The Literature of Children Study Guide

Erikson Psycho- Social Theory

1. INDUSTRY vs. INFERIORITY (competence) Ages 5-12 -children learn to read and write -do things on their own -peer groups gain greater significance (major source of self esteem) -feels the need to win approval for demonstrating specific competencies valued by society -develop a sense of pride in accomplishments 2. IDENTITY vs. ROLE CONFUSION (Adolescence) Ages 12- 18 -transition from childhood to adulthood -search for a sense of self and personal identity, through an intense exploration of personal values, beliefs and goals -becoming more independent, and begin to look at the future in terms of career, relationships, families, housing, etc. -wants to belong to a society and fit in. -adolescent will re-examine his identity and try to find out exactly who he or she is - adolescent may feel uncomfortable about their body for a while until they can adapt and "grow into" the changes -Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of fidelity. -adolescent may begin to experiment with different lifestyles (e.g. work, education or political activities). -pressuring someone into an identity can result in rebellion in the form of establishing a negative identity, and in addition to this feeling of unhappiness.

Theory of Identity Formation

1. Identity achievement -Clarity of one's own definition of one's ethnic identity leading to secure and stable sense of self 2. Identity confusion • Identity foreclosure -Commitment without exploring alternatives Often based on unexamined parental or societal beliefs • Negative identity 3. Psychosocial moratorium -Questioning of accepted views of ethnicity and engagement in exploration of one's culture -Usually triggered by an experience that creates heightened awareness of ethnicity, such as overt discrimination -Sometimes experienced as an "identity crisis" 3 Key Aspects of Identity Experiencing a subjective sense of comfort with the self Having a sense of direction in life and a continuity of the self from the past, to the present, and to the anticipated future Expressing an identity that is affirmed by a community of important others What Influences Identity Formation? - Parents - Individual's own behaviors - Larger social environments - Historical context - Culture

LONGER BOOKS: What Makes Them Distinctive

A Longer Attention Span -A story can be allowed to unfold in a much longer narrative -More characters can be introduced and developed—a bigger cast of characters More Advanced Vocabulary -Greater capacity to thread through complex sentences -Readers can be assumed to understand irony and other "double meanings," including puns and other elaborate word play Theory of Mind -Readers can be assumed to have a "theory of mind" -Capable of reading a story with multiple points of view, including stories with an "unreliable narrator" -Readers can be assumed to have more highly developed powers of empathy, and therefore to be capable of reading and caring about characters whose lives are very different from their own -Young people supposedly won't read about characters younger than themselves, but in these longer books the mix of ages can be greater. Abstract Thinking -Readers can be assumed to have the ability to think abstractly to some extent, and therefore to follow a narrative that proposes an alternate world or universe, with rules and laws of nature other than those known to us -Readers can be assumed to have a more sophisticated sense of time—of history and the future -Readers can be assumed to know more about the world, including some of the more intense and disturbing aspects of reality -Readers may not want illustrations but prefer to create their own mental pictures of characters and events

The Phantom Tollbooth

A few key points/questions -How does Juster get us to accept Milo's passage from the everyday world of his own room to the fantastic other world of his adventures, the Lands Beyond? Why do we stay with the story, instead of just putting it down as unbelievable? -Juster is a master of comic wordplay and the slapstick moment. (One of his major inspirations was the Marx Brothers.) Think about this in relation to what we've learned about language acquisition, the growth of a child's vocabulary, and the development of an understanding of/taste for irony and sarcasm. -This is also a buddy story and a road trip story. Consider the company Milo keeps. What roles do Tock and the Humbug (an old-fashioned word for con artist) play in Milo's journey toward a more mature self? -Juster snuck some of his ideas about city life—dystopic cities, communities that are in and out of balance—into the story. How does what he has to say about these matters relate to Milo's growth as a more cognitively aware and flexible-thinking young person? -Can you relate the sections on Expectations and Conclusions to what Piaget has to say about the different stages of a child's ability to reason about and interpret real world experience? Industry vs. Inferiority Juster encourages the reader to believe that isolated facts can be used like building blocks to create new schemas (useful abstractions) with which to solve life's difficulties. "So many things are possible just so long as you don't know they're impossible." Juster organizes Milo's adventure in somewhat the same way that Dr. Seuss arranges the two children's day with the Cat in the Hat. Tock and the Humbug act like opposing forces that Milo must mediate and balance. Tock the regulator might be compared with the superego and the Humbug with the Id. Meanwhile, Milo decides that the best use of his time will be to free Rhyme and Reason and restore them to the world. "Milo's journey of self-determination largely involves distinguishing himself from the allegorical demons he battles. When in the Doldrums, Milo must think and act in order to avoid becoming a Lethargarian. When in the Mountains of Ignorance, he prevents himself from becoming a 'monster of habit' by calculating how much time he is well on his way to wasting. . . . Milo thus continually struggles with who he is and who he might become." Piaget's Concrete Operations Stage: Children gradually learn to understand that objects are not always the way they appear to be. "Thought is now more logical, flexible, and organized than it was during early childhood" (Berk 438). Children develop spatial reasoning skills, allowing for the construction of cognitive maps. Children develop an ability to think with a "what if" mentality. With an increased capacity for logical and organized thought, readers in the concrete operational stage will identify with Milo's confusion at the nonsensical way the kingdoms are run in the absence of Rhyme and Reason: Children gradually learn to understand that objects are not always the way they appear to be. "Thought is now more logical, flexible, and organized than it was during early childhood" (Berk 438). Children develop spatial reasoning skills, allowing for the construction of cognitive maps. Children develop an ability to think with a "what if" mentality.

Adolescence

Adolescence Defined • Biological • Starts - puberty • Ends - with the maturation of physical processes and decline in growth • Social • Starts - increased focus on peer relationships, as opposed to family relationships. • Ends - Full attainment of adult status and privileges (entrance into adulthood)

Charlotte's Web

Charlotte's Web 1. Theories a. Freud - Templeton represents the Id, Wilbur is the Ego, and Charlotte is the super ego. b. Goodness of fit model - Wilbur has a slow to warm up temperament. He was taken away from his secure base, Fern, on whom he had imprinted. He didn't have a transitional object to help him through his move. c. Erikson - Wilbur is in between Autonomy vs Shame & Doubt and Initiative vs Guilt. After leaving Fern he has to become independent and make his own decisions. He is then left alone without any playmates to engage with. This affects his identity and motivation. 2. Milestones a. Emotional/Social - Fern is empathetic and independent. She stands up to her parents in order to save the runt of the litter. Wilbur's self esteem is dependent on the opinions of others. He is always making social comparisons between himself and the other farm animals. However, he is capable of building strong friendships and great empathy. b. Lingual - Fern is a great story-teller. She is expressive, detailed and organized while narrating a story. c. Cognitive - Fern has a large attention span, is capable of planning and is organized in her way of thinking. Adolescence: Erikson's Industry vs. Inferiority, attempt to break free from caregivers, peer pressure, finding new friends The intended audience for this book is about 7-9 years old. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt Wilbur asserts his independence He explores his new surroundings at the farm and meets new animals Wilbur breaks free from the pig pen and explores nature He returns home after asserting his independence Sheep tells Wilbur about Zuckerman's plan to fatten him up and eat him This causes Wilbur to experience shame and doubt Vygotsky's theory of Scaffolding "Salutations are greetings," said the voice. "When I say 'salutations,' it's just my fancy way of saying hello or good morning. Actually, it's a silly expression, and I am surprised that I used it at all." (39) Initiative vs. Guilt Wilbur wants to spin a web like Charlotte Even though he continues to fail Charlotte admires that he doesn't give up and that he is showing initiative Charlotte acts as Wilbur's caregiver Wilbur is trying to gain a sense of judgement He tries to go back for more food at night before bed but Charlotte stops him because it is not the right decision Milestones in Development 6-8 Years Recognizes that people can experience more than one emotion at a time Helps children understand the range of emotions that comes with death. Example: Charlotte being sad that she won't see her children, but at peace because she has lived a good life. Empathy increases 9-11 Years Empathic responding extends to general life conditions Shifts adaptively between problem-centered and emotion-centered strategies in regulating emotion Piaget's Concrete Operational Stage Decentration and Reversibility Piaget's Formal Operational Stage The target age group for Charlotte's Web wouldn't have reached this stage yet, so they may have trouble understanding the abstract concept of death.

The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night-Time

In the very first paragraph—the description of his discovery of the dead dog—we see that Christopher is an unusually keen observer, and that he is capable of making logical inferences and really impressive metaphorical leaps, as when he comments: "It looked as if it was running on its side, the way dogs run when they think they are chasing a cat in a dream." Orderliness and detail seem to matter to him than they do to most people. Here we might compare him with Milo of The Phantom Tollbooth, who seems overwhelmed and possibly depressed by the masses of information he's exposed to at school. Christopher, by contrast, seems to draw comfort from highly detailed information. His love of and talent for math lets him escape into a purely abstract realm; his fascination with astronomy and undersea life and time do the same. Christopher tells us that his book will have no jokes in it because he cannot understand jokes. But the above example shows that he is an unreliable narrator in this regard. Much of the humor we do find arises from his limited ability to read and respond appropriately in social situations as contrasted with our own. Christopher hits police officer This may remind us of Fudge, but for someone Christopher's age the consequences can prove to be very un-funny, as when the investigating policeman starts to lift Christopher up off the ground, and Christopher, who has an aversion to being touched by strangers, suddenly hits him. As someone who is struggling to make sense of other people and the world at large, Christopher at times proves to be very good at spotting the inconsistencies in the reasoning of others, and this gives the book a satirical level, as when he notes: "People break rules all the time. . . . In the Bible it says Thou shalt not kill but there were the Crusades and two world wars and the Gulf War and there were Christians killing people in all of them." (page 29)

Emerging Adulthood

New transitional period extending from the late teens to the mid-twenties 1. It is the age of identity explorations, of trying out various possibilities, especially in love and work. 2. It is the age of instability. 3. It is the most self-focused age of life. 4. It is the age of feeling in-between, in transition, neither adolescent nor adult. 5. It is the age of possibilities, when hopes flourish, when people have an unparalleled opportunity to transform their lives. -1/3 of 18- to 25-y/o people move to a new residence every year. -40% move back home with their parents at least once. -They go through an average of 7 jobs in their 20s, more job changes than in any other stretch. -Two-thirds spend at least some time living with a romantic partner without being married -Most remain financially dependent on parents Cognitive Changes -Continued development of prefrontal cortex and its connections with other brain regions -Specialization of a person's interests/experiences leads to experience-dependent brain growth and refinement in specialized regions of cerebral cortex Seven Vectors: 1. Developing intellectual, social and physical competence. 2. Learning to manage emotions. 3. Moving through autonomy toward interdependence. -In college, students take significant strides toward becoming self-sufficient and less dependent on others. They become less constrained by others opinions, and able to take and accept responsibility for their own actions. 4. Developing mature interpersonal relationships. Students develop increasing appreciation of differences, acceptance of flaws in both self and others, and a deepening capacity for empathy and mutuality 5. Establishing identity. The task here is to integrate different facets of oneself and one's experiences and forge a self-image that is realistic, stable and has temporal continuity 6. Developing purpose. Students begin to clarify the kind and degree of impact they want to have on the larger world. 7. Developing integrity. Integrity means "adherence to moral or ethical principals." A task of emerging adulthood is to clarify one's values and uses them to guide one's actions.

Island of Blue Dolphins

O'Dell's Realism -Death is made real for readers from the very beginning. -We see the father of 12-year-old Karana, the story's heroine, die. -Then we see her brother Ramo, who is just 6, die, and in a particularly brutal way. After their father dies, Ramo decides he is the new king. It is like Fudge deciding he can fly like a bird simply because he wants to, or Wilbur thinking he must be able to weave a web just because his friend can do so. She makes her own tools, drawing on her memories of what she has observed the adults around her doing. She works by trial and error. Think of Piaget and Erikson, how Karana's story relates in an extreme way to that of all adolescents as the emerge from childhood into greater independence and responsibility. This is a story about the place of humans in the larger scheme of nature. In this way, is like Charlotte's Web. This is also a story about a clash of cultures. It is a struggle between different value and belief systems as well as over ownership of precious resources. Because it is told from Karana's point of view, the Russians (who are in some ways more like us) are presented as the outsiders. Compare this (again) to Charlotte's Web, where we are led to view the life of the barnyard more from the animals' than the humans' perspective. Karana must challenge the beliefs of her own people, especially in regard to the role of girls and women in society. "I wondered what would happen to me if I went against the law of our tribe which forbade the making of weapons by women?" (page 61)

Freud's Psycho-sexual Theory

Oral Stage (0-1 year) The mouth- sucking swallowing (Ego Develops) During this stage, the mouth is the pleasure center for development. Freud believed this is why infants are born with a sucking reflex and desire their mother's breast. If a child's oral needs are not met during infancy, he or she may develop negative habits such as nail biting or thumb sucking to meet this basic need. Anal Stage (1-3 years) The anus- withholding or expelling feces During this stage, toddlers and preschool-aged children begin to experiment with urine and feces. The control they learn to exert over their bodily functions is manifested in toilet-training. Improper resolution of this stage, such as parents toilet training their children too early, can result in a child who is uptight and overly obsessed with order. Phallic Stage (3 to 5 or 6 years) The penis or clitoris- masturbation (Superego Develops) During this stage, preschoolers take pleasure in their genitals and, according to Freud, begin to struggle with sexual desires toward the opposite sex parent (boys to mothers and girls to fathers). For boys, this is called the Oedipus complex, involving a boy's desire for his mother and his urge to replace his father who is seen as a rival for the mother's attention. At the same time, the boy is afraid his father will punish him for his feelings, so he experiences castration anxiety. The Electra complex, later proposed by Freud's protégé Carl Jung, involves a girl's desire for her father's attention and wish to take her mother's place. Latency Stage (5 or 6 to puberty) Little or no sexual motivation During this stage, sexual instincts subside, and children begin to further develop the superego, or conscience. Children begin to behave in morally acceptable ways and adopt the values of their parents and other important adults. Genital Stage (puberty to adult) The penis or vagina- sexual intercourse During this stage, sexual impulses reemerge. If other stages have been successfully met, adolescents engage in appropriate sexual behavior, which may lead to marriage and childbirth. Id: "I want" or "It" -Unconscious, primitive, impulsive drives - sex, aggression -Pleasure principle, primary process thinking Ego: "I will" or "I" -Mostly conscious decision-making to mediate between the id and the real world -Reality principle, secondary process thinking Superego: "I should" or "Above I" Values and morals learned from parents and society -The conscience - punish bad behavior through guilt -The ideal self - imaginary picture of how one "ought" to be

Terminology

SELF Definitions *Philosophy -The essential qualities that make one person distinct from another -The self is the agent responsible for one's thoughts and actions *Psychology -The cognitive and affection representation of one's identity -self as playing an integral part in human motivation, cognition, affect, and social identity. RESILIENCE -the process of, capacity for, or outcomes of successful adaptation, despite challenging or threatening circumstances. -Good outcomes, despite high risk status -Sustained outcomes under threat -Recovery from a trauma Assimilation - Which is using an existing schema to deal with a new object or situation. Accommodation - This happens when the existing schema (knowledge) does not work, and needs to be changed to deal with a new object or situation. Equilibration - This is the force which moves development along. Piaget believed that cognitive development did not progress at a steady rate, but rather in leaps and bounds. Equilibrium occurs when a child's schemas can deal with most new information through assimilation. However, an unpleasant state of disequilibrium occurs when new information cannot be fitted into existing schemas (assimilation). Hypothetico-Deductive Reasoning When faced with a problem, adolescents start with a hypothesis from which they deduce logical, testable inferences Begins with possibility and ends in reality Propositional Thought Ability to evaluate logic of propositions (verbal statements without needing concrete properties in front of them. Ex: All men are tall. Sally is tall. Is Sally a man? Language development is largely complete but due to improved capacity for reflective thought and abstraction they can think about language as a system -Abstract vocabulary -Improved clarity and accuracy -Can effectively use irony and sarcasm -Figurative language, idioms, proverbs Metalinguistics -Take needs of listener into account -Evaluate message -Refine conversational strategy -Pragmatically can vary language to the situation Information Processing View -Attention becomes more selective -Inhibition of inappropriate, irrelevant matter -Strategies become more effective, improving storage, representation, and retrieval of information -Knowledge increases, easing strategy use -Metacognition expands, leading to new insights & strategies -Cognitive self-regulation improves -Speed of thinking increases Distorted images -Imaginary Audience: adolescents believe that they are the focus of everyone else's attention and concern -Personal Fable: Certain of their imaginary audience, teens develop an inflated opinion of their own importance- they feel special and unique -Both images are rooted in perspective-taking, not egocentrism

Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development

STAGES OF MORAL UNDERSTANDING -Level 1: Preconventional (Stages 1 & 2; Morality is externally controlled) 1. Self Interest Stage 2: Instrumental Purpose Orientation Concrete understanding of different perspectives Self-interests determine what is right "What's in it for me?" Any concern for others is based on "You scratch my back, and I'll scratch yours." 2. Avoid Punishment Stage 1: Obedience & Punishment Orientation Believes in a fixed set of rules Authority figures Morality is something that "big people say they must do" Judge morality of action by its direct consequence -Level 2: Conventional (Stages 3 & 4; Societal Mores) 1. Law and Order Morality Stage 4: Maintaining social order Societal laws Important to obey rules to maintain a functioning society Rules must be enforced in the same manner for everyone Everyone has a personal duty to uphold the rules Loss must be obeyed under all circumstances; otherwise, chaos would ensue 2. Good boy/girl attitude Stage 3: Good girl- Nice boy Typical of adolescents and adults Evaluate actions in terms of relationship to others Live up to expectations of family and community -Level 3: Postconventional (Stages 5 & 6; Principals and values) 1. Principal Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles Moral behavior is defined by self-chosen principles of conscience Laws are valid only in so far as they are grounded in justice Principles respect each person's worth and dignity Considers what one would do if they were in the other's shoes 2.Social Contract Stage 5: Social Contract Free and willing participation for the "Common Good" Basis for a democratic government The greatest good for the greatest number of people Kohlberg's theory does not adequately represent morality of girls and women Feminine morality emphasized an "ethic of care" Different not less valid

Piaget Cognitive Development

Sensorimotor Stage (Birth-2 yrs) -The main achievement during this stage is object permanence - knowing that an object still exists, even if it is hidden. -It requires the ability to form a mental representation (i.e. a schema) of the object. Preoperational Stage (2-7 years) -During this stage, young children are able to think about things symbolically. This is the ability to make one thing - a word or an object - stand for something other than itself. -Thinking is still egocentric, and the infant has difficulty taking the viewpoint of others. Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years) -Piaget considered the concrete stage a major turning point in the child's cognitive development, because it marks the beginning of logical or operational thought. -This means the child can work things out internally in their head (rather than physically try things out in the real world). -Children can conserve number (age 6), mass (age 7), and weight (age 9). Conservation is the understanding that something stays the same in quantity even though its appearance changes. Formal Operational Stage (11 years and over) The formal operational stage begins at approximately age eleven and lasts into adulthood. During this time, people develop the ability to think about abstract concepts, and logically test hypotheses.

Tales of a Fourth Grade Nothing

Tales of a Fourth Grade Nothing 1. Theories a. Freud - Peter is in the latency stage. He prefers same-sex friends and has no interest in girls. Fudge is in the anal stage. b. Erikson - Peter is in the Industry vs Inferiority stage. He takes pride in his schoolwork and being responsible enough to take care of a pet. Fudge is in Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt. Fudge is always off by himself and getting into some sort of trouble. He is willing to try new things and experiment. c. Piaget - Peter is in concrete operations. He is rational and considerate of others. Fudge is in the preoperational stage. He is extremely egocentric and doesn't realize he has to modify his behavior to fit different social settings. 2. Milestones a. Lingual - Peter is very expressive and is always able to convey his feelings. He changes his speech to match the social settings (like when his father's boss comes over). b. Cognitive - Peter still doesn't understand abstract concepts (ex: he thinks Dribble might still be alive after Fudge has swallowed him). He is able to make decisions and has good problem solving skills. Clues to Fudge's developmental level: -He typically speaks two words at a time. -He sometimes babbles, just to "hear himself talk" -Orality: he eats flowers, a turtle, etc. Fudge does not always know the difference between fantasy and reality In the park he thinks he really can fly like a bird At the movie theater, he reacts to the on-screen bear as if a real bear were actually in the room Peter's voice is something like Alexander's. It's the language of complaint. Unfairness is the big issue for him. We find some of Peter's comments funny even though he isn't trying to be funny Peter feels unlucky, under-appreciated, neglected to the point of being invisible to his parents ("Maybe I'm not their real son.") Sometimes enjoys the "grownup" responsibility he's given by his mother (to offer his opinion, set an example for Fudge at the shoe store, the dentist, and elsewhere) We first see Peter acting maturely in the way he introduces himself to his father's clients and in the way he responds to the gift of a book he has outgrown He takes pride in the care he gives Dribble, his pet turtle Peter has friends (especially Jimmy Fargo), and increasingly prefers their company to that of his family. Note, though, how Peter reacts to his female classmate Sheila. Peter is resilient. When Fudge ruins his poster, he moves past anger quickly and comes up with a new plan Peter values his own thoughts and feelings. ("But secretly, whenever I look at him, I think it. My brother, Fang Hatcher! Nobody can stop me from thinking. My mind is my own." Peter reconsiders his opinions, including his opinions about Fudge. "I never considered refusing to open my mouth at the dentist's office." Peter never thought of eating a flower and wonders, What it would be like? Peter seems to have a closer affinity for Warren (his father) than for his mother. The two laugh over how bad the Juicy-O tastes (14). On the other hand, Peter doesn't seem to like his mother as much. He grows angry with her pleas to stand on his head to convince Fudge to eat food. Sometimes he doesn't want to act as Fudge's third parent This further shows Peter's advancement out of the phallic stage (where he would show sexual feelings towards his mother and be hostile towards his father out of jealousy / Oedipus Complex) and into the latency stage where he begins to grow closer to his dad and grow further from his mother. This could also be related to the stereotypical parent roles of the time: the mother takes care of the family, the father makes the money; Peter wants to be more like his father as he continues to grow. Peter is in the concrete operational period Peter's ableness to apply logic and reason to concrete events especially as made evident in how he handles work in his group project with Sheila and Jimmy The ableness to consider multiple perspectives. Peter consistently tries to imagine things from Fudge's point of view and feels he constantly has to act in a formal and responsible way in consideration for others. (Ms. Yarby's gift, tricking Fudge into buying sandals) Fudge consistently stayed in Kohlberg's preconventional stage of morality. He is focused on punishment and its effect on him, along with his self interest. For example, Fudge only agreed to do the tricycle commercial for his father when bribed with cookies, clearly showing him acting in service of himself.

American Born Chinese

The Monkey King - has a sense of personal dissatisfaction or self-loathing. As Erikson would say, he is suffering from role confusion and is struggling with his identity! The Monkey King is an adolescent in exaggerated form: he is sarcastic, convinced of his own invulnerability, and yet—underneath it all--also struggling to find out who he is. The guard at the Heavenly dinner party tells the Monkey King as he refuses to let him in: "You may be a king—you may even be a deity—but you are still a monkey." Yang shows the awkwardnesses and difficulties faced by minority children in a classroom setting. People's stereotypes and prejudices quickly rise to the surface and may be expressed in pointed jokes, or worse. For Jin Wang, it is a matter of maintaining his sense of self while also trying to "fit in" to the group. Language and identity formation -At first Jin Wang tells the other Chinese boy to speak English. "You're in America." He wants to be all-American, and as if to prove it he falls in love with an all-American girl. -But he also realizes the value of having a friend with whom he has much in common culturally, and he and Wei-Chen Sun become best friends. Chin-Kee is an embodiment of all the most offensive Western stereotypes of Asians. His portrayal is deliberately cartoonish, over-the-top—funny but in a grotesque way. His physical appearance and dress, his mispronunciation of English words, his academic super-power prowess all conform to familiar stereotypes. To win Amelia, the girlfriend he wants, Jin Wang changes his hair style to one that is supposedly more Western and cool. He is acting a little bit like a transformer himself. But his over-concern at the movies about his underarm perspiration shows that he is not at home in his own skin. His discomfort is exactly the same as that of the Monkey King, who is tortured by the lingering smell of his own fur. Having a girl friend who is not Asian becomes a problem for him, though, that brings him back to the question of how he sees and identifies himself. He decides to sell his soul in order to have what he wants, and is transformed into Danny, the all-American boy.

Development in Adolescence

The development of adolescents is characterized by continuity and discontinuity. • Physically, adolescents are still influenced by their inherited genes, but now the inheritance interacts with new social conditions with family, peers, school, dating, and friendships. • Socially, an adolescent has already spent years interacting with parents, friends, and teachers. Now, though, new experiences arise and relationships take on a different form, especially concerning dating and intimacy. • Cognitive development of adolescents involves thought processes that are more abstract and idealistic.

Food and Eating

• Adolescent females are at an increased risk for dieting, restricting food intake, and developing negative attitudes about eating • May be related to peer pressures and body image concerns • Seems that teens may experiment when they hear about these actions in others

Puberty

• Adolescents progress through puberty in roughly the same sequence • Changes are universal • Variations occur in: • Onset • Rate • Timing

Bodily Changes

• Earlier maturation of girls compared to boys • Growth spurt generally two years earlier • Marked individual differences in timing • Girls ages 9-15 • Boys ages 10-13.5

Phases of Adolescence

• Early Adolescence (10 -14 years) • Puberty and major bodily changes • Mid Adolescence (14 - 16 years) • Cognitive changes & evolving personality • Start of dating • Sense of future possibilities • Late Adolescence (16 - 21 years) • The transition to adulthood requires a range of adaptations

Early vs. Late Maturation - Boys

• Early Maturing Boys • More popular, relaxed, good-natured, and generally poised • May be secondary to physical maturation and improved social status • Late Maturing Boys • Treated like younger children • Less athletic • More difficult adolescence

Early vs. Late Maturation - Girls

• Early maturation Girls* • Seen as desirable step toward maturity • Poorer body image • Increased risk of eating problems • Increased behavioral difficulties • Not continuing education after high school • Joined older peer groups • More likely in co-ed schools 4-8 *in general, behaviors more prevalent when involved with older peer group