians during the Battle of Carthage during 146 BC when the city was completely destroyed. Grew into a Mediterranean power through Julius Caeser. Roman general, statesman, consul and led to demise of the Roman Republic and rise of Roman Empire. Carried out conquest of Gaul completed in 51 BC. His son known as Augustus was the one who founded the Roman Empire and the first emperor ruled from 27 BC to 14 AD. Held supreme military command and initiated the Pax Romana in which imperial expansion thrived with most of modern day Europe under his control.

Agricultural and industrial overproduction

Post WWI agriculture resulted in mass production for Europe. High tariffs in the US curbed European demand, removal of fixed crop prices caused drop in prices, and farmers overproduction ot make more money increased supply and lowered crop prices further. Industrial production was very high in boom time. Demand of luxury items and durable goods was higher, and buying on credit increased consumer spending. By the late 1920s, consumers saturated with durable goods that didn't need to be replaced for years such as automobiles, jewelry, and kitchen appliances.

Metal Working

Process of working with bronze and iron to create individual parts, assemblies, or large scale structures. Can include ships, bridges, mechanical parts, jewelry and needs several types of tools. Earliest dated evidence of this comes from 5000-4000 BC.

Liberalism

Progress and reform, right to speak, write, and gather freely. Liberals espouse a wide array of views depending on their understanding of these principles, but generally they support ideas such asfree and fair elections, civil rights, freedom of the press, freedom of religion, free trade, and private property

Effect of Renaissance

Reformation, and Counter-Reformation,Science and the need to prove previous thoughts and concepts grew. Magical explanations were replaced with rational theories. Catholic doctrine was redefined and Protestantism continued to grow.

Writing

Representation of language in a textual medium through the use of a set of signs or symbols. Ancient cultures needed a reliable means for transmitting information, keeping records, and other activities.

Revival of Trade and Growth in Towns

Resurgence of trade was a prime cause in the revival of towns and their population growth. Towns provided greater markets and by producing goods for merchants to sell. Geographical features such as rivers helped transport commerce and grow towns.

Government Evolution

Roman city state was influenced by Greek civilization and was ruled by kings and retained title as both supreme military and religious authority. Rome became a republic at the end of the 6th century BC. Power concentrated in hands of patricians, aristocratic, and wealthy land owners. Forum became focus of political life. Lasted 500 years, destabilized through civil wars.

Crusades

Series of religious wars blessed by Pope Urban II and the Catholic Church with the stated goal of restoring Christian access to the holy places around Jerusalem. Main crusades occurred 1095-1291 against Muslims in the Levant. The later crusades failed. Resulted in the weakening of the Byzantine Empire.

Decline of Rome

Several civil wars especially between 193-394 AD. Towards the end of the Empire. Eventually lead to total collapse and disintegration of Western Empire. Eventually led to total collapse and disintegration of Western Empire. Many areas of the Roman empire became their own entities with regional governors taking power for themselves caused infighting.

Spain and Portugal Divide Up New World

The Treaty of Tordesillas on 7 June 1494, divided the newly discovered lands outside Europe between Crown of Portugal and Crown of Castile (Spain) along a meridian 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde islands (off the west coast of Africa). This line of demarcation was about halfway between the Cape Verde Islands (already Portuguese) and the islands discovered by Christopher Columbus on his first voyage (claimed for Spain), named in the treaty as Cuba and Hispaniola.The lands to the east would belong to Portugal and the lands to the west to Spain. The Pope drew settlement line of 45 degrees west.

Muslim Empire

Started in 622 in Muhammad and by 750 they had reached Spain. Centered in Cairo and Baghdad. Cairo lasted as a predominant center from 909-1171. Abbasid lasted until 1543. Reached its height in 1000 AD with the Abbasid Caliphate. They systematized the study of algebra and began to consider its relationship with geometry. Most developments in astronomy made during the Golden Age from the 8th-15th centuries. Created azimuth, alhidades, sundials, quadrants. Had a great concern for geography, originated with their religion. Far flung empire enabled scholars and explorers to compile large amounts of geographical and climactic information and produced very accurate maps. Religious, political, and military leader in Muhammed who started the entire empire. Religious works were the Quran, the Hadith, the Five Pillars of Faith.

Reformation

Started under Martin Luther who criticized the Catholic Church for corruption and published his 95 Theses in protest he translated the Bible into vernacular German for his followers, Lutherans. John Calvin was a French reformer who worked in Switzerland and founded the Presbyterian church. The counter-reformation started with the Catholic Church reviving and going through a series of reforms. Protestant heretics were pursued and punished. New religious orders such as the Jesuits formed.

FDR's Approach to Recovery

Steps for trust in US financial institutions. the HOLC of 1933 Home owner loan corp. Loaned $3 billion to help prevent foreclosures. FHA of 1934, Federal Housing Administration guaranteed loans to middle income families, $2-3 billion for construction of new housing. AAA- Agricultural Adjustment Act provided farm subsidies. Payment to farmers for reductions in crops such as tobacco, wheat, corn, and rice. Subsidies from processing tax. Cost passed onto consumers by the food processors and preparation industry. NIRA- National Industry Recovery Act started the NRA- National Recovery Administration which provided that industries would prepare codes of fair competition, establish standard prices and wages, establish standard hours in business, guarantee workers right to organize and negotiate with employers union. PWA- Public Works Administration Gave $6 billion to stimulate the construction industry. Jobs for public works and revived the economy through the sale of building materials.

Cause of Increased Exploration and Discovery

Technological advances were seen in mapmaking and better navigational instruments. Financial support from national governments improved. Most countries wanted to establish colonies for power and prestige, exploit colonies for raw materials and as a market for goods. Mercantilism derived from a desire for gold and for favorable trade status with other nations. Overcrowded conditions in the large European cities and there was a great desire for religious freedom.

Revolutions in England

The English Civil War lasted from 1642 to 1651. Charles I was beheaded in punishment for committing treason in ignoring Parliament and calling for the continuation of the war. He was elected Member of Parliament for Huntingdon in 1628 and for Cambridge in the Short (1640) and Long (1640-49) Parliaments. He entered the English Civil War on the side of the "Roundheads" or Parliamentarians. Nicknamed "Old Ironsides", he was quickly promoted from leading a single cavalry troop to become one of the principal commanders of the New Model Army, playing an important role in the defeat of the royalist forces. Cromwell was one of the signatories of King Charles I's death warrant in 1649, and as a member of the Rump Parliament (1649-53) he dominated the short-lived Commonwealth of England. He was selected to take command of the English campaign in Ireland during 1649-50. Cromwell's forces defeated the Confederate and Royalist coalition in Ireland and occupied the country - bringing to an end the Irish Confederate Wars. During this period a series of Penal Laws were passed against Roman Catholics (a significant minority in England and Scotland but the vast majority in Ireland), and a substantial amount of their land was confiscated. Cromwell also led a campaign against the Scottish army between 1650 and 1651.The Glorious Revolution was the overthrow of King James II of England (James VII of Scotland and James II of Ireland) by a union of English Parliamentarians with the Dutch stadtholder William III of Orange-Nassau (William of Orange). William's successful invasion of England with a Dutch fleet and army led to his ascending of the English throne as William III of England jointly with his wife Mary II of England. James II removed from the throne of England. His overthrow began the modern English parliamentary democracy. The Revolution was made to preserve our ancient indisputable laws and liberties, and that ancient constitution of government which is our only security for law and liberty.

Germanic Kingdoms and Charlemagne

The German kingdoms were united under Charlemagne before 800. He added the Lombards, Saxons, French, Avars, and Moors to his kingdom. United most of Europe in this way and expanded Christianity. Crowned Roman Emperor in 800 AD and restored much of the unity of the old Roman Empire and developed modern Europe.

India

The Indus River Valley is a major river that helped establish major cities of the Indus Valley Civilization around 3300 BC. Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa around 2600 but both were abandoned by 1900 BC. Religion was based on animism and developed their own written language. They developed an agricultural society and everything they produced was traded and developed industry. Bronze and copper work were very popular. Aryans invaded Indus Valley about 1500 BC and correlates to decline of Harrapan Culture and went from semi-nomadic life to settled agriculture and handicrafts. Vedic forms of belief are precursor to modern Hinduism. Secret knowledge is acquired by sitting near the master. Basis for Hinduism. 1500-1000 BC called Vedic Age. The Epic Age was set from 1000 BC to 500 BC. Four societal castes were created, the Brahman, Kshatriyas, Vaishas, and Shudras. Revival in Hinduism as Buddhism began to decline. Buddhism held the four noble truths and the eightfold path. The Golden Age of the Guptas was under the Maurya Empire was founded by Chandragupta about 322 BC. Emperor Asoka converted to Buddhism, and literature, art, architecture, mathematics and medicine were produced at this time.

Southeast Asia

The Mekong River Valley encouraged settlement in the area. Hinduism and Buddhism were encouraged and flourished. The growing of rice flourished and allowed the economy to boom.

Early Ancient Greeks

The Minoans were a Bronze Age civilization that arose on the island of Crete and came to dominate the Agean Sea. Settlement between the 8th and 7th millennia BC. The Myceneans was another Bronze Age civilization that lasted from 1900-1100 BC. They took over the Minoans around 1400 BC.

Portuguese Empire

The Southwest African coast was primarily focused on Angola. Angola was a primary colony from the 16th century to 1975. Primarily focused along the coast. European traders would export manufactured goods to the coast of Africa where they would be exchanged for slaves. Within thePortuguese Empire, most black African slaves were traded to Portuguese merchants who bought them to sell as cheap labour for use on Brazilian agricultural plantations. This trade would last until the first half of the 19th century. Mozambique had several Portuguese fortresses on the coast. Mozambique became a strategic port for them. Mozambique large port in which the slave trade was involved in with the Arabs. Colonized in 1505, rebelled in 1964. Vasco de Gama reached India by 1498. The Portuguese had a trade monopoly in the Indian Ocean. Large trading ports in India. The English gradually replaced the Portuguese having control over India. Captured Ceylon in 1558, initially had a monopoly on the spice trade. Founded a port at Columbo and extended their control over the costal areas. Lost control by 1656 to the Dutch. Portuguese landed in Brazil around 1500 and slowly expanded southeast and had Rio de Janiero by 1567, conquered British and Dutch strongholds within the Amazon rainforest.

East Asia

The Sui, Tang, and Song dynasties were based in this area of China. They built the Grand Canal, prefect gunpowder, invented printing, and built the first large cities. The Mongols, led by Ghengis Khan conquered China and established the Yuan Dynasty. Increased contact with Europeans, improved the communication system, and established a strong central government. Japanese Feudalsim had a conflicting power base. There was a strong central government, but there were military controlled local areas with warrior/landlord Samurais and a strict code of Bushido. The Shogun was created in the late 1100s. He was the chief officer of the Emperor and was an agent of powerful families who ruled in the emperors name.

Wave of Strikes

The rising of cost of living and decreasing wages resulted in general strikes all over the US. Boston police strike resulted in lack of public safety. Steel workers strike resulted in more and stronger AFL unions.

China

The Yangtze River supported life along its banks well because of its location, its length, and the southeastern subtropical climate. This is where the first empires started. The Himalayas and the Gobi Desert on the other hand encouraged isolation. Chinese Civilization evolved through the changing dynasties and emphasis on the arts. The Shang Dynasty was the first dynasty and began around 1500 BC and lasted until 1000 BC. The created kaolin pottery, bronze castings, calligraphy, the lunar calendar and created animism and practiced ancestor worship. Zhou, Quin, and Han dynasties all had strong central governments, improved agriculture, opened the silk trade, and during this time The Five Classics were written, and astronomers calculated the exact length of the solar year. Philosophy such as naturalism, Confucianism, Legalism, Daoism, and Buddhism came into being. The Silk Road became a major trading route between the East and Europe at this time. Genghis Khan came to power and China came under Ottoman rule for a time.

Monotheism vs. Polytheism

The belief in one deity over multiple deities. Monotheism is characteristic of Christianity, Judaism, and Islam. Polytheism is characteristic of Hinduism, Shintoism, and Wicca.

Improvements in Sailing

The design of caravels underwent changes over the years, but a typical caravel of the late 15th century may be described as a broad-beamed vessel of 50 or 60 tons burden; some were as large as 160 tons. About 75 feet (23 m) long, the typical caravel had two or three pole masts, lateen-rigged (i.e., with triangular sails). Later versions, the redonda, replaced the main lateen sail which required a large crew by a square sail which also made for more speed when running offshore. Caravels were usually built with a double tower at the stern (the aftercastle, or sterncastle) and a single tower (or none) in the bow (the forecastle). Top speed for a caravel was about 8 knots; the average was 4 knots for 90-100 miles in a day. In the north, the rudder had replaced the side oar for steering. In the Mediterranean, lateen sails working as windfoils allowed sailing upwind. Building techniques improved to allow the construction of larger crafts with multiple masts. The magnetic compass consists of a magnetized pointer (usually marked on the North end) free to align itself with Earth's magnetic field. A compass is any magnetically sensitive device capable of indicating the direction of the magnetic north of a planet's magnetosphere. The face of the compass generally highlights the cardinal points of north, south, east and west. The first known metal astrolabe in Western Europe is the Destombes astrolabe made from brass in tenth-century Catalonia.[19] Metal astrolabes improved on the accuracy of their wooden precursors.

Greece

Their math was very advanced and rigorous. Pythagoreous developed his theorem to find the area of a right triangle. Euclid wrote his book Elements about the structure of math and geometry. Archimedes invented the water screw, discovered pi, and proved specific gravity when he place a large object in water and how it displaced it. First society to be able to calculate the circumference of the earth. Medicine was developed by Hippocrates, who is considered the father of medicine and was a lasting influence on Islamic and medieval European medicine.

Abrahamic tradition

These are monotheistic faiths emphasizing and tracing their common origin to Abraham or recognizing a spiritual tradtion identified with him. These include Judaism, Christianity, or Islam.

Tiber River Encouraged Settlement

Third longest river in Italy. Rome founded on its banks in 753 BC. Critically important to trade and commerce and became key naval base at Ostia during the Punic Wars of the 3rd century. Became the most important port of Ancient Italy.

Conservatism

Tradition and establishment. Some conservatives seek to preserve things as they are, emphasizing stability and continuity, while others, called reactionaries, oppose modernism and seek a return to "the way things were

Enlightenment Philosophers

Voltaire wrote Letters on the English. Famous for his wit and for his advocacy ofcivil liberties, including freedom of religion, freedom of expression, free trade and separation of church and state. He was an outspoken supporter of social reform, despite strict censorship laws with harsh penalties for those who broke them. Favored limited monarchy, free speech and press, and religious toleration. Also helped play into US Constitution. Montesquieu wanted government with three distinct branches, legislative, executive, judicial, checking and balancing each other. Was again a factor in forming the American government. Diderot was intolerant of absolutism and was an ardent supporter of religious tolerance. Rosseau was the author of The Social Contract, which argues that men are born free and equal and should make a contract with their leader, revolution is justified when contract is broken

Feudalism

Was comprised of manors and towns and was the organizing principle of the rural economy. Flourished between the 9th and 15th centuries. Derived from holding of land in exchange for service or labor and revolves around the lords of the manors or towns, vassals, and fiefs. The Lord is supported economically from his own direct landholding. Towns came to being with large amounts of serfs working on manors. They eventually undermined feudalism as soon as they appeared, and helped many serfs become free and learn a trade.

Karl Marx

was a Germanphilosopher, economist, sociologist, historian, journalist, and revolutionary socialist. His ideas played a significant role in the establishment of the social sciences and the development of the socialist movement. He is also considered one of the greatest economists in history.[4][5][6][7] He published numerous books during his lifetime, the most notable being The Communist Manifesto (1848) and Capital (1867 -1894). hold that all societies progress through the dialectic of class struggle: a conflict between an ownership class which controls production and a lower class which produces the labour for goods. Heavily critical of the current socio-economic form of society, capitalism, he called it the "dictatorship of thebourgeoisie", believing it to be run by the wealthy classes purely for their own benefit; and he predicted that, like previous socioeconomic systems, capitalism would inevitably produce internal tensions which would lead to its self-destruction and replacement by a new system: socialism.[9] He argued that under socialism society would be governed by the working class in what he called the "dictatorship of the proletariat", the "workers' state" or "workers' democracy" Russian Revolution: the collective term for a series of revolutions in Russia in 1917, which dismantled theTsarist autocracy and led to the creation of the Russian SFSR. The Emperor was forced to abdicate and the old regime was replaced by a provisional government during the first revolution of February 1917 (March in theGregorian calendar; the older Julian calendar was in use in Russia at the time). In the second revolution, during October, the Provisional Government was removed and replaced with a Bolshevik (Communist) government. The February Revolution (March 1917) was a revolution focused around Petrograd (now St. Petersburg). In the chaos, members of the Imperial parliament or Duma assumed control of the country, forming the Russian Provisional Government. The army leadership felt they did not have the means to suppress the revolution and Nicholas II, the lastEmperor of Russia, abdicated. The Soviets (workers' councils), which were led by more radical socialist factions, initially permitted the Provisional Government to rule, but insisted on a prerogative to influence the government and control various militias. The February Revolution took place in the context of heavy military setbacks during the First World War (1914-18), which left much of the Russian army in a state of mutiny.

Simon Bolivar

was a Venezuelan military and political leader. Bolívar played a key role in Hispanic America's successful struggle for independence from the Spanish Empire, and is today considered one of the most influential politicians in the history of the Americas. Following the triumph over the Spanish Monarchy, Bolívar participated in the foundation of the first union of independent nations in Hispanic-America, a republic, which was named Gran Colombia, of which he was president from 1819 to 1830. Bolívar remains regarded in Hispanic-America as a hero, visionary, revolutionary, and liberator. During his lifetime, he led Venezuela, Colombia(including Panama at the time), Ecuador, Peru (together with Don José de San Martín), and Bolivia to independence, and helped lay the foundations for democratic ideology in much of Latin America.

French Revolution

was a period of radical social and political upheaval inFrance that had a lasting impact on French history and more broadly throughout the world. The absolute monarchy that had ruled France for centuries collapsed within three years. French society underwent an epic transformation, as feudal, aristocratic and religious privileges evaporated under a sustained assault from radical left-wing political groups, masses on the streets, andpeasants in the countryside.[1] Old ideas about tradition and hierarchy-of monarchy, aristocracy, and religious authority-were abruptly overthrown by new Enlightenment principles of equality, citizenship and inalienable rights.Amidst a fiscal crisis, the common people of France were increasingly angered by the incompetency of King Louis XVI and the continued indifference and decadence of the aristocracy. This resentment fueled radical sentiments, and the French Revolution began in 1789 with the convocation of the Estates-General in May. The first year of the Revolution saw members of the Third Estate proclaiming the Tennis Court Oath in June, the assault on the Bastille in July, the passage of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen in August, and an epic march on Versailles that forced the royal court back to Paris in October. The next few years were dominated by struggles between various liberal assemblies and a right wing of supporters of the monarchy intent on thwarting major reforms.A republic was proclaimed in September 1792 and King Louis XVI was executed the next year. External threats shaped the course of the Revolution. The French Revolutionary Wars began in 1792 and ultimately featured spectacular French victories that facilitated the conquest of the Italian Peninsula, the Low Countries and most territories west of the Rhine - achievements that had eluded previous French governments for centuries. Internally, popular sentiments radicalized the Revolution significantly, culminating in the rise of Maximilien Robespierre and theJacobins and virtual dictatorship by the Committee of Public Safety during the Reign of Terror from 1793 until 1794 during which between 16,000 and 40,000 people were killed.[2] After the fall of the Jacobins and the execution of Robespierre, the Directoryassumed control of the French state in 1795 and held power until 1799, when it was replaced by the Consulate under Napoleon Bonaparte.

American Revolution in English Colonies

was a political upheaval during the last half of the 18th century in which thirteen colonies in North America joined together to break free from the British Empire, combining to become theUnited States of America. They first rejected the authority of the Parliament of Great Britain to govern them from overseas without representation, and then expelled all royal officials. By 1774, each colony had established a Provincial Congress, or an equivalent governmental institution, to govern itself, but still within the empire. The British responded by sending combat troops to re-impose direct rule. Through the Second Continental Congress, the Americans managed the armed conflict against the British known as the American Revolutionary War (also: American War of Independence, 1775-83).

Charles Darwin

was an English naturalist.[I] He established that all species of life have descended over time from common ancestors,[1] and proposed the scientific theory that this branching pattern ofevolution resulted from a process that he called natural selection, in which the struggle for existence has a similar effect to theartificial selection involved in selective breeding. Darwin published his theory of evolution with compelling evidence in his 1859 book On the Origin of Species, overcoming scientific rejection of earlier concepts of transmutation of species.[3][4] By the 1870s the scientific community and much of the general public had accepted evolution as a fact. However, many favoured competing explanations and it was not until the emergence of the modern evolutionary synthesis from the 1930s to the 1950s that a broad consensus developed in which natural selection was the basic mechanism of evolution.[5][6] In modified form, Darwin's scientific discovery is the unifying theory of the life sciences, explaining the diversity of life.