The Great Schism

Battle of White Mountain

Battle that where Ferdinand and the Catholic League defeated Frederick and the Bohemian nobles outside of Prague and caused Frederick to lose two crowns and flee into holland

Sola Fide

By faith alone. The grace of God as the only ground of salvation through faith in Jesus Christ.

Christian Humanism

A movement that developed in northern Europe during the Renaissance combining classical learning (humanism) with the goal of reforming the Catholic Church.

Erasmus

(1466-1536) was a Dutch Renaissance humanist, Catholic priest, social critic, teacher, and theologian. These raised questions that would be influential in the Protestant Reformation and Catholic Counter-Reformation. He also wrote On Free Will,The Praise of Folly, Handbook of a Christian Knight, On Civility in Children, Copia: Foundations of the Abundant Style, Julius Exclusus, and many other works. Believed the problems in the Catholic Church could be fixed; did not suport the idea of a Reformation.

Martin Luther

(1483-1546) was a German monk, Catholic priest, professor of theology and seminal figure of a reform movement in 16th century Christianity, subsequently known as the Protestant Reformation. He strongly disputed the claim that freedom from God's punishment for sin could be purchased with monetary values. He confronted indulgence salesman Johann Tetzel, a Dominican friar, with his Ninety-Five Theses in 1517. His refusal to retract all of his writings at the demand of Pope Leo X in 1520 and the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V at the Diet of Worms in 1521 resulted in his excommunication by the Pope and condemnation as an outlaw by the Emperor. Luther taught that salvation and subsequently eternity in heaven is not earned by good deeds but is received only as a free gift of God's grace through faith in Jesus Christ as redeemer from sin and subsequently eternity in Hell. His theology challenged the authority of the Pope of the Roman Catholic Church by teaching that the Bible is the only source of divinely revealed knowledge from God and opposed sacerdotalism by considering all baptized Christians to be a holy priesthood.Those who identify with these, and all of Luther's wider teachings, are called Lutherans even though Luther insisted on Christian as the only acceptable name for individuals who professed Christ.

Ferdinand II

(1578-1637) a member of the House of Habsburg, was Holy Roman Emperor (1619-1637), King of Bohemia (1617-1619, 1620-1637), and King of Hungary (1618-1625). His rule coincided with the Thirty Years' War. Waged war against protestant forces.

Gustavus Adolphus

(1594-1632) Swedish Lutheran who won victories for the German Protestants in the Thirty Years War and lost his life in one of the battles.

Oliver Cromwell

(1599-1658)was an English military and political leader and later Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland. English military, political, and religious figure who led the Parliamentarian victory in the English Civil War (1642-1649) and called for the execution of Charles I. As lord protector of England (1653-1658) he ruled as a virtual dictator.

Henry VIII

(1491-1547) King of England from 1509 to 1547; his desire to annul his marriage led to a conflict with the pope, England's break with the Roman Catholic Church, and its embrace of Protestantism. Henry established the Church of England in 1532.

Charles V

(1500-1558) was ruler of the Holy Roman Empire from 1519 and, as Charles I, of the Spanish Empire from 1516 until his voluntary retirement and abdication in favor of his younger brother Ferdinand I as Holy Roman Emperor and his son Philip II as King of Spain in 1556.

John Calvin

(1509-1564) born in France in 1509, the theologian/ecclesiastical statesman was Martin Luther's successor as the preeminent Protestant theologian. Calvin made a powerful impact on the fundamental doctrines of Protestantism, and is widely credited as the most important figure in the second generation of the Protestant Reformation. He died in Geneva, Switzerland, in 1564. He was a principal figure in the development of the system of Christian theology later called Calvinism. he published the first edition of his seminal work Institutes of the Christian Religion in 1536.

Philip II

(1527-1598) King of Spain from 1556 to 1598. Absolute monarch who helped lead the Counter Reformation by persecuting Protestants in his holdings. Also sent the Spanish Armada against England.

Elizabeth I

(1533- 1603) was the fifth and last monarch of the Tudor dynasty. The daughter of Henry VIII, she was born into the royal succession, but her mother, Anne Boleyn, was executed two and a half years after her birth, with Anne's marriage to Henry VIII being annulled, and Elizabeth hence declared illegitimate. The English queen who created a strong, centralized monarchy based on national unity and a sharing of power between monarchy and Parliament.

The Thirty Years War

(1618-1648), Anti-Imperialists (non-Catholics) vs. Imperialists (Catholics), started as a religious struggle, Catholic forces led by Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand I (won for the first half), then Protestant King of Sweden Gustavus Adolphus (Gustavus II) won several battles against him; Catholics throughout the war were led by the Hapsburg Rulers of Austria; Bourbon (CATHOLIC) rulers of France wanted to extend power and gain land at Hapsburg expense, supported the Protestant cause; Swedes and French defeated Imperialist army, ended in 1648 with the Treaty of Westphalia

Johannes Gutenberg

(c. 1395-1468) was a German blacksmith, goldsmith, printer, and publisher who introduced printing to Europe. His invention of mechanical movable type printing started the Printing Revolution and is widely regarded as the most important event of the modern period. It played a key role in the development of the Renaissance, Reformation, the Age of Enlightenment, and the Scientific Revolution and laid the material basis for the modern knowledge-based economy and the spread of learning to the masses. Gutenberg was the first European to use movable type printing, in around 1439. Created the 42-line Gutenberg Bible, noted for its high aesthetic and technical quality.

Ignatius Loyola

(ca.1491-1556) was a Spanish knight from a local Basque noble family, hermit, priest since 1537, and theologian, who founded the Society of Jesus (Jesuits) and, on 19 April 1541, became its first Superior General. Ignatius emerged as a religious leader during the Counter-Reformation. Loyola's devotion to the Catholic Church was characterized by absolute obedience to the Pope. this order of Roman Catholic priests proved an effective force for reviving Catholicism during the Catholic Reformation.

Philip Melancthon

-was a German reformer, collaborator with Martin Luther, the first systematic theologian of the Protestant Reformation, intellectual leader of the Lutheran Reformation, and an influential designer of educational systems. He stands next to Luther and Calvin as a reformer, theologian, and molder of Protestantism. Along with Luther, he is the primary founder of Lutheranism -helped with the codification of the Augsburg Confession, big supporter of education and literacy,

Charles I of England

1600-1649; King of England 1625-1649; numerous conflicts with Parliament; fought wars with France, Spain, and Scotland; eventually provoked Civil War, convicted of treason, and beheaded Son of King James

The Edict of Restitution

1629 issued by Ferdinand II outlawed Calvinism in the empire and reclaimed Catholic church properties confiscated by the Lutherans

The Battle of Rocroi

1643 battle that destroyed the aura of invincibility that the spanish infantry enjoyed, french beat the spanish

Huldrich Zwingli

A Swiss priest from 1484 to 1531 who led the protestant movement in Switzerland. He stressed salvation through faith alone and denounced Catholic practices and beliefs such as indulgences and purgatory. He established a theocracy in Zurich by 1525. Unlike Luther, he wanted to completely break from the Catholic tradition. He and his followers were defeated in Switzerland in battle by an army of Catholics.

The English Civil War

A war that broke out between the parliament supporters (roundheads) and the king's supporters (cavaliers). It ended with the execution of the king, Charles I

The Council of Trent

An assembly of high church officials summoned by the Catholic Church to clarify doctrine and address reform in response to the challenges raised by the Protestant Reformation.

Frederick V of the Palatinate

Leader of the Protestant League, and the "Winter King" of Bohemia. Calvinist ruler who briefly replaced Ferdinand in Bohemia during the Thirty Years War

The Battle of Lepanto

In this October 1571 naval battle a coalition of Catholic states led by Spain defeated the main fleet of the Ottoman Empire off of the coast of Greece, eliminating the Turkish threat in the Mediterranean and allowing Philip II to focus his resources on restoring Catholicism throughout Western Europe

Freedom of a Christian by Martin Luther

Part One: Points 1-19: the inner person or the soul Part Two: Points 19-24: the outer person or the body Part Three: Points 25-30: the relation of outward persons. his work was written in German and developed the concept that as fully forgiven children of God, Christians are no longer compelled to keep God's law; however, they freely and willingly serve God and their neighbors. Luther also further develops the concept of justification by faith. In the treatise, Luther stated, "A Christian is a perfectly free lord of all, subject to none. A Christian is a perfectly dutiful servant of all, subject to all."

The Jesuit Order

Society of Jesus: a Roman Catholic order founded by Saint Ignatius of Loyola in 1534 to defend Catholicism against the Reformation and to do missionary work among the heathen; it is strongly committed to education and scholarship

The Peace of Augsburg

This 1555 peace agreement established the compromise between Lutherans and Catholics in the Holy Roman Empire that allowed the rulers of the various territories to decide the religion within their realms

The Münster Commune

a revolutionary popular regime of Anabaptists in Münster, Westphalia, in 1534-35.The commune was established as a consequence of the armed struggle of Münister's citizens and of Anabaptists from neighboring Westphalian cities and northern Holland against the bishop of the city, Prince Franz von Waldeck. On Feb. 23, 1534, the Anabaptists, supported by the common people of Münster, gained a majority on the city council; all those who refused to join the Anabaptists and adopt their faith were expelled from the city. Power was actually held by the "chief prophet" of the Anabaptists, Jan Mathijs (Jan Matthys). After he was killed on Apr. 5, 1534, power passed to John of Leiden (Jan van Leyden), who during April and May 1534 dissolved the city council and established the Council of 12 Elders. As a result of a siege by the bishop's troops and of internal conflicts, John of Leiden instituted a personal dictatorship, proclaiming himself king of the "New Zion" (Münster) and future sovereign of the world.

Anabaptists

are Christians of the Radical Reformation of 16th century Europe. Although some consider the Anabaptist movement to be an offshoot of Protestantism, others see it as a distinct movement.The Amish, Hutterites, and Mennonites are direct descendants of the movement. The name Anabaptist is derived from the Greek term anabaptista, or "one who baptizes over again."

The German Peasants' War

as a widespread popular revolt in the German-speaking areas of Central Europe, 1524-1525. It failed because of the intense opposition of the aristocracy, who slaughtered up to 100,000 of the 300,000 poorly armed peasants and farmers. The survivors were fined and achieved few if any of their goals. The war consisted, like the preceding Bundschuh movement and the Hussite Wars, of a series of both economic and religious revolts in which peasants and farmers, often supported by Protestant clergy, took the lead. The German Peasants' War was Europe's largest and most widespread popular uprising prior to the French Revolution of 1789. The fighting was at its height in the spring and summer of 1525.

The St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre

in 1572 was a targeted group of assassinations, followed by a wave of Roman Catholic mob violence, both directed against the Huguenots (French Calvinist Protestants), during the French Wars of Religion. Traditionally believed to have been instigated by Catherine de' Medici, the mother of King Charles IX, the massacre took place six days after the wedding of the king's sister Margaret to the Protestant Henry III of Navarre (the future Henry IV of France). This marriage was an occasion for which many of the most wealthy and prominent Huguenots had gathered in largely Catholic Paris

Institutes of the Christian Religion

is John Calvin's seminal work of Protestant systematic theology. Highly influential in the Western world and still widely read by theological students today, it was published in Latin in 1536 and in his native French in 1541, with the definitive editions appearing in 1559 (Latin) and in 1560 (French).

The Land of Cockaigne

is a 1567 oil painting by Flemish artist Pieter Bruegel the Elder (c. 1525-1569). In medieval times, Cockaigne was a mythical land of plenty, but Bruegel's depiction of Cockaigne and its residents is not meant to be a flattering one. He chooses rather a comic illustration of the spiritual emptiness believed to derive from gluttony and sloth, two of the seven deadly sins

The Council of Constance

is the 15th century ecumenical council recognized by the Roman Catholic Church, held from 1414 to 1418. The council ended the Three-Popes Controversy, by deposing or accepting the resignation of the remaining Papal claimants and electing Pope Martin V. The Council also condemned and executed Jan Hus and ruled on issues of national sovereignty, the rights of pagans, and just war in response to a conflict between the Kingdom of Poland and the Order of the Teutonic Knights. The Council is important for its relationship to ecclesial Conciliarism and Papal supremacy.

The Edict of Nantes

issued on 13 April 1598, by Henry IV of France, granted the Calvinist Protestants of France (also known as Huguenots) substantial rights in a nation still considered essentially Catholic. In the Edict, Henry aimed primarily to promote civil unity. The Edict separated civil from religious unity, treated some Protestants for the first time as more than mere schismatics and heretics, and opened a path for secularism and tolerance. In offering general freedom of conscience to individuals, the Edict offered many specific concessions to the Protestants, such as amnesty and the reinstatement of their civil rights, including the right to work in any field or for the State and to bring grievances directly to the king. It marked the end of the religious wars that had afflicted France during the second half of the 16th century.

The Price Revolution

refers to the relatively high rate of inflation that characterized the period from the first half of the 16th century to the first half of the 17th, across Western Europe, with prices on average rising perhaps sixfold over 150 years. Major economic upheaval in Europe due to doubling of money supply. Coins were cheaply mass-produced causing inflation, thus starvation. The cost of luxury items rose less in comparison of basic food; the poor were decimated.

Jan Hus

was a Czech priest, philosopher, reformer, and master at Charles University in Prague. After John Wycliffe, the theorist of ecclesiastical Reformation, Hus is considered the first Church reformer, as he lived before Luther, Calvin, and Zwingli. He was burned at the stake for heresy against the doctrines of the Catholic Church, including those on ecclesiology, the Eucharist, and other theological topics. Hus was a key predecessor to the Protestant movement of the sixteenth century, and his teachings had a strong influence on the states of Europe, most immediately in the approval of a reformist Bohemian religious denomination, and, more than a century later, on Martin Luther himself

Cardinal Richelieu

was a French clergyman, noble and statesman. (1585-1642) Minister to Louis XIII. His three point plan (1. Break the power of the nobility, 2. Humble the House of Austria, 3. Control the Protestants) helped to send France on the road to absolute monarchy. he founded the Académie Française, the learned society responsible for matters pertaining to the French language.

The Spanish Armada

was a Spanish fleet of 130 ships that sailed from A Coruña in August 1588 under the command of the Duke of Medina Sidonia with the purpose of escorting an army from Flanders to invade England. The strategic aim was to overthrow Queen Elizabeth I of England and the Tudor establishment of Protestantism in England, with the expectation that this would put a stop to English interference in the Spanish Netherlands and to the harm caused to Spanish interests by English and Dutch privateering. The smaller English fleet was able to defeat the armada by using its ease of maneuverability and ended Spain's domination of the Atlantic Ocean and made England the power.

The Roman Inquisition

was a court established during the Catholic Reformation to protect to purity of the faith in all parts of the Catholic world. Differing from the Spanish and Portuguese Inquisition, the Roman Inquisition was less inclined to use torture, though it had little influence outside of the Italian states.

Devotio Moderna

was a movement for religious reform, calling for apostolic renewal through the rediscovery of genuine pious practices such as humility, obedience and simplicity of life. It began in the late fourteenth-century, largely through the work of Gerard Groote, and flourished in the Low Countries and Germany in the fifteenth century, but came to an end with the Protestant Reformation. It is most known today through its influence on Thomas à Kempis, the author of The Imitation of Christ, a book which proved highly influential for centuries.

The Treaty of Westphalia

was a series of peace treaties signed between May and October 1648 in Osnabrück and Münster. These treaties ended the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) in the Holy Roman Empire, and the Eighty Years' War (1568-1648) between Spain and the Dutch Republic, with Spain formally recognizing the independence of the Dutch Republic. The Peace of Westphalia treaties involved the Holy Roman Emperor, Ferdinand III, of the House of Habsburg; the Kingdom of Spain; the Kingdom of France; the Swedish Empire; the Dutch Republic; the Princes of the Holy Roman Empire; and sovereigns of the free imperial cities and can be denoted by two major events. The signing of the Peace of Münster between the Dutch Republic and the Kingdom of Spain on 30 January 1648, officially ratified in Münster on 15 May 1648. The signing of two complementary treaties on 24 October 1648, namely: The Treaty of Münster concerning the Holy Roman Emperor and France and their respective allies. The Treaty of Osnabrück concerning the Holy Roman Empire, the Kingdom of France, Sweden and their respective allies.

The Great Schism

was a split within the Catholic Church from 1378 to 1418. Several men simultaneously claimed to be the true pope. Driven by politics rather than any theological disagreement, the schism was ended by the Council of Constance (1414-1418). The rival claims to the papal chair hurt the reputation of the office.

The Battle of Mohács

was fought on 29 August 1526 near Mohács, Hungary and was a decisive event for the history of East-Central Europe for the following centuries. In the battle, forces of the Kingdom of Hungary led by King Louis II of Hungary and Bohemia were defeated by forces of the Ottoman Empire led by Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent.

Suleiman the Magnificent

was the tenth and longest-reigning Sultan of the Ottoman Empire sultan of the Ottoman Empire (r. 1520-1566); also known as 'The Lawgiver' (Kanuni). He significantly expanded the empire in the Balkans and eastern Mediterranean.

Hugenots

were members of the Protestant Reformed Church of France during the 16th and 17th centuries. French Protestants were inspired by the writings of John Calvin in the 1530s, and they were called Huguenots by the 1560s. By the end of the 17th century and into the 18th century, roughly 500,000 Huguenots had fled France during a series of religious persecutions. They relocated to Protestant nations