UCSB Earth 4: Intro to Oceanography FINAL

*see picture Draw two curved lines below these indicating how the wave crests will refract as they approach the submerged rocks near campus point.

*see diagram

Describe in words and draw a diagram to demonstrate the process of equatorial upwelling. Use solid arrows for water motion and dashed arrows for winds. You should assume the ITCZ is located to the south of the equator.

*see diagram

Draw a simple diagram of a Hurricane. Label both the low pressure and high pressure regions. Use arrows to indicate the direction of winds and the impact of the Coriolis Effect, assuming the hurricane is in the NORTHERN hemisphere.

*see diagram

Draw the depth distribution for temperature.

*see diagram

On the figure above, draw arrows indicating the directions of Earth's surface winds on the front view, considering their deflection due to the Coriolis effect.

*see diagram

On the figure above, draw arrows on the side profile to indicate the directions of the vertical and North/South movements of air that make up the atmospheric circulation cells.

*see diagram

How much heat is required to change 1000 grams of steam at 140 degrees celsius to liquid water at 40 degrees celsius? Is this heat released or absorbed by the H20?

*see example - Released

On a recent ocean cruise you collected 5000 liters of seawater in a tub for observation of microbes. However, you forgot to put a lid on the tub, and all of the water evaporated. If the salinity of the water was initially 34, then what was the mass of salt left after evaporation, if the initial density of the seawater is 1.03 g/cm^3?

*see problem

A) Calcium is present in the ocean at an amount of 1 x 10^23 g. Many marine organism make their shells from calcium. Assuming that shell formation is the only sink and occurs at a rate of 1 x 10^17 g per year, calculate the residence time for calcium in the ocean. B) Based on this residence time do you expect calcium to behave conservatively with respect to the major ions? C) Based on what you know about ions in the ocean, is the residence time of calcium longer or shorter than that of sodium?

*see problem B) Yes it is conservative because it has a long residence time. C) Shorter

Why was Wegener's theory not accepted by the scientific community during his lifetime?

- Catastrophism (teachings of the bible) were still widely believed/accepted - People still believed the mantle was solid

The maximum number of hydrogen bonds which a single water molecule can form at one time is

4

The maximum density of fresh water occurs at what temperature

4 C

Where and how did elements heavier than hydrogen originate? What distinguishes the formation of elements lighter than iron versus those heavier than iron?

- Every element heavier than hydrogen was created and released into space by stars - All elements lighter than iron were created through nuclear fusion located in the core of the star. All elements heavier than iron were created by a dying star and its supernova.

What latitude would you expect to find the following feature: Southwesterly winds?

45° North

The British Royal Navy officer named _____ led three voyages to the _____. His first voyage was to the island of _____. His final expedition included a failed attempt to find the fabled _____, and ended with his death in _____, where he was killed after a dinner party gone awry.

- James Cook - Pacific - New Zealand - Northwest Passage - Hawaii

Where else besides Earth have scientists found evidence for "Oceans"?

- Jupiter's moons: Europa and Ganymede - Mars - Saturn's moon: Titan

What sorts of adaptations allow marine organisms to live in benthic (bottom) versus pelagic (surface) environments?***

Most benthic organisms are scavengers or detritus feeders that eat decomposing organic matter, they also attach to rocky substrate or burrow in the sand . benthic fish have negative buoyancy so they can lie on the bottom or bury themselves, dont have swim bladder, have flattened body shape, eat detritus. Have eyes on top of head like rays Pelagc adaptations include being able to move or see in all directions, good swimming skills, migratory to search for food, streamlines with thick bodies. Some countershade to show a color gradient from dark on bottom to light ontop.

What is osmotic pressure? Reverse osmosis? Desalinization?

- Osmotic Pressure is the pressure that would have to be applied to a pure solvent to prevent it from passing into a given solution by osmosis. - Reverse Osmosis is a process where you deionize water by pushing it through a membrane. - Desalinization is taking the salt out of water.

What is: paleomagnetism? Hot spot? Ring of Fire? How do these relate to plate tectonics?

- Paleomagnetism is the fossil or remanent magnetic field of a rock. - A hot spot is a surface expression of a plume of magma rising from a stationary source of heat in the mantle. As new seafloor is created, the magnetic field aligns with Earth's magnetic field. As the magnetic field changes, it leaves behind old rock containing its previous magnetic field. Volcanoes can form over hot spots, which results in island formations. - The Ring of Fire is a major area in the basin of the Pacific Ocean where a large number of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions occur

What causes equatorial upwelling? How does this relate to the Easterly winds and the to the ITCZ? How does this relate to primary productivity at the equator? ***

- Southeast trade winds cause a south equatorial current (ITCZ) at the equator, so water in the northern hemisphere goes right and water in the southern hemisphere goes left. - This creates upwelling, or the upward motion of water. This motion brings cold, nutrient rich waters towards the surface. Which creates a thriving environment for organisms.

Is the Earth system Open or Closed with respect to matter/energy?***

- The Earth is a closed system where materials cycle between the lithosphere (Earth), atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. - "Closed" because energy from sunlight enters and no matter enters or leaves (except for the rare meteorite)

What peoples contributed to the early exploration of the sea? What were their various contributions?

- The Polynesian colonizations used marine science to colonize a large number of islands. - The Vikings developed fast moving ships that allowed them to go and take what they wanted from civilizations. - Chinese navigators wanted to explore indian ocean, and invented the central rudder, watertight compartments, and sails on multiple masts which allowed people to build much bigger ships.

What are three observations used by Wegener to supports his theory of continental drift?

- The coast of South America fits into Africa - glacial erosion - similar fossils found on different continents

Imagine a freshwater lake surrounded by granite bedrock. After the sun rises in the morning, which will experience a more rapid increase in temperature, the lake surface or the exposed granite bedrock? Why? Granite heat capacity: 0.2 cal/gram/C Liquid water heat capacity: 1 cal/gram/C

The granite rock will experience a more rapid increase in temperature because its heat capacity is lower than liquid water. Therefore it is easier to heat up and will do so much faster.

What causes floating debris to accumulate near the centers of the gyres? What do we commonly call this effect?***

The gyre's rotational patterns draw in debris that is then captured in the current. Wind-driven surface currents gradually move debris towards the center, trapping it in the region

What controls the density of water? How does temperature impact the density of fresh water? Salt water? What is the density of ice in fresh water compared to ice in salt water? ***

- The density of water is affected by temperature and salinity. - Colder water is denser. - The saltier the water, the lower the freezing point. Fresh water becomes less dense as it nears the freezing point. This explains why ice cubes float in a glass of water. Very cold, low-density fresh water stays at the surface of lakes and rivers, forming an ice layer on the top. In contrast to fresh water, the salt in ocean water causes the density of the water to increase as it nears the freezing point, and very cold ocean water tends to sink. As a result, sea ice forms slowly, compared to freshwater ice, because salt water sinks away from the cold surface before it cools enough to freeze.

What are the characteristics of ocean gyres? Why is the hill offset? Where is the energy coming from that pushes the water? What are the different boundary currents and what are their distinctive properties?***

- The hill is offset because it has been deflected by the Coriolis effect. - The hill is maintained by wind energy. Western boundary currents: warm, deep, narrow (Gulf Stream) Eastern boundary currents: cold, shallow, wide (California current)

How did Earth's atmosphere and ocean form? Describe each step. ***

- The sun stripped away Earth's first atmosphere - Water vapor was slowly released via "outgassing" from Earth's core - Comets deposited water as well - Water vapor in the atmosphere condensed into clouds - After millions of years, the clouds cooled enough for water droplets to form - Hot rain fell and boiled back into clouds; this process continued until water eventually was cool enough to collect at the surface

What is the theory of continental drift? What evidence supported the theory? Why was it not accepted in Wegener's lifetime?***

- The theory of continental drift states that all the land masses were once a single land mass, named Pangaea, that drifted apart. - Evidence included glacial erosion, similar fossils found on different continents, and the coast of south america "fits" into africa - His theory was dismissed because the teachings of the bible (Catastrophism) were still widely believed/accepted and people believed the mantle was solid

What factors affect the velocity of a wave? What does ocean depth have to do with wave speed? What sorts of waves are deep water waves vs. shallow water waves (in the open ocean versus near shore)?***

- Velocity is affected by depth to the bottom, wavelength, and gravity. - Wave speed decreases as water depth decreases - Deep water waves: Capillary and Wind waves Shallow water waves: Seiches, Seismic sea waves (tsunamis), and Tides

What two factors cause or drive the motion of oceanic plates?

- convection cell currents - slab pull: New parts of a plate rise because they are warm and the plate is thin. As hot magma rises to the surface at spreading ridges and forms new crust, the new crust pushes the rest of a plate out of its way ridge push: New parts of a plate rise because they are warm and the plate is thin. As hot magma rises to the surface at spreading ridges and forms new crust, the new crust pushes the rest of a plate out of its way

The maximum density of seawater occurs at what temperature

-2 C

What is Seafloor Spreading and how is it powered?***

-Seafloor spreading occurs where a divergent boundary is causing two plates to move away from one another resulting in spreading of the sea floor. As the plates move apart, new material wells up and cools onto the edge of the plates, creating new crust. (mid-oceanic ridge) -its powered by convection currents.

How is the interior of the Earth layered and what are the densities and key properties of each layer?

-The lithosphere is Earth's cool rigid outer layer. -The asthenosphere is the hot, partially melted, slowly flowing layer of upper mantle. -The mantle is denser and more slowly moving. -The outer core is dense, viscous liquid layer, extremely hot. -The inner core is solid, very dense and extremely hot.

How did our solar system form? Describe each step.

-The solar system first began as a solar nebula. Events occurred that caused the material to start spinning, which caused some materials to condense while others stayed gas. Material concentrated near the center became the protostar. Steps: 1. Gravitational contraction 2. Disk and Protostar 3. Heating and Ejection 4. Fusion 5. SOLAR SYSTEM!

How did the Earth become density stratified? Describe each step.***

-young earth was probably homogeneous (uniform) -heat and gravitational pressure caused Earth to partially melt -gravity then pulled the iron present into the center of Earth -This heated Earth further -Lighter minerals migrated to Earth's surface and formed the crust (lasted ~100 million years)

The density of ice is approximately

0.9 g/cm3

Ocean pH. Note: I talked about three different aspects of ocean pH in lecture and you should know all of the reactions of the 'CO2 system'. 1) Ocean Acidification. What is ocean acidification as it relates to the modern ocean? 2) Buffering. How does bicarbonate act to buffer changes in ocean pH? That is, what happens when a proton is added to bicarbonate? Removed from bicarbonate? 3) Calcium carbonate shells. Some of the critters most susceptible to ocean acidification are those that produce their shells from the reaction of calcium with the carbonate ion. Why does ocean acidification make this reaction more difficult? (Hint: think of the protons added from ocean acidification as competing with the calcium in a race to react with carbonate ion).

1) Ocean acidification - excess CO2 from the atmosphere is absorbed by the ocean. The carbon reacts with water decreasing the ph of the ocean, depressing metabolic rates and immune responses in organisms, and coral bleaching. 2) Buffering: H2O + CO2 <---> H2CO3 H2CO3 <---> H + HCO3 HCO3 <---> CO3 + 2H 3) Calcium carbonate shells - organisms naturally convert bicarbonate to carbonate to form calcium carbonate. Ocean acidification makes the buffering system travel backward toward the h2o + co2 rather than toward the co3 which it needs.

List the four key factors that collectively act to move water in the circular pattern known as an ocean gyre.

1. Surface winds 2. Gravity 3. Eckman spiral 4. Coriolis effect

The density of seawater is approximately

1.03 g/cm^3

Where does the carbon dioxide from fossil fuels go with respect to the Earth System? That is, how much goes to the ocean, atmosphere, and other places.

29% ocean, 47% biosphere, americans emit a total of 1.65 x 10^15 grams co2/yr

What latitude would you expect to find the following feature: Horse Latitudes?

30° North

What latitude would you expect to find the following feature: ITCZ in June?

5° North

What latitude would you expect to find the following feature: ITCZ in January?

5° South

What latitude would you expect to find the following feature: Northwest passage?

60° North

Name one Eastern boundary current and one Western boundary current.

Eastern: The Gulf Stream Western: The California Current

What are monsoons, land breezes and sea breezes?

A monsoon is a pattern of wind circulation that changes with the season. Land breezes and sea breezes are small, daily, mini monsoons. The sea breeze is when cooler air from over the sea then moves toward land. The land breeze is movement of air offshore as marine air heats and rises.

What do I mean by the anatomy of a wave? What is L? d? C?***

Anatomy of a wave refers to the wavelength (L), depth to the bottom (d), and speed (C).

A) Be able to label Heat vs Temperature graph. B) Why is "d" horizontally longer than "b"?

B) D is longer than B because liquid water has a much higher heat capacity than ice.

Describe the fate of the Library at Alexandria, its documents, and last librarian.

During the Roman empire, they believed knowledge was paganism, so they destroyed the entire library and killed its last librarian. The only remaining documents were the copies that were returned to the authors of them.

What is the timeline for major events starting with the big bang through the formation of Earth's ocean? How long ago did major events occur? ***

Big Bang: 14 billion First galaxies: 11 billion Our solar system: 5 billion Earth: 4.5 billion Oceans: 4 billion

Wavelength ***

Controls orbit size. (L)

What terms do we use to describe lithospheric plates crashing into one another, sliding past one another or pulling apart from each other? What geological features are formed through these interactions? Think about the different combinations of continental and oceanic lithosphere and how this impacts the outcome. Where are these things happening today?***

Crashing into one another = convergent plate boundaries Sliding past one another = transform plate boundaries Pulling apart from each other = divergent plate boundaries Divergent - creates rift valleys or the mid atlantic ridge. (Occurring at rift valley in east Africa.) Convergent - creates mountain ranges by pushing crust up. (Occurring on the west coast of South America.) Transform - creates massive earthquakes and moving land. (Occurring at the San Andreas Fault in California.)

What are cyclones and what controls their circulation?***

Cyclones are great masses of warm, humid, low-pressure, rotating air. They spin due to the Coriolis effect.

Where in the world's ocean do you expect to find the "oldest" waters?

Deep North Pacific

Hint: If I give you a wavelength and water depth, you should be able to determine if the wave is a deep water or shallow water wave, and you should be able to calculate its velocity.***

Deep water wave: More than 1/2 wavelength. Wave cannot sense the bottom. Shallow water wave: Traveling in water less than 1/20 wavelength.

How do deep water and shallow water waves differ? What happens to a wind wave as it approaches shore?***

Deep water waves exist at depths of more than half their wavelength, allowing for a full circle orbit to form beneath the wave. As a wind wave approaches shore is transitions from deep water wave to shallow water wave. So, as the swell feels the bottom the wave changes from its orbital shape to elliptical shape, concentrating more energy into a smaller area causing the wave to peak and get slow as the wavelength to shortens and the period stays the same. Then the wave approaches 1:7 height to wavelength ratio, and crashes at 3:4 height to depth ratio.

Where on the planet are deep waters formed? How do we know? What is the global ocean conveyer? How long does one trip around the conveyer take and how does this relate to the mixing time of the ocean?***

Deep waters are formed in the North Atlantic. The global ocean conveyer is the slow moving system that transports water and heat. It takes about 1000 years for water to make a complete trip through this circuit. The mixing time of the ocean is about 1600 years.

What processes act to change the density of ocean water? How does this drive vertical circulation?***

Density is impacted by temperature and salinity. Vertical currents are driven by density (sinking).

What is an Eckman spiral (aka Eckman flow), and how does the direction of flow differ at the surface compared to the net flow at depth? How does the flow direction at depth relate to the winds?***

Ekman spiral: structure of currents or winds near a horizontal boundary in which the flow direction rotates as one moves away from the boundary The deeper water (similar to the surface water) is deflected by the coriolis effect The deeper you go, the slower the water moves, so the water is all moving in the same direction but at a different pace, creating a spiral effect

How do conditions differ between El Nino and La Nina?***

El nino is when trade winds are weak, causing a build up of heat in the east that doesnt get transferred west, creating increased precipitation and storms in the east and dry conditions in the west. La nina is when trade winds blow warm air from the east to the west, creating evap and storms and rain in the west while the east is cold and dry. Its all about them trade winds.

Hydrothermal chimneys are so hot that they are devoid of all life

FALSE

Hydrothermal vents typically occur at the continental rise or shelf

FALSE

True or False: Ice floats in seawater but sinks in fresh water.

FALSE

True or False: The ratio of sodium to chloride differs in the Atlantic versus the Pacific Oceans.

FALSE

Water feeding hydrothermal vents flows from the continents

FALSE

True or False: The location on Earth receiving the highest (most intense) angle of sunlight remains at the equator year round. - Explain your answer in 2-3 sentences.

FALSE; the Equator is not always 90° to the sun because of Earth's tilt.

P-wave

First motion to arrive at a distant site following an earthquake

For water, what relationship exists between the input/removal of heat, temperature and phase? What are sensible and latent heats? Be comfortable with calculations!***

Heat = Heat capacity x change in temp x mass -sensible heat is when you add heat, and you can sense the change. -latent heat is hidden, you can't sense the change in temp.

What is meant by a "Hot Spot" in geological terminology? Explain what a hot spot is and give an example of one today.

Hot spots are mantle plumes where tectonic plates have passed over them. An example is Hawaii.

How are Hurricanes formed and sustained? Where do they get their energy from, and what makes them spin? Where do the high and low pressures reside and what determines the direction of spin?

Hurricanes are formed when tropical depressions form in areas of low pressure. Solar energy powers the storm in a cycle of heat absorption, evaporation, condensation, and conversion of heat energy to kinetic energy. Tropical storms turn counter clockwise int he northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern hemisphere. This is caused by the Coriolis deflecting winds approaching a low pressure area.

What are hydrothermal vents and where does this typically occur? Where do the water and heat come from that feed hydrothermal activity?

Hydrothermal vents are openings in the sea floor out of which heated mineral-rich water escapes by convection. The water comes from fissures and cracks in the ridge floor until it comes into contact with very hot rocks associated with active seafloor spreading.

What is the global circulation pattern of the atmosphere, including the circulation cells, the major surface winds, and the areas of upward and downward movement? How does the ITCZ fit in? At what latitudes are these different features found?***

In the atmosphere, air rises at the equator and falls at the poles. There are three circuits in each hemisphere. The major surface winds are the polar easterlies, westerlies, NE trade winds, and SE trade winds. The inter tropical convergence zone runs along the equator, it is an area where the two winds converge, it is calm place with sultry air, and moist air that contributes to rainforests. From 30 degrees to 60 degrees there are Ferrel Cells and Hadley cells are from 30 degrees to the equator.

Explain the overall heat (radiation) balance of the Earth in general terms. Now the latitudinal heat balance. Why do we call this a balance?

Light (short wave) energy absorbed at the surface is converted into heat. Heat leaves Earth as infrared (long-wave) radiation. At the poles, light strikes Earth at an angle that favors reflection. This leads to a greater amount of heat between 38 degrees north and 38 degrees south of the equator. Basically there is a surplus of heat at the equator. However, water and wind transfer heat to the poles. Balance refers to the amount reflected being equal to the amount incoming.

What are longshore currents and how do they form?***

Longshore currents are parallel to the shore. Caused by large swells sweeping into the shoreline at an angle, and pushing water down the length of the beach in one direction. (zig zag diagram from lab)

What are the main greenhouse gases in the atmosphere today? Which ones are most worrisome in terms of global climate change.***

Main greenhouse gases- co2, ch4, h2o water vapor , o3, n2o Most worrisome- co2, ch4, water vapor

What different fields of science contribute to the study of the ocean, and how?

Marine Geology - study Earth's crust/composition Physical Oceanography - study waves and currents, climate predictions Marine Biology - study the nature and distribution of marine organisms Chemical Oceanography - study gases and solids dissolved in the ocean Marine Engineering - the design and construction of structures used in/on the ocean Marine Anthropology - study human interactions with the sea

What distinguishes nuclear fusion from nuclear fission?

Nuclear fusion: the fusing of two or more lighter atoms into a larger one Nuclear fission: the splitting of a large atom into two or more smaller ones

What important factor allows oceanic plates to move across the surface of the planet?

Oceanic plates (lithosphere) can move across the surface of the planet because they "float" on the flowing, viscous asthenosphere.

Which side of the water molecule is likely to orient facing toward a cation (+) such as sodium?

Oxygen side (-)

What was the Library at Alexandria known for? How did they figure out the size of the Earth.

People would go to the library to study and learn. He found the angle of the sun from two points and used it to estimate the circumference.

What is the theory of plate tectonics? What are the driving forces and how does this theory explain Earth's terrain.***

Plate tectonics is the theory that the outer rigid layer of the Earth (lithosphere) is divided into a couple of dozen "plates" that move around across the earth's surface (asthenosphere) relative to each other, like slabs of ice on a lake. -Plate movement is powered by convection currents in the asthenosphere, seafloor spreading, and the subduction of oceanic plates. - Seafloor spreading leads to the formation of mid ocean ridges; subduction leads to the formation of volcanoes and trenches

Where was the oil located in the days following the spill?

Platform holly

This is expected to someday engulf and destroy Earth

Red giant sun

Spreading

Results in the formation of new oceanic crust

What is the Scientific method and how is it applied to study the ocean?

Scientific Method: 1. Ask a question 2. Form a working hypothesis 3. Observe or Experiment 4. Form theories and laws - Can be applied to study the ocean by making predictions and studying things like climate change or sea floor spreading.

How do scientists probe Earth's interior?

Scientists probe earth's interior using echo sounders (shape), seismographs (waves), radiometric dating (age)

S-wave

Second motion to arrive at a distant site following an earthquake

From what materials do ocean sediments form and what do sediments tell us about Earth's history?

Sediment is particles of organic or inorganic matter that accumulate in a loose unconsolidated form. Each year's sediments are stacked on top of the ones from the year before. The deeper the sediment, the older it is.

What major technological advancements and discoveries led scientists to reconsider Wegener's theory (hint: what did radiometric dating, seismographs and echo sounders reveal?)

Seismographs allowed scientists to discover a worldwide pattern or earthquakes and volcanoes Radiometric dating of rocks revealed a surprisingly young oceanic crust Echo sounders revealed the shape of the mid atlantic ridge.

What are the different types of waves and how do we classify them? Do Waves move water across the ocean? What is Stokes drift?***

Shallow water waves occur at depths less than 1/20 their wavelength, deep water waves occur at depths greater than 1/2 the wavelength of the wave. Waves are classified by their wavelength and depth of penetration. Waves move energy across the ocean. Stokes drift occurs because the orbital motion that drives waves doesn't occur in a perfect circle. It overlaps, and this extra energy moves mass. If it didn't overlap mass would stay in the same spot (look at his diagram on slides)

Describe how greenhouse gases act to warm the Earth's atmosphere. What would Earth's temperature be without the greenhouse effect?***

Solar radiation comes down as short wave uv, goes to earth, earth reflects back as long wave infra red (heat) , greenhouse gasses absorb this infrared heating the earth. Without greenhouse affect earth would be -18 C

In what direction is the net "Eckman flow" for waters that reside in the path of the Southeasterly trade winds?

Southwest

What is meant by steady state? How does this concept apply to salts in the ocean? What equation can be applied? What is a reservoir? Flux? Source? Sink?

Steady state is when ions are added to the ocean at the same rate that they are being removed. This theory explains why the oceans are not getting saltier. The equation of residence time can be applied. Residence Time = Amount of element in the ocean/ Rate at which element is removed from or added to the ocean A reservoir is a place where some substance is being kept. Flux is the rate at which something is entering or leaving a reservoir. Source is the rate at which a compound is added to the ocean. Sink is the rate at which a compound is removed.

What factors collectively act to create the ocean gyres (be able to list them)? How do these factors interplay (be able to describe them)?***

Surface winds, Eckman spiral, the Coriolis effect, and gravity, circulates the waters in each hemisphere and forms gyres. The tug of wind on the oceans surface begins a flow of water. The moving water piles up and creates pressure, which is pulled down by gravity in the direction from which it comes. The coriolis effect intervenes, and northern hemisphere surface currents flow to the right while in the southern hemisphere they flow to the left. Continents and basin topography often block continuous flow and help to deflect water into a circular pattern.

The heat source for hydrothermal vents is the underlying magma

TRUE

How have temperature and atmospheric composition changed in the geologic past? How do we know?

Temp trends change every 1000 years which we know from ice cores and tree cores. With an ice core you can measure the oxygen isotopes in bubbles to tell co2 content and temperature. The thickness of different layers shows how temp has changed over years as well

What is the Coriolis effect and how does it impact the circulation of the atmosphere? Why are moving objects deflected and in what directions?

The Coriolis effect is caused by the rotation of the earth and the fact that something at the pole is moving slower than something at the equator. The Coriolis effect is when the eastward rotation of Earth on its axis deflects the moving air or water (or any moving object that has mass) away from its initial course. The coriolis effect influences the movement of air in atmospheric circulation cells.In the Northern hemisphere, moving objects veer to the right or clockwise. In the southern hemisphere, they go off course counterclockwise or left.

How does the addition of ions (salt) alter the molecular properties of water? In what ways does water behave differently when ions are present?***

The addition of ions in water lowers water's boiling point (easier to boil pasta water when its salted) and raises the freezing point (salt on snow so it doesn't turn to ice!) Salt makes water more dense and when ions are present the water is able to conduct electricity, making it an electrolyte.

What are the main salts in seawater, and how much salt is in the entire ocean? One kilogram of seawater?

The main salts in seawater are Sodium and Chloride. The ocean's salinity is approx 3.5%. In 1 kilogram of seawater there is 35 grams of salt. Salinity of seawater is 34 g/kg.

What are the most abundant dissolved gases in the ocean, where do they come from and where do they go? What are the chemical reactions for photosynthesis and respiration?

The most abundantly dissolved gases in the ocean are N2, O2, and CO2. The dissolved gases come from the surface, and are transported through downwelling.

What is the Northwest passage and what does it have to do with James Cook and Icebreakers?

The northwest passage is a sea route connecting the northern atlantic and pacific oceans through the arctic ocean along the northern coast of north america. James Cook explored it, however no passage was found at that time. However now it is possible for ships to get through with the assistance of ice breakers.

Frequency ***

The number of wave crests passing point A to point B each second. (f= 1/T)

What were the James Cook and Challenger explorations known for? What were their purposes and outcomes? How did they achieve these contributions and what major obstacles did they face? What did they contribute to science?

The purpose of the challenger was scientific research because the British thought that there was money to be made by sending Cook to discover things. Accomplishments: -verification of calculations of planetary orbits -charting of new zealand, and the great barrier reef, Tonga, and Easter Island -initiation of friendly relations with native populations. -sampling marine life, land plants, and animals. -recording data about the sea floor.

What factors impact the density of air, and how?

The temperature and water content of air greatly influence its density. Warm air is less dense than cold air. A mass of warm air occupies more space than cold air because of the molecular movement associated with heat. Near earths surface, air is packed densely by its own weight. As air moves to higher altitudes, it expands and cools.

What are typical temperature profiles (depth distributions) for the ocean? Salinity profiles? Density profiles? What is meant by the terms thermocline, halocline and pycnocline?***

Thermocline- temp declines w depth Halocline- salt increases w depth Pycnocline- density increases w depth The coldest parts of the ocean are the north and south atlantic and south pacific The oldest part of the ocean is the deep north pacific

Besides the gyres, what other type of currents are common in the ocean?

Transverse currents are currents that flow from east to west and west to east, linking the eastern and western boundary currents. Countercurrents are currents that flow on the surface in the opposite direction from the main current. They can also exist beneath surface currents.

How are geologic features like trenches, mountains and volcanoes formed at plate boundaries?

Trenches - are formed by a convergent plate boundary. Usually, one of the converging plates will move beneath the other, which is known as subduction. Deep trenches are often formed where tectonic plates are being subducted. Mountains - are formed by converging plates pushing together. Volcanoes - are formed by converging plates moving over a hot spot.

Are Tsunami waves deep water or shallow water waves? What determines their velocity across the ocean? Why are they so dangerous?***

Tsunami waves are shallow water waves, and their velocity is determined by the depth of the ocean floor. When there is less depth the wave loses velocity but becomes much higher and starts to incorporate the shallow water around it as part of the wave which causes a surge which makes them dangerous.

Subduction

Typically results from a collision involving an oceanic plate

What is coastal upwelling? Coastal downwelling?***

Upwelling: is the upward motion of water that brings cold, nutrient rich water toward the surface. - Coastal upwelling occurs when the surface water is replaced by water rising along the shore. Downwelling: is the downward motion of water that supplies the deep ocean with dissolved gases. - Coastal downwelling is when water driven towards a coastline is forced downward, returning seaward along a coastal shelf.

What is the chemical structure of water, and how does this structure impact the properties of water? What is hydrogen bonding, and how does one water molecule align with other water molecules and dissolved salts (cations and anions)?

Water is a polar molecule with 2 positive hydrogens and 1 negative oxygen, all of which are open for bonding. So, it easily bonds with other compounds and itself. The positive hydrogen bonds with the negative salts when water and salt bond.

What happens when lithospheric plates collide into one another? (Continental plate vs. Continental plate)

When this occurs, compression of the plates causes buckling and the plates crumble. This forms high mountain ridges.

What happens when lithospheric plates collide into one another? (Oceanic plate vs. Continental plate)

When this occurs, compression of the plates moving together causes buckling. Which causes subduction to happen and the oceanic crust slides under the continental plate.

What happens when lithospheric plates collide into one another? (50 Ma oceanic plate vs. 100 Ma oceanic plate) (Ma means millions of years old)

When this occurs, it creates a subduction zone or trench. The older/cooler plate subducts (100 Ma). (causes volcanoes)

Why are wind waves important? How do small waves interact to form larger waves? What factors control the size of wind waves that form in the open ocean? How fast do the individual waves move? How fast do wave trains move?***

Wind waves are capillary waves that form as a result of wind and energy. Constructive interference occurs as these tiny waves reach their crests at the same time, creating larger waves. The entire wave train moves at half the velocity of a single wave. Wave trains are created because waves of the same wavelength sort into sets which continue moving together at the same velocity, called a wind train. These also exist because the energy at the front of a wave gets transferred to the back.

Define: Pynocline

Zone of rapid density change

Define: Halocline

Zone of rapid salinity change

Define: Thermocline

Zone of rapid temperature change

Above is a diagram of wave crests hitting a shoreline. Dotted horizontal lines show bottom contours. a) Are waves moving faster in box A or box B? why? b) Draw an arrow at point D indicating the direction in which the waves are moving. c) Draw an arrow along the shoreline indicating the direction of the longshore currents at this location.

a) B; because the waves are coming in angled, the trailing end of the wave (B) is trying to compensate to catch up to (A). b) *see diagram c) *see diagram

How do the following properties of water change as the water becomes saltier? (Increase or decrease) a) Evaporation b) Freezing Point c) Heat capacity d) Osmotic pressure e) Density

a) Evaporation SLOWS b) Freezing Point DECREASES c) Heat capacity DECREASES d) Osmotic pressure INCREASES e) Density INCREASES

Which of the following will act to increase the buoyancy of air? Circle ALL correct answers. a) Increasing the water vapor content of the air b) Cooling the air c) Warming the air d) Condensing water out of the air

a) Increasing the water vapor content of the air c) Warming the air

For each of the descriptors below indicate whether the descriptor best describes an Eastern or Western boundary current. a) Deep b) Wide c) Cold

a) Western b) Eastern c) Eastern

In what ways did Seismographs provide evidence to revitalize continental drift?

found patterns of Earthquakes in certain locations

In what ways did Echo Sounders provide evidence to revitalize continental drift?

found patterns of magnetism (from the poles) in different locations

In what ways did Radiometric Dating provide evidence to revitalize continental drift?

found that oceanic crust was much younger than the ocean itself

The fuel source of our Sun is

nuclear fusion

The interior of the Earth is kept hot by

radioactive decay

Elements heavier than iron were formed by

supernovas

Scientists think that all matter in the Universe was formed by

the big bang