UNCC: ARCH 5202: Architectural History II Final

Consumerism

"Consumerism [is] the interaction of mass production and consumption. Its fundamental characteristic is the use of advertising and product design to stimulate the public's demand for goods and services." - John Chase. "The Role of Consumerism in American Architecture," Journal of Architectural Education, vol. 44, no. 4 (August 1991), p.211

Insurance Redlining

"Redlining is the figurative or literal process of drawing red lines around areas to which lenders refuse to make loans, or make loans on less favorable terms. Areas that are home to racial minorities, particularly African Americans, have historically been the target of redlining practices." Amy Hillier, University of Pennsylvania - http://cml.upenn.edu/redlining/intro.html (accessed September 27, 2011)

Ringstrasse

"Toward the close of the nineteenth century, when the intellectuals of Austria began to develop doubts about the culture of liberalism in which they had been raised, the Ringstrasse became a symbolic focus of their critique. Like "Victorianism" in England, "Ringstrassenstil" became a quite general term of opprobrium." - Carl Schorske. 'The Ringstrasse, Its Critics, and the Birth of Urban Modernism,' Fin de Siècle Vienna: politics and culture (1979: 25) The growth of the Ringstrasse externalizes the fears of social elites (both old and new), which led to a reconsolidation of social hierarchies. These elites used the Ringstrasse (which circled new rail lines around the city) as a buffer between the 'haves' and the 'have nots'. In this way, the literal space of the city visualizes the new elites commitment to liberalism alongside their commitment to older forms of social distinction. Important buildings: -Votivkirche (c.1856-79) | Heinrich von Ferstel | Dedication Church | Gothic revival | (c.1856-79) -Rathaus (c.1872-83) -Staatsoper (c.1861-69) | August Sicard von Sicardsburg and Eduard van der Nüll | Vienna State Operahouse | Renaissance revival | (c.1861-69) -Universität (c.1877-84) -Burgtheater (c.1888) | Gottfried Semper, Karl Freiherr von Hasenauer | Hofburgtheater - Vienna City theater | Renaissance revival | (c.1888) -Postsparkasse (c.1904-06) | Otto Wagner | Postal Savings Bank | Jugendstil | (c.1904-06)

Organicism

(Organic Rationalism) The metaphorical application of concepts originally reserved for living nature to architecture. This approach is based on the conviction that art should imitate natural forms in some way, at times basing the design process on abstract models of natural creation. Third Phase of Le CorBusier's Career (1935-65) Thomas Deane, Benjamin Woodward Oxford Natural History Museum Oxford, England (c.1854-1860) "Organicism is based on the conviction, generally held in artistic theory from antiquity to the end of the nineteenth century, that art should imitate nature, not with the aim of producing perfectly faithful copies but with the aim of creating the illusion of life, of conferring qualities of living nature upon the products of man..." - Alan Colquhoun, 'Rationalism: a philosophical concept in architecture,' Modernity and the Classical Tradition (1994: 58) ... Since such metamorphosis will never be complete, we have to content ourselves with the use of metaphor: to speak of architecture as if it were part of living nature, shared her qualities of organic growth and unity, and could copy her methods." - Caroline van Eck, "The Character of Organicism," Organicism in Nineteenth Century Architecture (1994: 18)

Prairie, Usonian architecture

- Wood, unskilled labor plentiful in 19th century -Standardized construction elements (2x4, 2x6 only) - Simplified connections, joinery (only nail connections) - First 'tilt-up' wall construction system - Used on barns, sheds across the Midwest American prairie Thomas Edison Single pour concrete system Union, NJ (1906-19) Frank Lloyd Wright Jacobs House Madison, Wisconsin (c.1936-37) "Carpenters who suspected the apparent flimsiness of such a construction system dubbed it 'balloon frame,' believing it would blow away." - Barry Bergdoll. Home Delivery (2008: 41) TYPICAL L-PLAN USONIAN LAYOUT Levitt Reapplied Usonian principles to low-cost vernacular housing: - slab on grade construction - balloon frame construction - used standardized 2' module - radiated heating w/in slab - fireplace as anchor of space

Architecture Parlante

-SPEAKING ARCHITECTURE: Utopian Claude Nicolas Ledoux Etienne-Louis Boullée | Newton's Cenotaph | Source: Architecture, Essai sur l'Art (first completed 1784; in text c.1790-93) Edmund Burke | Philosophical Enquiry into the Origins of our Ideas of the Sublime and the Beautiful | London, England | (c.1768)

Developmentalism

A period of development defined by 'compressed modernization' in post-colonial and developing territories that consists of economic and infrastructural growth. The political and infrastructural approaches to such developments have consisted of a set of strategies that placed economic development at the center of political endeavors and institutions and also as a means through which to establish the legitimacy of new political regimes.

Enlightenment

A philosophical movement of the 18th century that emphasized the use of reason to scrutinize previously accepted doctrines and traditions. "The doctrines of progress and evolutionary change which were prevalent in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries... [soon] invaded other fields [i.e. architecture], and evolution and change became ends in themselves." - Donald Drew Egbert. "Theory of Design," The Beaux-Arts Tradition in French Architecture (Princeton University Press, 1980), 108 (c.1667-70) | Claude Perrault | Louvre Colonnade (c.1700) | Claude Perrault | Recueil de Plusieurs Machines de Nouvelle Invention (c1801-03) | Felix Duban designs | École des Beaux-Arts (c.1828) | Heinrich Hübsch | "In Which Style... ?" (c.1673) | Claude Perrault | Orodnnance des Cinq Especes de Colonnes selon la Methode des Anciens

Liberalism

A political theory founded on the autonomy of the individual and favoring civil and political liberties, government by law with the consent of the governed, and protection from arbitrary authority. "Liberalism was an umbrella movement of oppositional tendencies, clearly gaining strength [in Germany] in the Vormärz* period (Before 1848). It is frequently associated with a 'rising middle class', and referred to as 'bourgeois liberalism'." - David Blackbourn. 'Germany in Transition,' in History of Germany, 1780-1918: the long nineteenth century (2003), 97 RINGSTRASSE (1856-1906)

Adolf Loos

ADOLF LOOS (b.1870-d.1933) Father 'stone mason' Born in Brno (now Czech) Visited U.S. 1893-96 Influential journalist, writer Began career designing interiors Rejected architecture as art Criticized middle-class & avant-garde circles alike "The architect is a stonemason who has learned Latin." - Adolf Loos. 'Ornament and Education' (c.1924) Adolf Loos Viennese War Ministry unbuilt (c.1907) Adolf Loos Commemorative monument to Emperor Franz-Joseph unbuilt (c.1917) Adolf Loos Moller House Vienna, Austria (c.1926) Adolf Loos Steiner House Vienna, Austria (c.1910) "Since ornament is no longer organically linked with our culture, it is also no longer the expression of our culture... The evolution of culture is synonymous with the removal of ornament from utilitarian objects." - Adolf Loos. Ornament und Verbrechen: ausgwahlte schriften die originaltexte (1908, 20) "[Carpets] make their function as cladding for the wall surface clear. They fulfill their purpose according to the principle of cladding... The principle of cladding, first formulated by Semper, also extends to nature. Human beings are clad with skin, trees with bark." - Adolf Loos. "Principle of Cladding" (1908)

Archigram

ARCHIGRAM (c.1961-70) POSTWAR URBAN UTOPIAS ARCHIGRAM members (1950-1962) 1. RECENT GRADUATES IN ENGLAND Peter Cook (Architectural Association) Mike Webb (Regent Street Polytechnic) David Greene (Nottingham University) + 2. EMPLOYED BY LONDON COUNTY COUNCIL Ron Herron (1954-62) Warren Chalk (1953-61) Dennis Crompton (1951-60) "Archigram's first two editions... exploited an ill-tempered generation gap in British architecture... Restlessness had been apparent at Regent Street [Polytechnic] since 1956 in the pages of its student magazine Polygon... - Simon Sandler. 'Archigram's Formation and its Context,' in Archigram: Architecture without Architecture (2005: 23-24) 1961 Archigram 1 1962 Archigram 2 1963 Archigram 3 - Expendability 1964 Archigram 4 - Zoom Archigram 5 - Metropolis 1965 Archigram 6 1966 Archigram 7 - Beyond Architecture 1968 Archigram 8 - Popular Pak 1970 Archigram 9 - Fruitiest Yet Archigram 9 ½ 1973 Archigram - Collection of past issues "Archigram thought that a pop sensibility could divert market mechanisms and the military-industrial complex to the benefit of social progress." - Simon Sandler. 'Archigram's Formation and its Context,' in Archigram: Architecture without Architecture (2005: 47)

Albert Laprade

Albert Laprade French Colonial Architect Morocco (c.1915-20) Paris (c.1930-50) ALBERT LAPRADE (PARTIAL TIMELINE) 1883 Born in Buzançais, France 1907 Educated at Ecole des Beaux-Arts 1915-20Worked for Lyautey in Morocco Est. his own firm in Paris 1929 Citroën Garage, Rue de Marbeuf 1931 Palais de la Porte Dorée (Musée des Colonies) 1932-60Head Architect, Civil and National Monuments 1949 Dormitory, Cité Internationale Universitaire de Paris 1957-68Builds admin buildings across Paris, France 1978 Dies in Paris, France Albert Laprade, Leon Bazin Citroën Showroom on Rue Marbeuf Paris, France (c.1929) Albert Laprade Project of the New Indigenous Quarter (Cite des Habous) (c.1917) Albert Laprade Residence de France Rabat, Morocco (c.1918) Albert Laprade Musée des Colonies Paris, France (c.1931) Albert Laprade Palais de la Porte Dorée Paris, France (c.1931) "[Morocco] exemplified what Francois Beguin calls the arabisance of French colonial architecture in North Africa. Beguin characterizes arabisance as "the numerous traces of the arabization of architectural forms imported from Europe" to North Africa." - Patricia Morton. "A Study in Hybridity: Madagascar and Morocco at the 1931 Colonial Exposition," JAE 52:2 (Nov. 1998): p.83

Concours

Annual competitions at ÉCOLE DES BEAUX-ARTS

Bekleidung

BEKLEIDUNG (CLADDING) The term used to designate the architectural surface that represents the structural form used in antiquity. (Like Bötticher's Kunst-form, but more specifically referencing the history of the practical arts.) Gottfried Semper. "Prolegomena," Style in the Technical and Tectonic Arts, 186

Urban Renewal (and the legislation associated with it)

BREADTH OF URBAN RENEWAL PROJECTS -Policies used to 'modernize' downtown areas -Top-down approach to City Planning -Created public housing projects -Created large-scale civic projects -Displaced entire communities for 'best use' PROS AND CONS OF URBAN RENEWAL -Vastly modernized housing fabric -Improved urban infrastructures (highways, bridges, dams) -Demolished historic city fabric -Displaced the urban poor -Heightened urban segregation SUPERBLOCK An urban design strategy that combines several blocks of an existing city grid to create one massive block. This strategy was used throughout urban renewal to provide play spaces, semi-private gardens, and other types of green space to residents. Urban renewal prompted a strong public reaction from citizens interested in old buildings. This sentiment lead to the establishment of Preservation boards in many cities. Skidmore Owings & Merrill 'Manhattantown' Urban Renewal project Park West Apartments West 97th to 100th Streets, NYC (c.1952-60) "Urban Renewal of the 1940s, '50s and '60s was synonymous with 'Negro Removal'. During this period in cities throughout the United States, large tracts of land were cleared for redevelopment and many African Americans were displaced to make room for highways, universities, large commercial developments and new residential neighborhoods." - Derek S. Hyra. "Introduction," The new urban renewal: the economic transformation of Harlem and Bronzeville (2008: 3)

Colonial Exposition in Paris (urban, architectural division of space)

COLONIAL EXPOSITION IN PARIS, 1931: A TOUR OF THE WORLD IN ONE DAY Albert Laprade Musée des Colonies Paris, France (c.1931) "Nicknamed Lyauteyville after the exposition's commissioner general, Marechal Hubert Lyautey, this was the last international world's fair exclusively devoted to the celebration of international colonialism. France hosted the Colonial Exposition.. to demonstrate its colonial puissance and to stimulate the French public's interest in its colonial empire." -Patricia Morton. "National and Colonial: Le Musee des Colonies at the Colonial Exposition, Paris, 1931," The Art Bulletin, Vol. 80, No. 2 (Jun., 1998), pp. 357

Casbah

Citadel (Fortress: Medieval quarter) - specifically the citadel of Algiers in Algeria and the traditional quarter clustered around it.

CIAM (definition and its phases of development)

Congrès Internationale d'Architecture Moderne (INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE) THREE MAJOR THEMES OF CIAM MEETINGS The Housing Problem, 1928-30 Scientific Town Planning, 1933-47 Habitat: Anthropology of the City, 1949-59 "CIAM was deliberately intended to create an avant-garde within the new, anti-traditionalist architecture that began to develop in the early twentieth century." - Eric Mumford. "Introduction," The CIAM Discourse on Urbanism, 1928-1960 (2000: 2) "CIAM's initial direction was shaped by the interaction of Le Corbusier and other mostly French-speaking proponents of a new architecture with the mostly German-speaking proponents of a leftist and technocratic approach to architecture and social organization." - Eric Mumford. "Introduction," The CIAM Discourse on Urbanism, 1928-1960 (2000: 2) CIAM I-III: DEFINING 'EXISTENZMINIMUM' "The 15,000 units completed under May's direction... more than ninety per cent of the housing built in Frankfurt over the entire period... could hardly have been achieved without May's insistence on efficiency and economy in both design and construction. Such an objective approach, reinforced by the reality of building costs led inevitably to the formulation of 'existence-minimum' space standards, which became the contentious theme of CIAM Frankfurt Congress in 1929." - Kenneth Frampton. "The New Objectivity: Germany, Holland and Switzerland, 1923-1933," in Modern Architecture: a critical history (2007: 137-8) CIAM IV-VI: THE 'FUNCTIONAL CITY' "The keys to town planning are to be found in the four functions: housing, work, recreation (during leisure), and traffic." - CIAM. The Charter of Athens (1943) in Ulrich Conrad's Programs and Manifestoes on 20th Century Architecture (2002: 139) "The CIAM effort to replace the Functional City prescribed by the Athens Charter with a Charter of Habitat greatly broadened the scope of CIAM's potential areas of investigation... [the] concept of "Habitat" was intentionally never defined as rigidly as the earlier four functions." - Eric Mumford. "After CIAM," The CIAM Discourse on Urbanism, 1928-1960 (2000: 268) Michel Ecochard presents at CIAM VIII Casablanca: le roman d'une ville (c.1955) CIAM IX: THE 'CHARTER OF THE HABITAT' Michel Ecochard, GAMMA Habitat for Greatest Number study CIAM IX (c.1953) 1928 CIAM I -The Declaration at La Sarraz 1929 CIAM II-Frankfurt: The Low Cost Dwelling 1930 CIAM III-Brussels: The Rational Housing Development 1933 CIAM IV-Athens: The Functional City 1937 CIAM V-Paris: Dwelling and Leisure 1939 -Jose Luis Sert. Can Our Cities Survive? 1943 -Le Corbusier. The Athens Charter 1947 CIAM VI-Bridgewater, England 1949 CIAM VII-Bergamo, Italy 1951 CIAM VIII-Hoddesdon, England: The Heart of the City 1953 CIAM IX-Aix-en-Provence: The Charter of Habitat 1956 CIAM X-Dubrovnik (Team X, Aldo van Eyck challenge) 1959 CIAM XI-Final meeting of CIAM

Deutsche Werkbund

DEUTSCHE WERKBUND EXHIBITION, 1914 "GLORIFICATION OF THE MACHINE" This phase of Peter Behrens' career finds a visual expression for the power of industry to make over society. Thus, his buildings should be read as concrete symbols to the power of the machine, not functionalist translations of mechanistic programs. Specialization - the separation of industrial production processes Standardization - making uniform construction forms and units Typisierung - use of a limited number of constant products -Frederic J. Schwartz. The Werkbund, Design Theory and Mass Culture before the First World War (126)

Ebenezer Howard

EBENEZER HOWARD (1850-1928) Shopping Districts Letchworth (c.1905-14) Ebenezer Howard "The Three Magnets" "Yesterday, Today, Tomorrow" Garden Cities of To-morrow (c.1902) Officially employed as a Stenographer Participated in 'Radical Movement' in England Published Garden Cities of To-morrow (c.1898-1902) Consulted for Letchworth Garden City (c.1903) Consulted for Welwyn Garden City (c.1920) Ideas influenced 'New Town' program in England Ideas influenced 'Greenbelt Cities' in America (ex. Columbia, Maryland)

Eugene Emmanuel Viollet-‐le-‐Duc

Eugene Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc Dictionnaire Raisonne d'architecture (c.1856-64) Eugene Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc Histoire de l'Habitation Humaine (c.1875-76) "From the largest mountain down to the finest crystal, from the lichen to the oaks of our forests, from the polyp to the human being, everything in terrestrial creation does possess style." - Eugene Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc. "Style," in The Foundations of Architecture: selections from the Dictionnaire Raisonné, translation by Kenneth D. Whitehead (1990: xx) Style in interpreted here as the internal principles of art that help forms evolve. Viollet referred to such elements as the central concepts or ideas embedded within architectural forms. "Style... is the perfect harmony between the results obtained (the form) and the means employed (design) to achieve them." - Eugene Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc. "Style" (1864) "In order to achieve [architecture], we are obliged to proceed as nature proceeds in the things she creates. We are obliged to employ the same elements and the same logical method as nature." - Eugene Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc. "Style," in The Foundations of Architecture: selections from the Dictionnaire Raisonné, translation by Kenneth D. Whitehead (1990: 235)

The Ancients vs. The Moderns

FRENCH ACADMICIANS: ANCIENTS Codified a canon of beauty from Antiquity to the Renaissance and the French Académie Taught standards of Beauty were absolute Historical models included: Vitruvius (from the Roman world); Palladio, Scamozzi, Vignola (from the Italian Renaissance) Proponents included Francois Blondel and Jacques Francois Blondel FRENCH ACADMICIANS: MODERNS Taught standards of Beauty had developed since Antiquity and the Renaissance Taught principles of Beauty were not absolute, but relative to time and place Proponents included Charles Perrault and Claude Perrault Relevant Quotes: "The two parties - on the one hand, those who believed that the works of the Ancients were of exceptional beauty and should serve as [absolute] models and, on the other hand, those who judged that modern artistic achievements could surpass those of the ancients - were adversaries of equal strength." - Wolfgang Herrmann. "The Authority of the Ancients," The Theory of Claude Perrault (A Zwemmer Ltd., 1973), 49 "It was this tension, we know, that had originally brought about the conflict between the "Ancients" and the "Moderns," and the same struggle continued to affect French academic art in some degree until 1968 [with] the revolt which signaled the triumph of "Moderns."" - Donald Drew Egbert. "Theory of Design," The Beaux-Arts Tradition in French Architecture (Princeton University Press, 1980), 108 "The first director of the Académie Royale d'Architecture, Nicolas-Francois Blondel (1617-1686), was a mathematician, military engineer, and architect... [His history lectures] were published beginning in 1675 and played an important part in establishing the direction of French academicism in architecture." - Donald Drew Egbert. "Theory of Design," The Beaux-Arts Tradition in French Architecture (Princeton University Press, 1980), 108 "When [Claude] Perrault, in a note to Vitruvius' classification of temples, introduced a new type [of arrangement] consisting of a colonnade of coupled columns... he was well aware that some architects disapproved of that arrangement as not being authorized by the Ancients." - Wolfgang Herrmann. "The Authority of the Ancients," The Theory of Claude Perrault (A Zwemmer Ltd., 1973), 49 "What is important to him is to demonstrate the power that custom is able to exercise over the human mind... in aesthetics, it produces the transference of attributes, changing arbitrary beauties into seemingly [absolute values]." - Wolfgang Herrmann. "The Authority of the Ancients," The Theory of Claude Perrault (A Zwemmer Ltd., 1973), 60

Utopia

First described as a fictional island society in Greece by Sir Thomas More in 1516, the word "utopia" has evolved to mean any community with a visionary system of political and societal perfection—cities that function to improve the daily lives of their citizens. POSTWAR URBAN UTOPIAS: ARCHIGRAM (c.1961-70) COOP HIMMELBAU (c.1968-73) CEDRIC PRICE (c.1961-77)

Gemeinschaft vs. Geselleschaft

Gemeinschaft (Community) Pre industrial Germany -Met Heinrich Tessenow Gesellschaft (Society) Industrialized Machine Era -Peter Behrens

Gottfried Semper

Gottfried Semper (1803-1879) THE FOUR ELEMENTS The four processes used to refine raw material in 'primitive' societies. Semper considered these processes to be the origin of monumental architecture. TEXTILES : CERAMICS : CARPENTRY : STEREOTOMY Gottfried Semper's mathematical formula for Style Y = F (x, y, z, ...) Where Y is any particular Style Where F is the function of each factor Semper was interested in developing what he called a 'practical aesthetics', or a practical extension of the lessons of the social sciences. Using their methodologies, Semper wished to invent a rational process for modern architects to create national styles in the present. Gottfried Semper Motiv (Motif, Motivation) Gottfried Semper, Karl Freiherr von Hasenauer Hofburgtheater - Vienna City theater Renaissance revival (c.1888) Style in the Technical and Tectonic Arts: or, Practical Aesthetics Gottfried Semper (1860-63) "Nature has its own evolutionary history, within which old motifs are discernible in every new form. In just the same way, art is based on a few standard forms and types that derive from the most ancient traditions... and like nature's types, [artistic types] have their own history." -Gottfried Semper. "Prolegomena," Style in the Technical and Tectonic Arts, 1863 (2004: 72) ... so that the muscles and their actions are represented on the surface of the skin pictorially or rather graphically using systems of lines - a very remarkable phenomenon that demonstrates they have grasped and correctly understood ornament in its structural and symbolic sense." - Gottfried Semper. "Our Own Skin: the most natural cover," Style in the Technical and Tectonic Arts, 1863 (2004: 171-172) ... If the motive undergoes a change of material [Stoffwechsel] as a result of this secondary or even multiple transformation, the resulting new form will be a composite, one that expresses the primeval type and all the stages preceding the latest form." - Gottfried Semper. Style in the Technical and Tectonic Arts, 1863 (2004: 187) Gottfried Semper Caraib Hut Der Stil (1860-63) Gottfried Semper Verzierungen den Offen Dachtstuhils in der Kirche S. Miniato a Monte Der Stil in den techtonik und techtonischen kunst (1864)

Henry Hobson Richardson

H. H. RICHARDSON (1838-1886) Born to Southern planters Parents British born, migrants Attended Harvard college Trained at École des Beaux-Arts Bankrupted by Civil War Interned w/T. Labrouste, Igance Hittorf Worked w/Fredrick Law Olmsted American Transcendentalist Henry Hobson Richardson Old Colony Station, train elevation North Easton, Mass. (c.1881) Henry Hobson Richardson Trinity Church Boston, Mass. (c.1872) A look at the interior reveals a formal remnant of the circular stain-glass window that was replaced in the final design. These traces are evidence of the enormous plasticity of his approach to design. Henry Hobson Richardson Winn Memorial Library Woburn, Mass. (c.1877-88) Henry Hobson Richardson Crane Public Library Quincy, Mass. (c.1880) Henry Hobson Richardson Marshall Field Wholesale Store Chicago, Illinois (c.1887; posthumous constr.) Modern reinterpretation of Italian piazza architectures of Rome, another important era of civic urban design. Henry Hobson Richardson Allegheny County Courthouse Pittsburgh, PA (c.1884-87; posthumous constr.) This design is reminiscent of Romanesque and medieval castles, yet another historical source for civic architectures. Henry Hobson Richardson Oakes Ames Town Hall North Easton, Mass. (c.1879-81) Henry Hobson Richardson Ames Gate Lodge North Easton, Mass. (c.1880-81) Henry Hobson Richardson Stoughton House Cambridge, Mass. (c.1882-83) Henry Hobson Richardson R. T. Paine house Waltham, Mass. (c.1884-86)

Patron

Head of studio

French Morocco (architectural styles)

Hubert Lyautey French Resident-General Morocco (c.1912-27) Henri Prost French Colonial City Planner Morocco (c.1912-27) Algeria (c.1930s) Albert Laprade French Colonial Architect Morocco (c.1915-20) Paris (c.1930-50) "[Morocco] exemplified what Francois Beguin calls the arabisance of French colonial architecture in North Africa. Beguin characterizes arabisance as "the numerous traces of the arabization of architectural forms imported from Europe" to North Africa." - Patricia Morton. "A Study in Hybridity: Madagascar and Morocco at the 1931 Colonial Exposition," JAE 52:2 (Nov. 1998): p.83 "A clear political agenda overwhelmed any true respect for history or tradition, tainting the otherwise positive preservation efforts... One goal was indeed cultural, for Lyautey and his staff sincerely wanted to build modern cities and preserve the beauty of the medinas. The other imperatives were more conspicuously exploitative." - Gwendolyn Wright. "Morocco: Modernization and Preservation," The Politics of Design in French Colonial Urbanism (Univ. of Chicago, 1991): p.89

Parti

Idea, Concept

Orientalism

Is a way of seeing the Orient that exaggerates and distorts the differences of so-called Eastern peoples and cultures as compared to that of so-called Western peoples. It often involves seeing non-Western cultures as exotic, backward, uncivilized, or dangerous. ORIENTALISM WAS REINFORCED BY: Colonialism Social Sciences (Area Studies Depts.) Popular Culture Fine Art, Architecture "Orientalism is a style of thought based upon... the basic distinction between East and West as the starting point for elaborate theories, epics, novels, social descriptions, and political events concerning the Orient, [and] its people." - Edward Said, 'Introduction,' in Orientalism (1978: 2)

Panopticon

Jeremy Bentham Panopticon Unbuilt (Cuba after death) (c.1791) Represents Utopian and Social Reform Ideals Prison

Crystal Palace

Joseph Paxton Crystal Palace London, England (c.1850) CRITIQUE OF CRYSTAL PALACE EXHIBITION -Showcased the potential of Industry -Good display of technical goods -Poor translation into the arts

Kern-‐form

KERN-FORM (WORK-FORM) The architectural elements that perform the functional tasks of the building; usually structure. "This part of the building communicates the primary structural and functional divisions of the building." Carl Botticher (Early 19th)

Kunst-‐form

KUNST-FORM (ART-FORM) The architectural elements that artistically express the functional work being performed; usually ornament. "This part of the building is much more opulent, using art to embellish the structural clarity of the building form." Describing Kunst Form Carl Botticher (Early 19th)

Baedeker

Karl Baedeker Handbook for South Germany and Austria-Hungary Frontispiece (c.1882) "Of course, older landmarks remained, [and] sometimes dominated... But even these began to be appreciated in new ways. Baedeker in hand (for this was the age of the guidebook), the visitor was encouraged to appreciate past cultural glories." - David Blackbourn. 'Progress and its Discontents,' History of Germany, 1780-1918: the long nineteenth century (2003: 207)

Louis Sullivan

LOUIS H. SULLIVAN (1856-1924) Middle-class Irish, French-German heritage Briefly attended MIT Trained at École des Beaux-Arts Partnered w/Dankmar Adler (engineer) American Transcendentalist, Organicist 'Chicago school' architect Interned w/ Frank Furness, Burnham & Root "It is the pervading law of all things organic and inorganic, of all things physical and metaphysical, of all things human and all things superhuman, of all true manifestations of the head, of the heart, of the soul, that the life is recognizable in its expression, that form ever follows function. This is the law." - Louis Sullivan. 'The Tall Office Building Artistically Considered' (1896) Dankmar Adler, Louis Sullivan Wainwright building St. Louis, Missouri (c.1890-91) Louis Sullivan Schlesinger & Mayer Store, a.k.a. Carson Pirie Scott Store Chicago, Illinois (c.1899-1904) Louis Sullivan "Manipulation of the Organic" System of Architectural Ornament (c.1924) Louis Sullivan Gage building facade Chicago, Illinois (c.1898-99) Louis Sullivan National Farmer's Bank Owatonna, Minnesota (c.1907-08)

'Chicago School of Architecture'

LOUIS H. SULLIVAN (1856-1924) -Rejected the eclecticism of nineteenth century -Developed new programs, building types of Gilded Age -Saw Chicago and 'the West' as future of country -Combined industrial and natural tropes -Most famous for his urban skyscrapers Louis Sullivan Schlesinger & Mayer Store, a.k.a. Carson Pirie Scott Department Store Chicago, Illinois (c.1899-1904) Louis Sullivan Gage building Chicago, Illinois (c.1898-99) Frank Lloyd Wright Luxfer Prism Skyscraper Designs no.1, no.2 (c.1897) Several historians have commented on the historical importance of ornament in making new building typologies (such as the Department Store) appealing to urban dwellers. Sullivan's use of physical ornament on the commercial levels of his buildings softened the hard lines of unadorned modern buildings. This aesthetic treatment distinguished the human scale approach to a building form the overall massing of the structure. "Sullivan set forth "the true, the Poetic Architecture" as a means of brining nature into the city and thereby providing a spiritual respite from the material constraints of modern urban existence." - Lauren Weingarden. Louis H. Sullivan and Naturalized Architecture (2009: 386)

Anne Tyng & Louis Kahn

LOUIS ISODORE KAHN (PARTIAL TIMELINE) 1901 Born in Estonia 1904 Parents immigrate to Philadelphia, PA 1920-24B.Arch, Univ. of Pennsylvania 1929-30Works for Paul Cret in Philadelphia 1934 Est. office in Philadelphia 1941 Partners w/George Howe, Oscar Stonorov 1947-57Professor of Architecture at Yale University Anne Tyng joins Kahn's office 1950-51Resident at American Academy in Rome 1957-74Professor at University of Pennsylvania 1974 Dies of heart attack, leaving work unfinished HISTORICAL FIGURES RELATED TO KAHN Anne Tyng (1920-2011) Architect Collaborated w/Kahn Paul Cret (1876-1945) Kahn's mentor Est. Beaux-Arts at UPenn Robert Venturi (1925- ) Outgrowth of Philadelphia School Influenced by Kahn's ref. to history Balkrishna Doshi (1927- ) Indian Architect Collaborated w/Kahn Developed modernism unique to India ANNE GRISWOLD TYNG (PARTIAL TIMELINE) 1920 Born in Jiangxi, China to missionary parents 1938 Moved to U.S. to study at Radcliffe College 1944 M.Arch from GSD at Harvard University Worked for Konrad Wachsman in NYC 1945 Joins Louis Kahn's office in Philadelphia 1950-51Elementary School design; Bucks County, PA 1951-54Walworth Tyng house; Philadelphia, PA 1965 First woman to receive a Graham Foundation Fellowship 1968-95Professor at University of Pennsylvania "The link between Fuller and Kahn was established by [Anne] Tyng... Tyng's work demonstrated that Fuller's single-layered octet truss could be adapted [into] a multilayered truss system... The Walworth Tyng house was probably the first habitable space frame - a concept that was to intrigue Kahn." - J. Francois Gabriel. "Louis Kahn and Space Frames," Beyond the Cube: the architecture of space frames and polyhedra (1997), p.130 Louis I. Kahn Yale Univ. Art Gallery Stair tower New Haven, CT (c.1951-54) Louis I. Kahn Jewish Community Center Preliminary sketch Trenton, NJ (c.1954) "... [This project reveals] Kahn's interest in repetitive geometries that, in plan, are configured in bilateral symmetrical compositions. While only a small portion of this vast complex was realized, the building demonstrates that - even with the smallest budgets - pure shapes can be beautifully configured to heighten architecture's sense of spirituality." - Joseph Rosa. "Jewish Community Center," Louis I. Kahn, 1901-1974 (2006), p.32 "[Kahn] explored the theme of community by treating multi building projects as urban microcosms... [his] large multi building projects for academic, cultural and religious institutions... demonstrated Kahn's preference for complex, rather than simple arrangements which suggested the feeling of an urban neighborhood." - Stephen James. "The Menil Collection: Louis Kahn and the Rice University Center," JSAH, vol. 69, no. 4 (December 2010)

Mies van der Rohe

MIES IN GERMANY (PARTIAL TIMELINE) 1907 Riehl House; Berlin, Germany 1921 Friedrichstrasse Skyscraper competition entry 1922 Project for a Glass Skyscraper 1922-23 Project for a Concrete Office Building 1924 Brick Country House 1925 Supervises Weisenhoffseidlung 1925-27 Wolf House; Guben, Germany 1928-30 Tugendhat House; Brno, Czech Republic 1929 Barcelona Pavilion; Barcelona, Spain 1930-32 Director of Bauhaus in Dessau before closing MIES IN AMERICA (PARTIAL TIMELINE) 1940-41 General Plan for Campus, IIT 1945-46 Alumni Memorial Hall, IIT 1945-50 Edith Farnsworth House; Plano, IL 1946-49 860-880 Lakeshore Drive Apartments; Chicago 1950-52 Crown Hall, IIT 1953-56 Commonwealth Promenade; Chicago 1954-58 Seagram Building; New York 1959-64 Federal Center; Chicago 1962-68 Neue Nationalgalerie; Potsdamer Strasse, Berlin 1963-69 Toronto Dominion Center; Toronto "Mies was not only an astute self-publicist, but an architect with the ability to reduce every problem to a kind of essential simplicity - a simplicity that continues to give rise to conflicting interpretations of his work to this day." -Alan Colquhoun. "Weimar Germany: the Dialectic of the Modern 1920-33," Modern Architecture (2002: 170) HISTORICAL FIGURES RELATED TO MIES Lilly Reich (1885-1947) Furniture designer Collaborated w/Mies Phyllis Lambert (1927- ) Solicited Mies for Seagram, Toronto bldgs Est. Canadian Center for Architecture Philip Johnson (1906-2005) Interned at Mies's office Est. Architecture Dept. at MOMA David Sharpe (c.? -) African-American protégé of Mies Project Architect in Mies's office Professor at IIT Mies van der Rohe Neue Nationalgalarie Berlin, Germany (c.1965-67) Mies van der Rohe Bismark Monument Unbuilt (c.1910) Mies van der Rohe Convention Center Chicago, IL (c.1953) Mies van der Rohe Monument to Karl Liebknecht and Rose Luxemburg Berlin, Germany (c.1926) Mies van der Rohe Tugendhat House Brno, Czech (c.1928-30) Mies van der Rohe Hubbe House Magdenberg (c.1945) Mies van der Rohe Brick Country House Unbuilt (c.1924) Mies van der Rohe Barcelona Pavilion Barcelona, Spain (c.1929) Mies van der Rohe IIT Campus plan, final Chicago, IL (c.1940) Mies van der Rohe Crown Hall Chicago, IL (c.1950-52) Mies van der Rohe Edith Farnsworth house Plano, IL (c.1945-50) Mies van der Rohe 860-880 Lakeshore Drive Apts. Chicago, IL (c.1953-56)

Jesse Clyde Nichols

Master-Planned Country Club Plaza Developed 'Planning for Permanence' ideal Used Restrictive Covenants Used Percentage Lease practice Planning philosophy influenced: Beverly Hills and Westwood, LA; Shaker Heights, Ohio Worked with Urban Land Institute CENTRAL ELEMENTS OF SHOPPING CENTER Built in tandem w/suburban development Helped zone public/private zones of development Centralized planning model (vs. Downtown) Serviced by roadways, railway connections to city Initially supplemented downtown shopping Later, replaced downtown shopping

Existenzminimum

Minimal Subsistence CIAM I-III: DEFINING 'EXISTENZMINIMUM' "The 15,000 units completed under May's direction... more than ninety per cent of the housing built in Frankfurt over the entire period... could hardly have been achieved without May's insistence on efficiency and economy in both design and construction. Such an objective approach, reinforced by the reality of building costs led inevitably to the formulation of 'existence-minimum' space standards, which became the contentious theme of CIAM Frankfurt Congress in 1929." - Kenneth Frampton. "The New Objectivity: Germany, Holland and Switzerland, 1923-1933," in Modern Architecture: a critical history (2007: 137-8) Hans Leistikow Die Wohnung fur das Existenzminimum (1929)

ISOTYPE

Neurath's isotypes: a method of showing social, technological, biological and historical connections in pictorial form.

Medina

Old City (Muslim quarter) "A clear political agenda overwhelmed any true respect for history or tradition, tainting the otherwise positive preservation efforts... One goal was indeed cultural, for Lyautey and his staff sincerely wanted to build modern cities and preserve the beauty of the medinas. The other imperatives were more conspicuously exploitative." - Gwendolyn Wright. "Morocco: Modernization and Preservation," The Politics of Design in French Colonial Urbanism (Univ. of Chicago, 1991): p.89

Market Segmentation, Rational Space Planning

PRIMARY ELEMENTS OF THE 'INDOOR MALL' CONCEPT - Style, aesthetic dictated by market segment - Rational space planning ('anchors', parking, circulation) - 'Market segmentation' key planning principle - 'Feminization' of commercial space - Privatization of civic space - replaced 'downtown' w/mall -Lizabeth Cohen. "From Town Centers to Shopping Center: the reconfiguration of Community Marketplaces in Postwar America," The American Historical Review, vol.101, no.4 (Oct., 1996), pp.1050-1081

Restrictive Covenants

RESTRICTIVE COVENANTS "No flats or apartment buildings were allowed; only single-family homes could be built on the lots... Houses had to cost a minimum of $5,000 [~7 room house at time] and be set back no less than forty feet from the front lot line... No sale or occupancy by blacks was allowed." - William S. Worley. J.C. Nichols and the Shaping of Kansas City (1990: 128-129) EFFECTS OF RESTRICTIVE COVENANTS "No dwelling shall be used or occupied except by members of the Caucasian race, but the employment and maintenance of other than Caucasian domestic servants shall be permitted." Exclusion clause of 1947 Levittown mortgage leases (Source: http://people.hofstra.edu/alan_j_singer/civilrights/civil_ii_2a_15.pdf) Used Restrictive Covenants JESSE CLYDE NICHOLS (1880-1950)

Picturesque (as it relates to Richardson)

Richardson's Picturesque Design Process -Distributed the plan along functionalist principles -Created elevational studies w/picturesque massing -Organically related plan, elevation to one another. Suburban / Rural Projects -Rustic material finishes -Assymetrical, picturesque massing -Roof important profile element "[Richardson's buildings exhibit] what I describe as 'picturesque' characteristics, including structures with asymmetrical, romantic, Gothic or non-formal features... Richardson's distinct genius was to integrate these tendencies with his formal methods." - Thomas C. Hubka. 'Richardson and the Picturesque,' in H. H. Richardson: the architect, his peers and their era (1999: 6,7)

Rundbogenstyl

Round-arch style, one of the nineteenth-century historic revival styles of architecture, is a variety of Romanesque revival popular in the German-speaking lands and the German diaspora. - reaction against the neo-Gothic style - it aimed to extend and develop the noble simplicity and quiet grandeur of neo-classicism, while moving in a direction more suited to the rise of industrialism and the emergence of German nationalism TECTONIC PRINCIPLES OF STYLE -Made structure, function the basis of invention (not aesthetics) -Isolated the essential character of historical building types -Sought 'organic' integration of structure and ornament Heinrich Hübsch (1792-1863) Pump House "Weinbrenner included most [architecture] in a category of utilitarian buildings... these buildings were not civic or monumental. The character of these structures must be the product of their purpose... Weinbrenner argued that the system of construction determined the physiognomy of buildings." - Michael J. Lewis. 'The Birth of a German Academic Tradition,' in Friedrich Weinbrenner: Architect of Karlsruhe (University of Pennsylvania Press, 1986), 37

Structural Rationalism (Realism)

SOME ASSUMPTIONS OF STRUCTURAL RATIONALISM: -Structure is a generative element of design -Structure reveals spatial order of a bldg. -Structure can operate as ornament -Structure is the 'bones' of a bldg. Eugene Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc | Ideal reconstruction of Gothic cathedral | Dictionnaire Raisonne d'architecture | (c.1856-64) Henri Labrouste | Reading Room | Bibliotheque St. Genevieve | Paris, France | (c.1842-50) Joseph Paxton | Crystal Palace | London, England | (c.1850) Le Corbusier | Domino Frame | Oeuvre Complete | (c.1914-15) Le Corbusier | Villa Savoye | Poissy | (c.1928-31)

Garden City (its origins, and all its distinct parts)

SPATIAL/ECONOMIC PRINCPLES OF THE GARDEN CITY - Physical embodiment of cooperative ideal - People live w/in walking distance of work - Industry placed at outskirts of community - Neighborhood center (ward) ~6,000 people - Mix of public/private commercial spaces - Agricultural 'Green Belt' restricts growth of city - Owned by non-profit company (Philanthropy at 5%) - Money advanced for construction paid back w/interest - Rents sufficient for citizens to buy back the township Ebenezer Howard (1850-1928) -Officially employed as a Stenographer - Participated in 'Radical Movement' in England - Published Garden Cities of To-morrow (c.1898-1902) - Consulted for Letchworth Garden City (c.1903) - Consulted for Welwyn Garden City (c.1920) - Ideas influenced 'New Town' program in England - Ideas influenced 'Greenbelt Cities' in America (ex. Columbia, Maryland) Heinrich Tessenow Delacloze Institute Festspeilhaus Hellerau Garden City (c.1911-12) Sir Raymond Unwin Letchworth Garden City (c.1907) Town, Country, and Town Country

Bauhaus (place and pedagogy)

STRUCTURE OF CURRICULUM Design Fundamentals (from all disciplines) Visual Studies (from all disciplines) Material Studies (by each discipline) Building Design (architecture only) Walter Gropius Program for Bauhaus instruction Dessau (c.1926) Mies van der Rohe 1930-32 Director of Bauhaus in Dessau before closing Weimar, Dessau, then Berlin

Académie Royale d'Architecture, École des Beaux-‐Arts

SUMMARY: ÉCOLE DES BEAUX-ARTS: Slow evolution over 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries Began as Académie Royale d'Architecture Renamed after French Revolution Part of State-run school system (c.1648) Elected board members called Academicians Charged w/developing universal standards of taste in France STEP ONE: SKETCH MAIN IDEA Esquisse : Conceptual Diagram Design based on Roman precedent Precedent selected by analogy btwn ancient/contemp. project Esquisse, Parti, Site

Esquisse

Sketch (Pensiero in Italian)

Standardization vs. Prefabrication vs. Mass Customization

Standardization - making uniform construction forms and units

Atelier

Studio

Tectonics

TECTONIC PRINCIPLES OF STYLE -Made structure, function the basis of invention (not aesthetics) -Isolated the essential character of historical building types -Sought 'organic' integration of structure and ornament PRIMARY THEORISTS on TECTONICS Friedrich Weinbrenner (1766-1826) Heinrich Hübsch (1792-1863) Karl Friedrich Schinkel (1781-1841) Karl Gottlieb Bötticher (1803-1879) Gottfried Semper (1803-1879) "Weinbrenner included most [architecture] in a category of utilitarian buildings... these buildings were not civic or monumental. The character of these structures must be the product of their purpose... Weinbrenner argued that the system of construction determined the physiognomy of buildings."- Michael J. Lewis. 'The Birth of a German Academic Tradition,' in Friedrich Weinbrenner: Architect of Karlsruhe (University of Pennsylvania Press, 1986), 37 The construction of a building is to an architect what the skeletal and muscular system is to a painter or sculptor. These are only the inner parts of the whole, but through form and contour they give the exterior its essential character. - Friedrich Weinbrenner. Architektonisches Lehrbuch Friedrich Weinbrenner Porticoed Garden House (c.1811-12)

Sweet's Catalog

THREE PHASES OF DEVELOPMENT Solving the 'catalog problem' (1906-1912) - Standardized format of advertising in the building industry - Intent on communicating information over branding Progressive Era management of building industry (1912-1935) - Sought to protect public from 'false advertising' - Saw the catalogue as an intangible public good Updated look of Sweet's Catalog (1935-1947) - Used European typography and layout to brand the Catalog - Used systems theory to rationalize display of information TIMELINE FOR SWEET'S CATALOG(UE) 1868 C. W. Sweet est. Real Estate Record & Bldg Guide 1891 C. W. Sweet est. Architectural Record 1893 F. W. Dodge begins publishing Dodge Reports 1906 First issue, Sweet's Catalogue under C. W. Sweet 1912 Sweet's Catalogue sold to F. W. Dodge, Dodge Co. est. Division of Building Statistics (i.e. Consumer Reports for Builders) 1935 Sweet's Catalog redesigned along modernist principles "[Sweet's] arose in 1906 in response to what architects called the 'catalogue problem'... Sweet's systematized the chaotic lines of communication, between architects, builders, engineers, and manufacturers, regularizing the typography and the size of trade catalogues, and binding them in one large reference book with an index." - Andrew M. Shanken. "From the Gospel of Efficiency to Modernism: a history of Sweet's Catalogue, 1906-1947," Design Issues, vol.21, no.2 (Spring 2005), p.28 Fireproofing

Le Corbusier

THREE PHASES OF LE CORBUSIER'S CAREER Swiss Beginnings: Jura Regionalism (1887-1917) Move to Paris: International Style (1917-1933) International Fame: Organicism (1935-1965) "La Chaux-de-Fonds lived by its watch-making industry, and both Le Corbusier's father and grandfather worked there as enamellers of watch faces... The art school in La Chaux-de-Fonds formed the background to Charles Eduard Jeanneret's education for sixteen years." -Stanislaus von Moos. "Public Buildings," Le Corbusier: Elements of a Synthesis (2009: 14) DEVELOPING THE JURA REGIONAL STYLE "L'Eplattenier aimed at developing a decorative style that would be characteristic of the Jura region... he and his students went out into the woods to study the fauna and the flora of the Jura region in search of the roots that would serve the genesis of a new style." ... "He did not neglect the bazaars and the folklore, and he admired the vernacular architecture of Istanbul: 'The wooden Turkish house, the konak, is an architectural masterpiece.' he wrote." - Stanislaus von Moos. "Public Buildings," Le Corbusier: Elements of a Synthesis (2009: 33) Corbs' Theory: L'Esprit Nouveau (New Spirit) Purism Objet-type (Object-type) Regulating Lines Five Points of Architecture LE CORBUSIER'S THEORY OF THE OBJET-TYPE Geometric abstraction of forms Forms reduced to Platonic geometries General Laws of this process est. 'type forms' Process analogous to 'natural selection' Each 'type form' can be mass-produced Become emblems of everyday life LE CORBUSIER'S FIVE POINTS OF ARCHITECTURE Pilotis supports Roof garden Free ground-plan Horizontal window Free façade Le Corbusier Villa Stein at Garches (c.1927-28) Le Corbusier, Pierre Jeanneret L'Esprit Nouveau Pavilion Paris, France (c.1925) Le Corbusier Villa Savoye Near Poissy, France (c.1929-31) VILLA SAVOYE Refined Dom-ino frame No more 'tectonic' frame Presented a unified image of Science and Art Sought to 'make visible the unity of the age' Le Corbusier Modulor 'Corbusian man' (c.1943) MODULOR Anthropomorphic unit of measure Extends Vitruvian tradition (Classicism) Based on resolution of 'feet' and 'centimeters' Le Corbusier Monument to the Open Hand Chandigarh, India (c.1952-56) Le Corbusier Ville Contemporaine / Plan Voisin Unbuilt Paris, France (1922) Le Corbusier Unite d'Habitation Marseille, France (c.1946-52) Le Corbusier Domino Frame Oeuvre Complete (c.1914-15) Le Corbusier Project for Algiers City Center (c.1933) Le Corbusier applied his functional approach to zoning to the different areas of French colonies: Les Hauts - The Mountains La Casbah - The Casbah Le Bastion 15 - The Port (#15) Le Corbusier Maison Domino unbuilt (c.1914) "Very primitive man used a module and regulating lines to make his task easier. The Greeks, the Egyptians, Michelangelo, and Blondel used regulating lines for correctness in their buildings and the satisfaction of their artistic sense and their mathematical thought... A regulating line is a guarantee against arbitrariness... it is a satisfaction of a spiritual order... it is one of the crucial operations of architecture." Le Corbusier. "Regulating Lines," Towards a New Architecture (2006: 136-137) [Originally published in 1924]

Levittown vs. Pruitt-‐Igoe

TIMELINE FOR LEVITTOWN PROJECTS 1944 Servicemen's Readjustment Act (G.I. Bill) 1946 Veterans Emergency Housing Program 1947 Levittown, New York (renter-to-buyer) 1952 Levittown, Pennsylvania (first time buyer) 1955 Levittown, New Jersey (Middle-class buyer) 1965 Levittown, Puerto Rico ALFRED LEVITT'S APPROACH TO LEVITTOWN - Inspired by Frank Lloyd Wright - Reapplied Usonian principles to low-cost vernacular housing: - slab on grade construction - balloon frame construction - used standardized 2' module - radiated heating w/in slab - fireplace as anchor of space - Left firm after Long Island project due to disagreements w/brother William over design credit WILLIAM LEVITT'S APPROACH TO LEVITTOWN - Inverted assembly line process - Followed market demand - Disliked planners, architects - Designed neighborhood as 'Residential Parks' (w/school, playground, pool in center) - Retreated from community involvement of Abraham Levitt in 1950s 'Prefabrication' techniques used at Levittown - Pre-cut members - On-site fabrication - On-site factories - Used house types - Built w/2'-0" module SUCCESSES OF LEVITTOWN - Most suburbanites 'pleased with the community that develops' - Gave lower middle-class economic means of social uplift - 'Population homogeneity' (i.e. age, income, religion) actually reduced neighborhood conflict CHALLENGES OF LEVITTOW - 'Population Homogeneity' created unintended isolated communities -Perpetuated racial segregation, which decreased wealth gains of black middle-class - Space needs, amenities of town for children not satisfactory for adolescents & teenagers "Perhaps the most significant fact about the origin of a new community is that it is not new at all, but only a new physical site on which people develop conventional institutions with traditional programs. New towns are ultimately old communities on new land." - Herbert Gans. "Levittown and America," The Levittowners (408-9) ======================== CASE STUDY COMPARISON: DIFFERENCES Pruitt-Igoe Apts. built in U.S. Constructed w/governmental funding Demolished after less than 20 years of use Exclusive use of rental units ======================== FAILURE OF PRUITT-IGOE MORE COMPLEX Minoru Yamasaki had good intentions Designs based on ideal conditions Underestimated complexity of local politics Lacked direct input from users PRUITT-IGOE: BRIEF OVERVIEW -Originally combined mid-rise, high-rise structures -FHA streamlined project to high-rise only -Originally segregated complex: -Wendell O. Pruitt homes (black) -William L. Igoe apartments (white) -Integrated by Supreme Court ruling, became black only residence by 1955 -Construction done w/federal monies Maintenance paid for by rents MINORU YAMASAKI (1912-86) Japanese-American architect Influenced by Modern Architecture Designed World Trade Center Designed Pruitt-Igoe Housing Unfairly used as an example of failure of modern architecture Victim of complex forces of Public-housing policy in U.S.

Saline de Chaux

The Saline Royale (Royal Saltworks) is a historical building at Arc-et-Senans in the department of Doubs, eastern France. Claude-Nicolas Ledoux (1736-1806) Represents Utopian and Social Reform Ideals Admin in the middle Industry around. ARchitect designs a new column type.

Rationalism

The belief that architecture is a science that can be comprehended rationally. This approach extends from designers that use the natural sciences to produce form to those that rely on engineering principles. SOME ASSUMPTIONS OF STRUCTURAL RATIONALISM Structure is a generative element of design Structure reveals spatial order of a bldg. Structure can operate as ornament Structure is the 'bones' of a bldg. "The degree to which architecture can be said to be rational depends less on the presence or absence of 'rational' criteria than on the importance attributed to these criteria within the total process of architectural design and within particular ideologies. The definition of the 'rational' in architecture has not remained constant throughout history... These changes of meaning are dependent on changes in ideology and cannot be considered independently of either economic and social factors or philosophical ideas" - Alan Colquhoun, 'Rationalism: a philosophical concept in architecture,' Modernity and the Classical Tradition (1994: 57-58)

Colonialism

The establishment and expansion of a colony in one territory by a political power from another territory. This generally establishes a set of unequal relationships between the colonial power and the colony and often between the colonists and the indigenous population. "Nicknamed Lyauteyville after the exposition's commissioner general, Marechal Hubert Lyautey, this was the last international world's fair exclusively devoted to the celebration of international colonialism. France hosted the Colonial Exposition.. to demonstrate its colonial puissance and to stimulate the French public's interest in its colonial empire." -Patricia Morton. "National and Colonial: Le Musee des Colonies at the Colonial Exposition, Paris, 1931," The Art Bulletin, Vol. 80, No. 2 (Jun., 1998), pp. 357 "The traditional shotgun... is a symbol of a diasporic mode of living represented by folks moving from enslavement, indentured servitude, rebellion against colonialism, and colonial occupation into freedom. It stands as a global symbol of liberation." - Bell hooks. "House Art: merging public and private," Row: trajectories through the Shotgun House (2004: 24)

Ringstrasse (development and buildings attached to it)

The growth of the Ringstrasse externalizes the fears of social elites (both old and new), which led to a reconsolidation of social hierarchies. These elites used the Ringstrasse (which circled new rail lines around the city) as a buffer between the 'haves' and the 'have nots'. In this way, the literal space of the city visualizes the new elites commitment to liberalism alongside their commitment to older forms of social distinction. "Toward the close of the nineteenth century, when the intellectuals of Austria began to develop doubts about the culture of liberalism in which they had been raised, the Ringstrasse became a symbolic focus of their critique. Like "Victorianism" in England, "Ringstrassenstil" became a quite general term of opprobrium." - Carl Schorske. 'The Ringstrasse, Its Critics, and the Birth of Urban Modernism,' Fin de Siècle Vienna: politics and culture (1979: 25)

Absolutism

The principle or practice of a political system in which unrestricted power is vested in a monarch, dictator, or other central ruler; despotism. (In French architecture, this period is associated with Baroque architecture.) "[One] characteristic of the academic point of view, particularly noticeable in the early days but always persisting in some degree, was the aristocratic approach to art... which was exaggerated by the intensely aristocratic spirit of the age of Louis XIV." - Donald Drew Egbert. "Theory of Design," The Beaux-Arts Tradition in French Architecture (Princeton University Press, 1980), 109 "Only those features of 'classic' composition were selected and developed that... could express that glorification of the French state and the aristocratic principles exemplified by the absolute monarch... In fact, architecture was consciously regarded as one of the most effective ways of expressing such things." - Donald Drew Egbert. "Theory of Design," The Beaux-Arts Tradition in French Architecture (Princeton University Press, 1980), 111 -Hyacinthe Rigaud | Portrait of Louis XIV | (c.1701) -Louis Le Vau, Andre Le Notre, Charles Le Brun Vaux-le-Vicomte (Louis XIV style) | Paris, France | (c.1658-61)

Syncretism

The process by which one synthesizes oppositional material practices in many forms of vernacular art. This approach is a methodology of problem solving that permits the preservation of cultural identity amidst great social pressures. "Anthropologists have given the name syncretism to the process by which a group of people renders the chaos of merging cultures into an intelligible pattern. Basically what happens is the new culture is comprehended by degrees. Those features of the novel pattern that are most similar to the established cultural ethos are understood and accepted first. After a shared groundwork is established, the more confusing [elements] of a new culture can be approached. The syncretic process is essentially a technique for preserving one's identity, a method of intelligent and cogent problem-solving under harsh social pressures." - John Michael Vlach. "The Nature and Pattern of Afro-American Material Culture," By the Work of their Hands: studies of Afro-American Folk Life (1991: 4)

Shotgun house (versus U.S. slave vernacular forms)

The shotgun house really proliferated in the United States between 1880 and 1920. The invention of standardized lumber, and the need for housing contributed to this development. Despite popular histories, the shotgun house began as an urban phenomenon and then spread to rural areas - the exact opposite of Haitian developments. HISTORICAL TERMS FOR SHOTGUN HOUSE -maison basse (French) (Similar to Bohio gabled roof for with mortise & tenon system of joinery) -apuja (African) (Two rooms exit to side) -bohio (Spanish) (Two rooms exit to front with porch with Gable Roof) SHOTGUN HOUSE TYPOLOGY Single Double Camelback Northshore (RE)CONSIDERING THE SHOTGUN HOUSE Shotgun house is often interpreted as an African American typology Design architects reinterpreted shotgun house in typological terms (after Katrina) Day-to-day life in these spaces rarely the source of architectural invention Local labor rarely a source for construction in new interpretations of type forms CULTURAL DISSEMINATION OF SHOTGUN HOUSE -From Africans in Nigeria (Yoruba) -To African slaves in Haiti (w/syncretic integration of Arawak, French influences) -To Haitians, Freed Blacks in New Orleans -To various communities in the U.S. South John Michael Vlach Rural shotgun house Chicot County, Arkansas (c.1973) "The story behind the shotgun [house] involves long migrations, the conduct of the Atlantic slave trade, the rise of free black communities, the development of vernacular (folk) and popular traditions in America, and the expansion and growth of American industrial seeds." - John Michael Vlach. "The Shotgun House: an African Architectural Legacy," Pioneer America, vol.8, no.1 (1976: 47) "Slave cabins in 1805 were square houses about twelve feet on a side. Although they were constructed with wattle-and-daub like rural Haitian buildings, there is no clear connection between these dwellings and the shotguns that may have been built in New Orleans at the time." - John Michael Vlach. "The Shotgun House: an African Architectural Legacy," Common Places: readings in American Vernacular Architecture (1986: 67) "In the development of the shotgun house we find an [African-American] artifact that has been adopted by Whites and effectively incorporated into popular building practices. The significance of this postulated cultural borrowing cannot be overlooked for it represents an important contribution of [African-Americans] to the cultural landscape." - John Michael Vlach. "The Shotgun House: an African Architectural Legacy," Common Places: readings in American Vernacular Architecture (1986: 59) "The shotgun house seemingly developed in New Orleans at the same time that there was a massive infusion of free Blacks from Haiti. This circumstance suggests that the origins of the shotgun are not to be found in the swamps and bayous of Louisiana but on the Island of Haiti." - John Michael Vlach. "The Shotgun House: an African Architectural Legacy," Common Places: readings in American Vernacular Architecture (1986: 67)

Arabisance

The visual hybridization of French and North African material cultures. This visual synthesis occurred despite explicit attempts to keep European and North African contexts separate in the colony. Hybridized Arab + Western style "[Morocco] exemplified what Francois Beguin calls the arabisance of French colonial architecture in North Africa. Beguin characterizes arabisance as "the numerous traces of the arabization of architectural forms imported from Europe" to North Africa." - Patricia Morton. "A Study in Hybridity: Madagascar and Morocco at the 1931 Colonial Exposition," JAE 52:2 (Nov. 1998): p.83

'Mall in Maryland'

UNIQUE HYBRID Commuter suburb (in terms of jobs) 'Garden City' (in terms of amenities) JAMES ROUSE (1914-1996) 'Town Center' Columbia, Maryland (c.1964-75) - Est. Rouse Real-Estate, Mortgage Co. (1939) - Served on Housing Act of 1954 committee - Opened second enclosed 'mall' in U.S. (1958) Rouse Company begins planning of Columbia, Maryland (1963) - Later regretted commercialization of public space done in his name - Est. notion of "Festival Marketplace" (1976) - Awarded Presidential Medal of Freedom (1995)

James Rouse

UNIQUE HYBRID Commuter suburb (in terms of jobs) 'Garden City' (in terms of amenities) JAMES ROUSE (1914-1996) 'Town Center' Columbia, Maryland (c.1964-75) - Est. Rouse Real-Estate, Mortgage Co. (1939) - Served on Housing Act of 1954 committee - Opened second enclosed 'mall' in U.S. (1958) Rouse Company begins planning of Columbia, Maryland (1963) - Later regretted commercialization of public space done in his name - Est. notion of "Festival Marketplace" (1976) - Awarded Presidential Medal of Freedom (1995)

Heimat, Kultur, Volk

Volk (Folk) Heimat (Social Origins) Kultur (Culture)