The War of 1812 4:The New Republic

—Francis Scott Key, 1814

"O say, can you see, by the dawn's early light, What so proudly we hail'd at the twilight's last gleaming, Whose broad stripes and bright stars, thro' the perilous fight, O'er the ramparts we watch'd, were so gallantly streaming?"

The Hartford Convention

After the War of 1812 and Jackson's victory in New Orleans, Americans experienced a surge of nationalism and a new confidence in the strength of their republic. By weathering a difficult war, the nation seemed certain to endure, and most Americans were giddy with relief. The outcome discredited the Federalists, who looked weak for opposing a war that became popular once it was over. Strongest in New England, the Federalists had undermined the war effort there. In December 1814, Federalist delegates from the New England states met at Hartford, Connecticut, to consider secession and making a separate peace with Britain. Drawing back from the brink, the delegates instead demanded constitutional amendments designed to strengthen New England's political power.

In the War of 1812, the United States went to war against Great Britain. America enjoyed many victories in battle, but was unsuccessful in its attempt at invading Canada. The greatest American victory occurred at the Battle of New Orleans. Why was Thomas Jefferson wrong when he advised President James Madison that American forces would easily win the War of 1812?

American militia and troops were poorly trained and inexperienced.

Now, in the Independent Practice, test your understanding of the outbreak of the War of 1812. At the beginning of the War of 1812, what did Thomas Jefferson believe?

Canada could be conquered easily by the United States.

Causes and Effects of the War of 1812

Causes British interfere with American shipping British interfere with American expansion into the western frontier Southerners want Florida, which is owned by Britain's ally Spain War Hawks want to expel Britain completely from North America Effects Revealed need for a strong standing army Encouraged American nationalism Brought end to the Federalist Party Shattered the strength of Native American resistance Paved the way for American acquisition of Florida

Gearing Up for War

Democratic-Republicans felt humiliated by the failure of the 1807 embargo against Britain. With persistent British abuses on the oceans, and Native American resistance in the West, Americans increasingly blamed the British.

The British Invade

During 1812 and 1813, most of the British forces were in Europe fighting Napoleon. In early 1814, however, the French dictator's defeat freed thousands of British troops to fight in North America. During the summer and fall, the British took the offensive. While the British navy blockaded the coast, British forces invaded the United States. One army occupied eastern Maine, easily brushing aside the weak defense by local militia. From Montreal, a second army invaded northern New York, while a third British force landed in Maryland and marched on Washington, D.C. In late 1814, a British fleet carried a fourth army into the Gulf of Mexico to attack New Orleans.

The Nation Continues to Grow

Events during the War of 1812 ended most Indian resistance east of the Mississippi River for the time being. As a result of various defeats of Native Americans in the South, millions of acres of southern land also opened up for settlement. Settlement in the South and West led to the establishment of the new states of Indiana (1816), Mississippi (1817), Illinois (1818), and Alabama (1819). The union became bigger and stronger.

War Breaks Out

Humiliated by British interference with American trade, impressments, and support for Indian attacks on settlers, President Madison urged Congress to declare war on Britain in June of 1812. Although the War of 1812 deeply divided the nation, Madison narrowly won reelection later that year. Disunited, unprepared, and with only a small army and navy, the United States went to war once again with the world's greatest power.

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Replacing the Embargo

In 1809, Congress replaced the embargo with the Nonintercourse Act. Aimed at Britain and France, the act stated that the United States would resume trade with whichever of those countries lifted their restrictions on American shipping. The following year, Congress passed legislation that went a step further. Macon's Bill No. 2 restored trade with both Britain and France but also promised that if either country actively recognized American neutrality, then the United States would resume trading sanctions against the other country. When France agreed to withdraw decrees against American shipping, President Madison ordered sanctions against the British. In the meantime, however, France continued to seize American ships.

The War Hawks Demand War

In 1811 some aggressive young politicians, known as the War Hawks, took the lead in Congress. Representing farmers and settlers from the southern and western states, the War Hawks included John C. Calhoun of South Carolina and Henry Clay of Kentucky. Strongly nationalist, they denounced the impressments of American sailors and British support for Native Americans. The War Hawks pushed for a war against Britain to restore national honor. They insisted that invading British-held Canada would deprive the Indians of their main source of arms and drive the British out of North America. The War Hawks also believed that the British would make maritime concessions to get Canada back from the Americans. They underestimated the value that the British put on their domination of world trade.

Further Victory

In 1814, Andrew Jackson of Tennessee crushed the Creek Indians of Alabama, who had allied with the British. To make peace, the survivors surrendered most of their lands. Jackson then invaded the Spanish colony of Florida, defeating the Seminole Indians and seizing the Spanish fort at Pensacola.

In 1813 and 1814, the Americans defeated which British allies?

Indian

Which is true about the Treaty of Ghent?

It restored the American and British prewar boundaries.

The Americans and the British agreed to a peace treaty, called the Treaty of Ghent. Events during the war also ended most Indian resistance to American expansion. Actions by the Federalists caused their demise, ending the Federalist Party. What did the Treaty of Ghent do?

It restored the prewar boundaries between the United States and Canada.

American Embarrassment

Jefferson's assumptions proved to be wrong. In fact, the small British and Indian forces in Canada repeatedly defeated the American invasion attempts in 1812 and 1813. Reliance on the state militias proved a disaster. Having had no professional training, many militiamen broke rank and ran when attacked. The American regular army performed almost as poorly. One blundering general, William Hull, surrendered Detroit to a much smaller British force commanded by Isaac Brock and assisted by Indians led by Tecumseh. Instead of bolstering American pride, the attempted invasion of Canada only further embarrassed the nation.

Francis Scott Key

Lawyer Francis Scott Key, who observed the British attack on Fort McHenry, celebrated the American victory by writing a poem that later became the national anthem known as "The Star-Spangled Banner."

During the British invasion, the British were defeated in every attack on the United States except where?

Maine and Washington, D.C.

Conflict From Growth

Meanwhile, American settlers had been pouring into Spanish Florida, resulting in cross-border conflict among the region's Seminole Indians, Americans, and the Spanish. Fugitive slaves from the United States, seeking sanctuary in Florida, added to the tensions. Over the next decade, the conflict would contribute to Spain's decision to cede Florida to the United States. In return, the United States renounced its claims to Texas, as part of the Adams-Onís Treaty signed in 1819.

How did the War of 1812 affect U.S. expansion?

Millions of acres of southern land opened up for settlement.

What was the result of the defeat of Native Americans in the South during the War of 1812?

Millions of acres of southern land opened up for settlement.

America Defended

On the defensive, the Americans fought better than they had when invading Canada. Except for the occupation of Maine, the British attacks ended in defeat. The British did capture the national capital, easily accessible by ship via the Chesapeake Bay, and burned the White House and Capitol in revenge for some American arson in Canada. But the British suffered defeat when they moved on to attack Baltimore.

Battling Native Americans

On the western frontier, two Shawnee Indian brothers, the prophet Tenskwatawa and the warrior Tecumseh, wanted to preserve Native American culture and unite the Indian nations in armed resistance against American expansion. They were angered by the government's repeated use of dishonest treaties to take their lands. In late 1811, while Tecumseh was seeking allies in the South, Governor William Henry Harrison of the Indiana Territory led troops into the brothers' village of Prophetstown, along the Tippecanoe River. After the Battle of Tippecanoe, the Americans burned Prophetstown. The Native American movement lost some momentum, though most Native Americans escaped to fight again.

The Treaty of Ghent

The Americans had failed to conquer Canada, while the British had failed in their American invasions. Weary of war, both sides agreed to a peace treaty that restored prewar boundaries. They agreed to set up a commission to discuss any boundary disputes at a future time. The treaty did not address the issues of neutrality or impressments. But after Napoleon's defeat, the British no longer needed to impress American sailors or to stop American trade with the French. The Americans interpreted the Treaty of Ghent as a triumph because they learned of it shortly after hearing of Jackson's great victory. That sequence of events created the illusion that Jackson had forced the British to make peace. Americans preferred to think of the conflict as a noble defense of the United States against British aggression.

War's Aftermath and Effects

The Americans won their greatest victory at the Battle of New Orleans in January 1815. From a strong and entrenched position, General Andrew Jackson routed the British attack. In this lopsided battle, the Americans suffered only 71 casualties, compared to 2,036 British casualties. The bloodshed at New Orleans was especially tragic because it came two weeks after the Americans and the British had signed a peace treaty at Ghent in Belgium. Unfortunately, notifying the soldiers in North America took over a month because of the slow pace of sailing ships.

What took place at the Hartford Convention?

The Federalists demanded constitutional amendments.

In 1814, what happened to the number of British troops fighting in the United States?

The defeat of Napoleon in Europe freed British troops to fight in North America.

What was a surprise to Americans and a shock to the British during the early fighting in the war of 1812?

The small American navy fought well.

The Invasion of Canada Fails

Thomas Jefferson acted as adviser to Madison. He argued that with a population of 8 million, the United States could easily conquer Canada, which had only 250,000 people. Indeed, the prospects for a victory looked favorable. An overland invasion would save the cost of building a bigger navy to fight the British. In addition, Jefferson argued that the United States did not even need a professional army. The citizen militia of the states could do the job quickly and with little expense. He called the conquest of Canada "a mere matter of marching."

Defeating the Native Americans

To the surprise of many Americans—and to the shock of the British—the little American navy performed well, capturing four British ships during 1812. On Lake Erie, American ships led by Oliver Hazard Perry defeated a British flotilla in 1813, enabling an American army, commanded by Harrison, to retake Detroit. The Americans made little progress in conquering Canada, but they did defeat Britain's Indian allies within the United States. In October 1813, Harrison's army killed Tecumseh and scattered his supporters.

Embarrassment due to misconstrued misinformation

Unfortunately for the delegates of the Hartford Convention, their demands reached Washington, D.C., at the same time as news of the peace treaty and Jackson's victory. That combination embarrassed the Federalists, who were mocked as defeatists and traitors. Madison ignored their demands, and the voters punished the Federalists in the elections that followed. By 1820 the Federalist Party was dead—a sad fate for the party that had created the federal government only to lose faith in it during the War of 1812.

Which British actions caused the War Hawks to push for war against Britain?

impressment of American sailors and support for Native Americans

During the War of 1812, Francis Scott Key witnessed the British attack on Fort McHenry, Maryland. He composed a poem to mark the event. What phrase indicates that the British were defeated when they attacked Fort McHenry?

our flag was still there

What event inspired Francis Scott Key to write "The Star-Spangled Banner"?

the defeat of the British attack on Baltimore, Maryland

This poem was officially declared to be the national anthem by Congress in 1931. The less powerful United States had defeated the more powerful British. What phrase in particular indicates that the war was not an easy victory?

thro' the perilous fight

What was the purpose of the Hartford Convention?

to discuss the withdrawal of the New England states from the Union

Macon's Bill No. 2 of 1810 resulted in trade sanctions imposed against the British. In 1811, the War Hawks pushed for war against Great Britain, insisting that invading British-held Canada would drive the British out of North America. What was the goal of Macon's Bill No. 2 ?

to persuade France and Great Britain to recognize American neutrality