The Victorian Era I: Tutorial

"Ulysses"

"Ulysses" was published in the collection Poems in 1842. In Victorian tradition, it blends classical elements with the tone of the times, that is, an age when people believed in the pursuit of knowledge and new experience. It also shows Tennyson's mastery of rhetoric and figurative language. The poem centers on the familiar character Ulysses, also known as Odysseus, the king of Ithaca and the hero of Homer's Odyssey. In Tennyson's poem, many years have passed since his glory days. Ulysses has grown restless and bored. He seeks adventure and a challenge once again and plans a final excursion, knowing that he may not return. The poem reflects the popular Victorian mentality in which one must strive onward in the face of adversity. Tennyson wrote the poem shortly after the death of his good friend Arthur Henry Hallam, and he said that it was a reaction to his traumatic loss. Tennyson explores his grief through the internal dialogue of the mythical character Ulysses. This work in particular epitomizes the stoic tone of the early Victorian era. The poetic form of "Ulysses" is similar to the forms used by Shakespeare and many other Renaissance poets. "Ulysses" is written in blank verse. It uses iambic pentameter and simple, strong words—words you might expect from the king of rough and rocky Ithaca. The enjambment creates a flow to the monologue and reflects Ulysses's restlessness. Tennyson's ability to master classical line meter and line flow was greatly respected during the Victorian era. The lines below show the unstressed-stressed pattern in the ten-syllable lines. The stressed syllables are marked for you in the first two lines. Also, notice the arrangement of broken lines, run-on lines, and short, powerful words used for dramatic effect. I cannot rest from travel: I will drink Life to the lees: all times I have enjoyed Greatly, have suffered greatly, both with those That loved me, and alone; on shore, and when Through scudding drifts the rainy Hyades Vexed the dim sea: I am become a name; For always roaming with a hungry heart Much have I seen and known—cities of men And manners, climates, councils, governments, Myself not least, but honour'd of them all— "Ulysses" is a dramatic monologue—a speech by a single character directly addressing the audience. The dramatic monologue allows the reader to see into Ulysses's mind and share his inner feelings. Tennyson uses classical meter, intentional line breaks, and the dramatic monologue to build his characterization of Ulysses. These techniques emphasize Ulysses's accomplishments, heroism, and his undying longing for adventure. Figurative language and imagery strengthen the poem's tone of longing and passion. They also illustrate a shift from a romantic view of nature to one that is more realistic and less idealized. Tennyson blends romantic descriptions of nature's beauty with realistic depictions of aging and the effects of inactivity. The following metaphor creates an image of Ulysses's restlessness: How dull it is to pause, to make an end, To rust unburnished, not to shine in use! Ulysses compares inactivity to rusting from disuse; he believes that activity brings new life. Tennyson's readers would have recognized this metaphor as an implied image of a warrior's armor that is either polished for use or else left to rust. The imagery in the following lines illustrates how Ulysses's spirit has grown "grey" with age and boredom. The simile in the next line creates a mental picture of Ulysses pursuing knowledge and experience like a sinking star that moves through the sky and past the edge of the horizon, where we can no longer see it. The image conveys Ulysses's desire to once again depart for the unknown: And this grey spirit yearning in desire To follow knowledge like a sinking star, Beyond the utmost bound of human thought.

History of the Victorian Era

Before we begin discussing the Victorian era, let's review some of the important developments in British history and literature that led up to this time period. History and literature sometimes form a close connection. For example, during the eighteenth-century neoclassical era, people placed great emphasis on science, rationality, and logic. Much of the literature of that era, in turn, is clear, concise, and tightly organized. In contrast, the history and literature of other time periods have a more indirect relationship. As you review these periods, notice the different ways in which literary content and style inform and are informed by the values and struggles of a given era.

Literary Periods

Click each event on the timeline to learn more about the literary periods leading up to the Victorian era. Use the controls on the left to expand and contract the timeline or to return to the beginning.

Queen Victoria's Reign

Queen Victoria was self-confident, deeply attached to her family, and very stubborn. She inherited the throne at age 18 and reigned for 64 years, longer than any other British monarch. Queen Victoria unified the people by representing the moral virtue and national pride of the country. Indeed, things were looking up in Britain. The country's international standing was on the rise. The British public felt proud of Queen Victoria, their nation's explorations and acquisitions, and their newfound prosperity. The Industrial Revolution greatly influenced life during Queen Victoria's reign. It had both good and bad effects on the people of Britain. Many people saw increased wealth, but the working class suffered from poor housing conditions, long working hours, disease, and early death. Victorian thinkers struggled with the era's central concern: how to balance prosperity with justice and charity. Literacy increased dramatically in Britain's population during the Victorian era. At the same time, literature included more and more stories about people's everyday lives. Victorian literature is divided into three main stages, corresponding to stages of Queen Victoria's reign. The early Victorian period was a time of unrest and social change. The middle Victorian age was characterized by a feeling of optimism and even self-confidence. The late Victorian era was marked by a backlash against this pride and a growing emphasis on democracy, socialism, and progressive change.

1485 — 1660 The English Renaissance

Renaissance literature emphasized learning and a return to the classical writing of the Greek and Roman civilizations. Optimism and a spirit of inquiry pervaded life at this time. This era saw the rise of humanism or the belief in the superiority and importance of the human being and a rejection of the medieval emphasis on religion. The Renaissance also saw the rise of metaphysical poets and early forms of neoclassicism. Important authors of the era include William Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe, John Donne, Andrew Marvell, and Ben Jonson.

The Lady of Shalott

Tennyson often brought his readers back to King Arthur's legendary kingdom called Camelot. "The Lady of Shalott" is a poem about a heroine banished to an island castle. Because of a curse, she cannot look directly at the surrounding land of Camelot. The Lady of Shalott spends her time weaving a tapestry that depicts the beauty of human life. She can only experience this beauty indirectly by looking at its reflection in the mirror in front of her loom. When the sight of the handsome Sir Lancelot in her mirror causes her to turn and look directly at the world, her mirror and loom break into pieces. She boldly leaves the tower to experience the world directly and is cursed to death for her choice. She floats down the river, seeing the world for the first time, and dies before arriving at Camelot. As you read this poem, think about how Tennyson is known for exploring personal issues as well as public concerns. "The Lady of Shalott" explores some of the following themes: the Victorians' concepts of femininity and the domestic realm the conflict between the artist and society the personal dilemma of Tennyson as an artist the effects of a journey from innocence to experience In addition, pay attention to the structure of the narrative. Tennyson's main characters often progress through a series of separate moments that lead to a dramatic revelation or new understanding. Tennyson colors these moments with symbolism, vivid images, figurative language, and lyrical rhythm that add depth and strength to the narrative. Symbolism is an important aspect of "The Lady of Shalott." Most symbols can be interpreted in many different ways. Varying interpretations are valid as long as they are supported by evidence from the poem. Reflect on the following popular interpretations of symbols from "The Lady of Shalott": The external and untouchable world of Camelot represents direct experiences of love, beauty, growth, and change, or life itself. The Lady represents the confined artist inspired and bound by a curse to create. The story could represent the birth of the soul, the journey from the protection of childhood to adulthood, or the transition from innocence to experience. Throughout "The Lady of Shalott," Tennyson crafts his words and images artfully to reinforce his message. Imagery develops the conflict between the internal world of the artist and the external world of society. For example, Tennyson contrasts two different types of images in the poem. After describing the Lady's dull, monotonous world inside the tower, he adds descriptions of the vital, changing world outside the tower walls. This technique is evident in the second stanza: Willow whiten, aspens quiver; Little breezes dusk and shiver Through the wave that runs forever By the island in the river Flowing down to Camelot. Four gray walls, and four gray towers, Overlook a space of flowers, And silent isle imbowers The Lady of Shalott. Tennyson also uses synecdoche to add linguistic depth to the poem. A synecdoche is a figure of speech in which a part is used to represent the whole or the whole is used to represent the part. (Note that there are many variations of synecdoche.) In Part III, Tennyson writes, "she saw helmet and the plume" instead of "she saw Sir Lancelot." Synecdoche is a common way to characterize fictional characters. It highlights certain features and adds variety to characterizations. A character may be consistently described by a single body part or feature such as the eyes. In "The Lady of Shalott," the helmet and plume are used to represent and emphasize Sir Lancelot's high stature as the best knight in the kingdom. To understand synecdoche better, study these examples. A part is used to refer to the whole: His parents bought him a new set of wheels. The busy mother had many mouths to feed. The whole is used to refer to a part: The police came too late. Use your head to figure it out. The specific is used to refer to the general: Could you pass the Kleenex? The general is used to refer to the specific: No being would believe that story. We're fresh out of milk, but we do have goat's milk. The material is used to refer to the thing made from it: Those are some nice threads. Would you like paper or plastic? Throughout "The Lady of Shalott," symbolism, imagery, and figurative language are held together by rhyme. Tennyson uses structure and meter to reinforce meaning, create mood, and add coherence to the poem. The stanzas contain a series of rhymed lines with a regular meter. That gives the poem a strong lyrical quality. Lyricism and regular rhyme scheme engage readers and pull them into the plot. Continuity in rhyme scheme also allows readers to focus on the plot and vivid imagery. There she weaves by night and day A magic web with colours gay. She has heard a whisper say, A curse is on her if she stay To look down to Camelot. She knows not what the curse may be, And so she weaveth steadily, And little other care hath she, The Lady of Shalott. When the Lady hears Sir Lancelot sing "Tirra lirra," she leaves her tower and seals her doom. Tennyson emphasizes this turning point by manipulating the verb tense in these crucial lines. As the Lady's experiences shift from the static to the active, so too does Tennyson's language. Notice how Tennyson manipulates the verb tense to emphasize this crucial plot twist: There she weaves by night and day A magic web with colours gay. She has heard a whisper say, A curse is on her if she stay To look down to Camelot. She look'd down to Camelot. Out flew the web and floated wide; The mirror crack'd from side to side; "The curse is come upon me," cried The Lady of Shalott.

1660 — 1785 The Restoration and the Eighteenth Century

The Restoration period marks the reinstatement of the English monarchy after the rigid and puritanical rule of Oliver Cromwell. This period includes the Enlightenment, which emphasized order, logic, and science. In literature the dominant style was neoclassicism. Inspired by the Enlightenment preoccupation with order and logic, this style became best known for simplicity and clarity. One example of Enlightenment writing is the simple and accessible prose style of John Bunyan. Important authors of the era also include John Milton, who developed a complex style in his poetry, as well as Alexander Pope, Jonathan Swift, and Samuel Johnson.

Alfred, Lord Tennyson

The Victorian era includes many notable poets, but Alfred, Lord Tennyson is often seen as the most popular. Just as William Wordsworth is considered the voice of the romantic age, Tennyson is considered the voice of the Victorian age. He was the most celebrated poet of the era and was named poet laureate of England after Wordsworth died. Tennyson was born in the small town of Somersby in Lincolnshire, and he attended the University of Cambridge. At Cambridge, he met Arthur Henry Hallam, who became a close friend. With Hallam's encouragement, Tennyson began publishing his poetry in 1830. Hallam's sudden death in 1833 deeply affected Tennyson, and his grief inspired much of his greatest work. Tennyson began a series of poems that dealt with issues of death, religious faith, and immortality. The series of poems grew over the next 17 years into the extended elegy In Memoriam, A.H.H. It was this elegy that led Queen Victoria's husband, Prince Albert, to encourage the queen to appoint Tennyson poet laureate. Tennyson continued to publish regularly throughout his lifetime. In 1884, Queen Victoria made Tennyson a baron, adding the title of Lord to his name, in honor of his literary achievements. Tennyson's poetry expresses the strength of the human spirit and reflects both the faith and doubts of Victorian-era people.

1832 — 1901 The Victorian Era

The literature of the Victorian era reflected social concerns and documented the everyday lives of people from all classes of society. Many Victorian works addressed issues surrounding political reform, religious doubt, scientific advancement, and industrialization. Important authors of the era include Charles Dickens, George Eliot, Thomas Hardy, Charlotte Brontë, Lord Tennyson, Robert Browning, and Matthew Arnold.

1785 — 1832 The Romantic Era

The romantic age emphasized originality, individualism, emotion, nature, and imagination. Many of its proponents believed people were capable of great feats and should aspire to them. It was a movement that ran counter to industrialization and the idealization of rationality and logic. The artists of this era were highly influenced by the French Revolution and its aftermath. The romantic era also gave birth to the genre of gothic fiction. Important romantic authors include Samuel Taylor Coleridge, William Wordsworth, Lord Byron, Percy Bysshe Shelley, John Keats, and Mary Shelley.

Focus on Language

When reading Tennyson's poems in this lesson, you might have noted several words that were unfamiliar to you. Often, when you encounter a new word or a word used in an unfamiliar way, you can use contextual clues to guess or determine its meaning. For example, suppose you've read a description of a person's beauty in one sentence, and then the next sentence includes an unfamiliar adjective before the word appearance. It would then be reasonable to guess that the meaning of the adjective is "beautiful." Try to determine the meanings of the words that are listed in the vocabulary table from their contexts in Tennyson's poems. You will then use some of the words in sentences.