UNIT 1

POLITICAL TRENDS IN THE LATER MIDDLE AGES

2 common characteristics- growing bureaucracy and an organized army. tension between monarch, citizens, and pope for power

Hinduism & Buddhism in South & SE Asia

(south asian geography) Centrally located for trade ○ Indian Ocean ○ Silk Road via Khyber Pass ● Isolated from China by Himalayas ● Hard to Unify ○ Northern river valleys ○ Deccan Plateau makes it hard to reach/rule the south Large populations in the North, but have a difficult time controlling the South. More Hindus that live in the Southern regions. The Indians lived in villages, prayed and believed in multiple Gods. Hinduism is the default in India, other religions come in. (Buddhism is still very ancient.) HINDU CULTURE- Defined and created social order ● 4 Varnas (Castes) ○ Based on birth and occupation (and what was your father born into). ○ Samsara = Reincarnation ○ Dharma = Duty ○ Karma = Good deeds lead to good effects ● Moksha = Release from Cycle ○ Become one with world soul (brahman) ○ Might take thousands of lives to reach gods- Brahma, Shiva, Vishnu, Atman and Brahman prayers- In a Temple or at a Shrine Hymns Ceremonies, Priestly Rituals festivals- mass celebrations daily life- Varna and Jati define: Work Friends, Marriage BUDDHISM CULTURE- Hinduism became religion of the rich ● Siddhartha = World's most famous "Seeker" ○ Born to a king, sought meaning in life, experimented, became enlightened ○ Path of moderation to reach happiness doctrine- Anyone can become enlightened ○ Rejected Brahmin Priests ○ Rejected Hindu Castes ○ Rejected Hindu Gods * Souls still reincarnate 4 Noble Truths ○ All life involves suffering ○ Desire is cause of suffering ○ Eliminating desire ends suffering ○ Live by the Noble 8-Fold Path to eliminate desire ● Nirvana = Theravada ● Original form ● Spread to Sri Lanka & Thailand = Mahayana ● Revised about 200 years later ● Spread to many parts of Asia: ○ Central Asia ○ China ○ Korea ○ Japan ○ Vietnam ○ Cambodia The Buddhist doctrine is - everything needs to be balanced, they believe in the "Middle Way" of life. He preached the way to enlightenment- the middle way. They don't believe in a creator, not an interest or issue, they have a problem with human suffering and want a solution. Suffering became to be known as the 4 noble truths- 1. there is suffering in the world, mistranslated, it mostly means dissatisfaction. 2. suffering has a cause. 3. you can be free of suffering if you understand the cause of it, the problem is desire. People misunderstand Buddhism, saying you need to wipe out your desires, but he says- you need to be smart about your desires. 4. a series of instructions for his disciples- the noble path. He had his first 5 disciples after speaking, many were wealthy merchants. Hinduism in India's society is a rich tradition that cannot be separated. To be a good Hindue, you had to pay the Brahman to do the rituals- so only rich people can be good Hindus.

How did Southernization impact Europe?

Southernization created prosperous south from China to Muslim Mediterranean. Several crucial elements in the process of southernization are closely linked to latitude. Sugar, cinnamon, pepper are tropic crops, fine spices will grow only on tropical lands. Enjoyed products that these developments brough. Major distribution of power, wealth, prestige. Chrstians conquered southern Spain, but Mali sought its own revenge, creating an empire even larger than Ghana's. Grandest conquerors were Central Asians, Trukish, Delhi. Because Monogls were pagans of their conquests, the western Europeans cheered them as they laid waste to one after another Muslim center of power in the Middle East. Many places that had flourished were toppled, and power gravitated to new locales. Mongol's control of overland routes between Europe and Asia fosters contacts between Europeans and peoples from those areas that had long been southernized. Trade routes in Asia shifted north and converged on the Black Sea. Italy was lined to the Monolian routes. These contacts contributed to southernization of the Christian mediterreanean during Monolian harmony. Herpes held Mediterrean islands became important exports. Math began to have a significant impact in Europe. There were all Chinese inventions- the compass, printing, gunpowder, all three were first acquired by Europeans during the hemispheric reorganization. Increased traffic, communication in trade routes traversing the Euraisn steppe, transmission of bubonic plague. The Monogolain empire began to disintegrate, new regional power began to emerge in its wake. The importance of Islam in Africa was growing at this time, peoples of Southeast Asia were converting to the faith. Islamic was spreading into eastern Europe. The Portuguese success would have been impossible without the Chinese compass, were mixed or multiple, ancestry with traditional Atlantic hull and rigging that combined the traditional Atlantic square sail with the Southern Ocean. Led to Portugal's rounding of Africa, direct participation in Southern Ocean trade. GIven that there was little demand in Southern Ocean ports for European trade goods, they would not have been able to sustain their Asian trade without this African gold. Rise of Euopre's northwest began with appropriation of those elements of southernization that were confined by geography, but did not engage in all aspects of the process due to their distance from the equator. Tools of empire provided by the Industrial Revolution, northern powers for the first were capable of imposing their will and their way on the rest of the world Both ocean crossing and Industrial Revolution unprecedented, their roots are inseparable from the process of southernization. After northwestern Europeans had added their own repertoire of southernization, became divided into powerful, prestigious and rich north, and the south was developed.

Sahel

A semi-desert region from the south of the Sahara desert called Sahel, sufficient rain fell to the south.

According to Morgan, how did the Mongols influence history?

According to Morgan, how did the Mongols influence history? Make a note about each of the following: Warfare Large, strong, impressive army that used many tactics to conquer lands. Any man under the age of 60 was eligible for military service. Children learned how to ride horses at a young age; horses essential to military campaign. Mount dummies on spare horses to have the appearance of a large military. Standard compound bow of the steppes; used on horseback and had a stiffer pull than English bow; impressive range and power of penetration. Genghis Khan also created an imperial guard, which became part of the social classes Trade Trade routes in East asian provided protection to merchants. Let merchants spread their goods to other parts of Eurasia Spread of technology Spred new inventions such as gunpowder, the compass, and paper money According to Morgan, how did the Mongols influence history? Innovation in society All levels/ranks of their society were involved in their warfare, everyone had something different to contribute, including conquered peoples, like chinese that were the infantry, while more often mongols were cavalry because they were more skilled on the horse. There were no regular civilians and in this way their society was much more productive in using warfare in everyday life things such as hunting and herding. They were very efficient with their large numbers of people where everyone was capable of helping. The Mongols invented new ways of warfare like a new type of bow and arrow (made of layers of horn and sinew on a wooden frame) and decimal/unit military system, which both made them more successful and battle and helped the Mongols rise to power on the world stage. Development of cultures/civilizations The Mongols conquered many places and then adopted some of them into their ranks, using their talents and cultural advantages to help them conquer more and continue the cycle. The Mongols had a policy that if a city surrendered without fighting, that city would be spared. This meant that more cities were peacefully conquered, allowing them to further develop under the rule of the Mongols What is Morgan's argument about the Mongols? What is Morgan's argument about the Mongols? Morgan argues that historians tend to exaggerate the methods and measures of the mongols, thus affecting the different influences they had on history and the perception placed upon them. How does Morgan justify his argument? What evidence does he rely on to build his argument? Conquests/ Military Soldiers were strong horseback riders Units of army organization: 10, 100, etc. Chroniclers writing from outside Mongol Empire; ex. Juzjani Military administration Succession of Mongol Great Khanate Scouted soldiers at a young age due to having the ability to ride horseback Imperial guard (keshig)organization Treatment of soldiers; ex. Qubchur (paid contributions in kind for Mongol soldiers), maintenance of poor/disabled troopers Use of non-Mongols was a disagreeable tactical device; ex. Mongolian's ruthless assault troops in war Encirclement, surprise, efficient synchronization, ancient steppe device, terror Chingiz's principle is similar to President Truman's` Ruthless massacres and kidnappings, as well as gaining slave labor from conquests Organized ranks within military Decimal system and strict discipline Well trained military High quality weapons that were strong for their time If population of one city was justified to a massacre then the next city would be more likely to surrender avoiding Mongol casualties Sustainment of military supremacy Financial gain from military power

SONG DYNASTY

Economic- COPPER COINS TO PAPER NOTES - The change in currency was an economic change--the way people exchange goods and money transitioned into a new and more efficient method. - This change led to more efficient and widespread trade Change - Switched paper currency due to weight of coins- Trade and coin production increased since Tang times - Merchants started using/popularized paper currency OVERALL- Currency was minted by government. Continued to use money in trade. Maintained an exchange of goods. Utilized receipts at deposit shops IRON AND STEEL - In the year 1078 CE, Iron production reached around 125,000 tons every year. The army was one of the larger consumers of iron and steel; they used steel tips for arrows. During this time, heavy industry increased sixfold (six times as much as it previously was). Steel and Iron were used for lots of different reasons like tools, bridges, statues, and more. Items that were made from high-temperature metallurgy were high quality. The steel and Iron industry eventually lead to deforestation.Environment, when they used charcoal was used for metalworking, there was an increase in deforestation. Later, it was replaced by coal. Technology and Innovation, with the production of iron they were able to create supplies that were needed in the dynasty. GUNPOWER - Originally used in siege warfare The Wujing zongyao, a military manual in 1044 CE, is the record of the first true gunpowder formula Both Chinese and Mongol forces used it Technology: new invention that bettered warfare for years after & we still use it to this day Song continually improved their weapons using gunpowder, which was one of the main reasons they were able to fight off Mongol forces for so long. Bombs: Gunpowder was lit aflame and shot by arrows during battle PRINTING- A manner in which Chinese craftsmen carved words, pictures unto wooden blocks with different methods; inking them and compressing papers on the blocks which contained drawings and texts. Change Spread literacy- made it more accessible Eventually made its way to Europe where it changed how ideas were spread Continuity Moveable type from clay was adapted into moveable type made out of cast metal. Themes Culture- inexpensive books helped develop forms of drama, as well as other types of literature. Economics- Made printing books a lot cheaper, thus increasing accessibility to literature Social - enabled communication within the dynasty, revolutionized ideas in Europe. Technology - The wooden block technology evolved into moveable type. This lead to communication ideas. Scholar Officials of the Song Continuity- most scholars came from prestigious landholding class. Change- class certified through civil service exams. Continuity- most were illiterate, so scholars stood out. Continuity- Confucian education. Change- more qualified scholars by exams. Continuity- speaking up when others thought they were pursuing the wrong course. Culture- most were illiterate. Culture- Confucian education and aspirations for government service. Social - only certain groups could learn more advanced information, however education was placed as a primary necessity. Social - scholar officials held more power within the land. State Building- Scholar system where scholars that had a successful education agenda determined many future political outcomes Technology- development of civil service exams Economic- Having scholars (most landholding class) to handle politic. Social- scholar-officials stood out by reading and writing skills EXAMINATION SYSTEM - Continuity: The examination system represents continuity as examination systems date back to the Sui Dynasty. Change: It represents change as it became the clearest rise to power. Change: More scholars were instituted in the government to counter the military officials. Change: There was a large increase of people taking the exams State building: More scholars were present in the government. Culture/Social: People studied more and took the tests multiple times; more intelligent, educated people rose quickly; Confucianism became the only streamline of power The Examination System was a series of tests based around Confucianism. The people who passed were then able to become government officials. Buddhist Challenge & Confucian Revival - Culture Confucianism was more about being a good role model and showing respect to elders, which would in turn help the state/society Buddhism was about individual growth (still self-cultivation → self-fulfillment). They both presented their own accounts of the natural & human world - Social Older families/generations were higher in status in society, especially with the revival of Confucianism. State Building Confucianism was central to the civil service, scholar official class, and political discussions Change The Song Dynasty had Confucianism and Buddhism. The rise of Neo-Confucianism (included their own account of the natural world) in response to the Buddhist challenge Neo-Confucianism focused on self-improvement for self-fulfillment and for creating a more peaceful and harmonious society Continuity Revival of Confucianism through the acceptance of confucian teachings, the family system (filial piety), and political discourse Neo-Confucianism still emphasized the importance of family and how family was the most basic unit of society- preached putting the interests of family before personal interests NORTHERN RIVALS - The Song dynasty represented change because after nearly 4 centuries of trying to stop northerners from invading, the Mongols fully defeated them and controlled all of China. The Song dynasty tried to make peace with non-Chinese states, but were slowly pushed out of their territory. These inner Asian states gained more Chinese-owned territory, occupying land that is now Beijing and eventually North China. The states (Mongol, Khitan, & Jurchen) ruled in a way that borrowed Chinese tradition but suppressed the Chinese people and their culture. This was a change in the way China was ruled, since it was slowly invaded after 4 centuries. China has been invaded several times in history. - Culture- After the Mongols pushed the Song out, the Khian, Jurchen, and Mongols ruled over the Chinese using Chinese Traditions Social-The Song brought peace by making anual silk and money payments to the Khitan - Economic-The song prefered raising animals over farming due to the non-fertile land State building- China was not militarily dominant. The Song Dynasty was defeated and the Mongols took control of China

Griots-

In Africa, storytellers or griots recited the events of the past to the monarchs they advised

Where/ did cotton come from/ how did it impact maritime exploration?

Indian beginning- cotton was in the Indus River valley, by then Indians had begun to develop dyeing techniques. These merchants lived in Mesopotamia, where they sold cotton textiles.

EUROPE NOTES-

Roman Empire declined in political influence/ economic strength.Western Europe entered the Middle Ages- sometimes called the medieval period. Trade declined, no progress, the united Roman state was replaced by tribal kingdoms, and fought one another for territory. Invading armies/ common criminals, European kings, lords, peasants worked agreements to provide defense. 1000- 1450, High Middle Ages. European learning/ trade flourished. (Look at notes on the first pages). Feudalism; Political/ Social Systems- in the middle ages, european rule was characterized by political orgs from a system of land for loyalty- feudalism! The core was a system of mutual obligations; A monarch (usually a king)- granted tracts of lands (fiefs) to lords, in return the lord became a king's vassal0 owing service to a higher status person who granted the land. Lords- provided lands to knights, who became vassals of the lord and pledged to fight for the lord/king. Also provided land/ protection to peasants, required to farm the lord's land/ pay rent with stuff (crops, animals, etc). Oaths of loyalty, the system cut down on losses to robbers/ bandits- provided security for peasants, equipment for fighters (knights), gave land in return for service of the lord. Entire system was based on agr, wealth, measures in land than cash. Feudal system had a code of chivalry, an unwritten set of rules for conduct focusing on honor, courtesy, bravery. Code put women on pedestal while not investing them with additional importance- women had no rights. Reform; although clergy took vows of poverty/ supported charities in their communities, they had considerable political influence, some monasteries became quite wealthy. Wealth/ politics led to corruption- drove reformers to take stands that would hsatter the unity of the Roman Catholic Church. Crusades- Europeans fought to drive Muslims out of Europe, sought to reclaim control of Jersuliame, the Holy Land, contained spiritual sites to the Jews, Christians, and Muslims. Social/ economic trends added to the pressure among Europeans to invade the Middle East. rules of primogeniture- under which the oldest son inherited the entire estate, left the younger generation with little access to wealth/ land. The landed nobles saw a military campaign as a manipulation. Merchants desired unfettered access to trade routes through the Middle East. The combination of these religious/social/economic pressures resulted of European military campaigns in the Middle East. (Rest on Question 3). The first Crusade, out of the 4, was the only clear victory. European army Conquered Jersusalem, muslim forces under Saladin regained control of Jersulaem later on. During the 4th and last one, Venice- a wealthy city= state in northern Italy had a contract to transport Crusaders to the Middle eEast, to Levant. However, Venice was not paid all of what was due, so the Venetians persuaded the Crusader debtors to first to sack Zara, italian city, then Contantinople, a major competitor to Venice. The 4th Crusade never made it to the Holy lands, Islamic forces prevailed in the Levant. Urban Growth= change to the 3 field system advanced in agriculture led to population growth, late Middle Ages. encouraged growth of towns/markets that could operate more than just on holidays. Need for more labor in the manors, after waves of plague decimated Europe, gave serfs more bargaining power with lords. Urban growth was hampered after about 1300, a cooling of the climate that spanned 5 centuries- Little Ice Age. Lower temperature reduced agricultural productivity, people had less to trade, cities grew more slowly. It led to an increase in disease/ unemployment. Created social unrest. Crime rate increased, Jews and other groups already faced with discrimination were the victims of ebing blamed for something ober which they had no ctronol on. Jews- Roman Church had a policy, Christians couldn't change interest on loans to other Christians. Jews were not bound by this restriction. Few economic opportunities, many northern EUropean Jews became moneylenders. Resulting increase in the flow of money contributed to the economic growth of EUrope. Anti-Jewish sentiment called n=antisemtism, widespread among Chrstians. Though Jews as outsiders and untrustworthy, Jews were expelled from England, France, SPain, Portugal, independent kingdoms/ cities in northern and central europe. Jews expelled from western/central europe often moved to eeastern Europe. Jews increased numbers greatly because of the explosions. Muslims- had discrimination in Europe. Expelled the remaining Mulsis in the kingdom who would not convert to Christainity. Moved to southeastern Euopre. MUslim Ottoman Empire expanded its reach from Turkey into Balkan coutnries, delveoped large muslim populations. While Europe was predominantly Christian, both Jews and Muslims helped shape society. Jews lived in urban areas and they served as a bridge between Christaisn and the Muslims whose goods they desired in trade. Contracts with traders in Mulim caliphates opened up a world of trade and a world of ideas for Eirpeans who had long been self-sufficient/isolated under feudalism. Gender roles- women found their rights ending as a wave of patriarchal thinking/ writing accompanied the movement from an agricultural society to a more urban one. Few women than men review an education, women often manage manor accounts. Women Had greater opportunities to display their skills in administration and leadership in religious order. Some became artisans and members of guilds- association of craftspeople and merchants, women in Islamic societies tended to enjoy higher levels of equality, in parts of Africa and Southwest Asia. Renaissance- expansion of trade, growth of an agricultural surplus, rise of the middle class able to patronize artists sparked great creativity in Europe. A period characterized by a revival of interest in classical Greek and Roman literature, art, culture, civic virtue. Scholars recovered and studied deakin manuscripts that had been written centuries earlier. One characteristic was the interest in humanism; focus on individuals rather thanGod. Humanists sought education/ reform. Began to write secular literature, cultural changes; increase use of vernacular language, propelled the rise of powerful monarchs, centralized governments, birth of nationalism. Southern Renaissance- Italy and Spain, church patronage supported the Renaissance, used a religious framework which featured hell. Purgatory, heaven. Northern Renaissance- spirit spread to northern europe. Renaissance artists emphasized piety in their word, others used human concerns.

How can Southernization explain 15th century European exploration?

Westernization couldn't have happened with Asia, their advancements allowed Europe to have their great power. Asian and African civilizations were the most sophisticated.

How did commerce facilitate the development of powerful kingdoms in sub-Saharan West Africa?

(Great Kingdom of Mali)Centered on the Niger River basin, it occupied much of West Africa south of the Sahara Desert. Straddled the Sahel and the vast savanna grasslands to the south. Because the territory included the world's biggest mines, merchants crossed Saharato this region. Urbanization began in the West African Sahel with development of the trans-Saharan trade. Ghana, first kingdom to take advantage of its location with trade, and kingdom of Mali built on these earlier achievements intaxin trans-Saharan trade as a pathway to power. Ibn Battuta describes Mali's trade with the north in the 1350; caravans brought enslaved/ gold from the south and exchanged them for cloth, pottery, glass trinkets from the north. Men often dominated the tasks with greater prestige, hunting, long distance travel, military conquest, trade. Women tilled the soil, gathered fruits and vegetables, amde pottery, prepared meals. (Jenne-Jeno) As Al-Bakri suggested, trade was crucial to the region- exchanged were local, residents trading fish, rick, iron. Over time, the city imported important goods such as copper and salt from the Sahara. Reached its greatest extent around 1000 and prospered for several hundred years.

What was Central Asian society like?

(State Building) = Animals central to society Road horses Raised cattle, camels, sheep, goats for transportation, milk and meat Used bone for tools and weapons. Used hides and wool for clothing and tents (yurts). = Clan based culture Organized by families or clans Temporary alliances were frequently made and broken - FICTIVE KINSHIP ----------------- (Culture) = Military culture All men were warriors Horses made armies mobile Bow and Arrow (#1), Crossbows, swords, martial arts made formidable warriors. = More equality than "civilized" places Men often sought advice from their wives Relative social freedom Traditional roles, like cooking and raising children Men practice polygamy (more than one wife) ---------------- (Religion) Monoglian Religion = Shamanism- Spiritual leaders called "Shamans" = Animism- recognized spirits in natural things = Polytheism Believed in many spirits. One creator god and other lesser gods Sky god Tengri Wolves were sacred animals Pastoral society - "is a social group of pastoralists, whose way of life is based on pastoralism, and is typically nomadic. Daily life is centered upon the tending of herds or flocks"

ISLAM IN INDIA

- Islam spread to India from invading groups from Turkish Central Asia. - Disillusioned Buddhists along with low cast Hindus saw religious equality of Islam as wecloming. - Island clashed with Hinduism- Monotheism of Islam was very different from the manly Gods in Hinduism. - Northern part of India is predominately Islam.

CHINA- the Yuan Dynasty

- ruled from 1209 to 1368 CE - conquered the southern Song dynasty - though accompanied by violence in the north, a less violent campaign was successful in southern China - Overall Mongols adapted state building; mandate of Heaven and dynasties title, capital city in Bejing- Khanbaliq, not use the examination system, brought Persian administrators to the capital, Kubali Khan relied on his wife for advice, - Mongols kepts many of their practices- forbade intermarriage, Mongolian women did not bind their feet, patronized scholars and artists - Mongols continued to practice their religion, some Mongols also practiced Confucian rituals, helped build daoists temples, and were drawn to Tibetan Buddhism

MIDDLE EAST- The Iilkhanate of Persia

1219- 1330s Mongol rule in Persia was vastly different than in China - conquering of Baghdad brought and end to the Abbasid Empire - conquest was excpetionally violent and long - initally, mongols destroyed farmlands - persian administration practices - women were still included in the decisions of the court - Ghazan sought to rebuild from the damage - irrigation systems and farmlands restored, - 1295, Ghazan converted to Islam, many mongols followed his lead mongol elites learned persian - after the fall of mongol empire, mongols turned to farming, most mongol and turks allies assimiliated into Persian culture

RUSSIA - The Golden Horde

1237 to 1400 - conquered the principal states of Kievran states - much different rule than in China and Persia- mongols ruled from afar - violent campaign subjugated princes into paying significant tribute to avoid further conflict - some princes gained wealth and power by expoilted taxation/ tribute syste, - cooperating cities like Moscow gained prominence, while resisting cities like Kiev were destroyed - russian artsmen and craftsmen moved to other people in the empire unwillingly- some enslaved - orthodox christian church flourished, extempt from paying taxes- ex. religious tolerance - ruled from distance throughout with puppet government - not see much value in direct ruling - mongols chose princes to rule and valued loyalty

Popularity of Buddhism and Hinduism in South, East, and Southeast Asia

4 noble truths- All life involves suffering (dissatisfaction). We are the cause of dissatisfaction - Desire is the cause of suffering. We are trained to want things, happiness doesn't come from things. Curb that desire brings an end to suffering Leading a disciplined life following the noble - 8 fold path eliminates desire Noble 8 fold Path (look at diagram on google) Promotes a life of; - moderation - Quiet Contemplation - Self Control Sartada allows us to; To reach Nirvana; escape from reincarnation, perfect spiritual independence The Basic Doctrine of Dharma Hindu society is very patriarchal, so men have more rights than women. In early Hinduism, women was seen as so much more different than men, their soul couldn't move up to reincarnation, they were stuck only to who they married to. Modern day Hinduism rejects that idea. However, women did like the religion Why Was Buddhism Popular Buddhism Rejected - Brahmin- idea of only rich can be good Hindu's. - Castes- rejected the cast system - The use of Sanskrit- They would speak in language the priest could only speak, Sanskrit Vedic (Hindu) Gods Sects of Buddhism The earliest form of Buddhism had NO Gods. Buddhism was a philosophy. It was called; Theravada "The Lesser Vehicle". Earlier and stricter form, still took thousands of years to reach Nirvana, very long journey. 100 years after, 2nd form of Buddhism- Mahayana "The Greater Vehicle"- 3 changes; Buddha worshipped as a God, Bodhisattvas (people were the best worshippers, their soul has had enlightenment, they have reached Nirvana but decided to come back, helpers/teachers for everyone else), Monasteries granted salvation for donations, it moved you closer to enlightenment. Buddhism represents less than 1% of Indian population. Because of both merchants and monks, Buddhism was spread. The Mahayana was the most popular in Asia (located mostly in East Asia). A rich family loved Buddhism and payed money to have people carve Buddhist sculpture in order to receive enlightenment.

How did Southernization impact the Islamic World?

7 century, Arab cavalries recently converted to Islam, conquered eastern/ southern Mediterranean shores. Once established Indian frontier, they became acquainted with elements of southernization. Arabs were responsible for the spread of many important crops, improved in India, Middle East, North AFrica, Islamic Spain. Most important were sugar, cotton, citrus fruits. Arabs were first to import large numbers of enslaved AFricans in order to produce sugar. Arans imported East AFrican slaves, remaining in the area where they worked as agricultural laborers. Mulsim owners rarely used slaves for purposes that would require their concentration in large numbers. Arabs were responsible for moving sugarcane cultivation and sugar manufacturing westward. Growers had to adapt the plant to new conditions, develop more efficient irrigation technologies. Cotton and Sugarcane were important crops in the lands, spread everywhere. Intro to Indian crops (sugar, cotton) led to intensive agriculture in the Middle East. Before the arrival of crops, farmers planted in fall to take advantage of autumn rains and harvested in the spring. New southern crops preferred at the heart of the summer, also began to use a system of multiple cropping, and came from india. Led to an increased interest in soil fertility, manuals that advised farmers, and productivity. Indian math follows the same routes as the crops. Al-Kharazmi introduced mathematics to the Arabic reading world. Arab conquests led to increase in long distance commerce and discovery of new sources of bullion. They soon acquired the compass and may have been the first to use it for marine navigation. After their conquest of Central Asia, Arabs discovered a silver mine, coined so much silver, relative to gold. They soon realized that gold came across the Sahara. Arabs improved an existing long distance route across the Sahara, routes across this desert existed. The Arab discovery of West African gold doubled the amount of gold in international circulation

How is the Indian Ocean related?

Allowed sailors of various nationalities to knit together on the shores of "Southern Ocean- chinese terms to all waters from South China Sea to the east.

How/why did Buddhism decline in India

Although Buddhism and Jainism lost their following, smaller communities still practice their faith. However, Hindu and Islamic tradition increasingly dominated the cultural/religious life of India. Both religions differed, but attracted large popular following throughout the subcontinent, Hinduism mostly in southern India. Islam in the North. (Rest of answer in Development of Hinduism section).

Oral Histories-

Arab geographers began to record some preliminary notes, often on the basis of hearsay, about sub-saharan Africa, and Arabic sources dominate the historical record, particularly for North and East Africa. Lack of records means historians must rely on oral histories.

Ibn Khaldun-

Arab historia,formulated an entirely original definition of history as the study of human society and its transformations- makes it possible to date Sundiata's reign to around 1230.

Bantu

Arabic is spoken throughout the Islamic regions, while the Bantu languages are widely distributed throughout sub-Saharan Africa.

What are the advantages of slash and burn agriculture?

Archaeological evidence shows between 100- and 500 BCE, different people began to cultivate crops. Those in drier regions grew sorghum, millet, rice- those in the rainforest raised tubers, yams. Like the Maya, many of them engaged in slash- and- burn agriculture, farmed in the same place for only one or two seasons. Other parts of the world took hundreds of years before people shifted to full time agriculture.

ISLAM IN ANATOLIA

At first, when the Turks invaded Anatolia, there were mostly Christians and Greek- speaking people, which led to the conversion of the Turks to be very harsh and aggressive. The Turks would enslave, kill/ starve people, church properties were confiscated, monasteries were destroyed, and much more. Due to the smaller population (8 million), it was easier for the Turks to invade and change everything rather than India with a population of 48 million. Then the Turkish ruler of Anatolia rebuilt a new society that welcomed converts and granted them material rewards and opportunity in high office. They used Turkish language, not Arabic. Used some sufi religious practices, ecstatic turning dances, viewed women with more gender equal. An Arab Moroccan visitor named Ibn Battuta was not pleased with the social freedoms granted to women. We can assume that led to lots of controversy.

China and the Northern Nomads How did the tribute system in practice differ from the ideal Chinese understanding of its operation?

Bestowing gifts played a huge role in the tribute system since it allowed the Chinese to feel more in control even though they were paying heavily for protection from nomadic incursion. Those gifts in turn provided vital economic resources to nomadic states. The Chinese were not always able to dictate the terms of their relationships with nomadic peoples.

Feudal West Europe Note Page

CENTER OF WESTERN CITY - high point; Greece, Rome - low point; Feudal West Europe, trade declined, intellectual life receded, political unity was lost. FEUDAL SYSTEM IN EUROPE - A decentralized system of land for loyalty - Agriculture on manors and 3 field system; windmills & plows - Social code of Chivalry defined court life - Roman Catholic Church was center of society and art

MANSA MUSA

CULTURAL Mansa Musa brought muslim scholars and reportedly encouraged the arts and architecture, funded literature, built schools, libraries and mosques. He is credited to starting the tradition of education in West Africa. He decided to go on a pilgrimage to Mecca which spread out the word of his unknown kingdom. Returned from Mecca with scholars. ECONOMIC He crashed the economy in Egypt by handing out gold which caused it to plummet making their money disvalued. He gave gold, helped people, but his gold also harmed their economy as well. When he died, his descendants couldn't handle the gold nor the kingdom, so the empire crumbled. STATE BUILDING He annexed 24 cities, including TImbutktu- the kingdom stretched to about 2,000 miles long! Built schools, libraries, mosques ENVIROMENT- He brought people to Mecca with him, 60,000 men He benefited the environment where he donated money to build resources Due to a big mass of territory, they recruited lots of resources- gold and salt.

How/why was trade both good and bad for cities that rose and depended on it?

Center of trade- any city that controlled that strait could stop the ships from going through it, more likely tax them. That happened Srivijaya that rose up in Sumatra. DOminated trade in the region because there were so many ships that were going through the Strait to China. This trade abruptly declined in the 15the century, as did Srivijaya. Indian ocean trade was indispensable to the creation of certain city states. Without trade, those places wouldn't have existed, no become wealthy. Was a huge source of wealth for these cities because they could tax it, and export duties or pretty weak foundation, to build a polity, due to high taxes can motivate traders to find other routes. The main is this reliance upon trade makes you vulnerable to the peaks and trough in global economy. One of the great lessons which have declined is that the town nearby is eager to take your place.

China & Chinese Nomads Notes-

China's many interactions with a larger Euarsian world shaped their development & world history; Interaction with foreigners was with the North- nomadic pastoral also known as semi agricultural people of the steppes. Nomads spent their economy on raising livestock (sheep, cattle, goats) and mastery of horse- riding. Created tribes, larger/powerful states/confederations impressive horsemanship & military skills with male population of their societies. These specialized pastoral societies needed grain, agricultural products, wine, silk so they can attract/reward followers. Pastoral Nomads controlled Silk Road trading network funneled goods from West into China. = TRIBUTE SYSTEM- China thought of themselves as "Middle Kingdom" center of the World, more superior than people beyond its borders "barbarians". China represented "civilization- bureaucratic state, prosperous economy, etc." Sharp contrast with the rude cultures/ primitive life of nomads (moved like "beasts and birds", lived in tents, and made war with everybody). Chinese saw their society - self sufficient, required little from outside world, while Barbarians sought access to China's wealth/ system. Chinese society was a radiating civilization. Tribute system - set of practices that required non Chinese authorities to acknowledge Chinese superiority and their own lower ranking place in a Chinese- centered world order. Foreigners wanting to enter China had to perform KOWTOW to the court - ritual bowings, prostrations, present their tribute, produce of value from their countries to the Chinese emperor. As a return, he would allow trade in their rich markets, provide gifts/bestowals. A tactic to try to regulate their relationship with Northern nomads & neighboring states (Korea, Vietnam, Tibet, Japan). Tribute System in Practice - Without advertising it, China would confront large/ powerful nomadic empires able to deal with China on at least equal terms. An early nomadic confederacy(alliance) was with Xiongnu- established around same time as Han Dynasty, eventually reaching from Manchuria to Central Asia. Xio raids into northern China, persuaded the emperor to negotiate the arrangement that recognized the nomad state as a political equal, promised a princess in marriage, agree to supply him annually with grain, wine, silk (mostly protection money). In return, Xio agreed to refrain military incursion in China. Something similar occurred in Tang dynasty- series of Turkic empires arose in Mongolia. They wants large gifts from the Chinese. Uighur rescued Tang dynasty from internal revolt in 750s. In return, the Uighur leader gained one of the CHinese emperor's daughters as a wife & exchange of high quality silk 500k rolls. Steppe nomads weren't interested in conquering/ruling China, it's just easier/profitable to extort goods from Chinese state. Sometimes, the state broke down and nomads ended up conquering parts of China - took place following the fall of Han and Tang dynasty. Jin/Jurchen & Khitan people established states that encompassed parts of northern China & major areas of steppes to the north. Both required Song dynasty (South) delivery annually huge quantities of silk, silver, tea (in silk road trading network). Cultural Influence across an Ecological Frontier (Question #4). Pastoral societies north of the Great Wall retained within their own cultural patterns. Some were incorporated (not for long) with a Chinese state, mostly lived where Chinese style agricultural was impossible. Incentives with these conditions allowed interaction- peaceful trade, military conflict, political negotiations, economic extortion, some cultural influence. Divided 2 distinct ways of life- each was necessary for the other. For Tang dynasty, almost anything associated with western barbarians (central asians, persians, indias, arabs) has great appeal among northern Chinese elites- their culture and lifestyle. The traditional southern Chinese of the Han dynasty were critical of their northern counterparts for allowing women too much freedom, for listening to "western" music, all of which they attributed to barbarian influence. Coping with China: Comparing Korea, Vietnam, Japan Korea, Vietnam, Japan were involved in tributary relationships with China. These societies were only agricultural and sedentary (unlike nomads). They were apart of the globalization of civilization which produced new city, state based societies in the world. China shaped the histories of the new East Asain civilizations, since they incorporated a lot of Chinese culture. The people from Korea, Vietnam, Japan did not become Chinese. They retained distinctive identities. Also appreciated Chinese culture and sought the source of Chinese wealth/power while resisting Chinese political domination. Resembled the developing of Afro-Asian societies of 20 century which embraces "modernity" and elements of Western culture, while trying to maintain political/cultural independence from European/American centers. Korea & China - Adjacent to northeastern China, the Korean peninsula have lived in the shadow of China. Temporary conquest of Korea during Han dynasty/some colonization by Chinese settlers- provided cultural influence- Buddhism. Early korean states referred to their leaders as Wang (king). Strenuously resisted Chinese political control, until they saw it was advantageous to join w CHina against local enemy. Silla Kingdom allied with Tang dynasty China to bring political unity to the peninsula- but provoked sharp military resistance, persuading China to provoke military forces & to establish a tributary relationship with independent Korea. Under succession of dynasties- Silla, Koryo, Yi dynasties, Korea maintained its political independence in China's tribute system. Tribute missions to China provided legitimacy for Korean rulers and knowledge of Chinese court life/ administrative techniques- enabled official and private trade (luxurious- ceremonial clothing, silks, etc.) New capital city- Kumson modeled Chinese capital Chang'an. Thousands of Korean students were sent to China to study Confucianism, natural sciences, arts. Buddhist monks bought back back popular form of Chinese Buddhism- took root in Korea. Schools for study of Confucianism, using texts in Chinese language were established in Korea- became apart of the expanding world of Chinese culture, refugees from the peninsulas many wars carried Chinese culture to Japan too. Overwhelming Negative- efforts to plant Confucian values and Chinese culture in Korea- huge impact on Korean women. Early chinese observers strongly disapproved of "free choice" marriages in Korea, practice of women singing/dancing late at night too. Chinese models of life took over Korean flexible patterns. Confucian wanted a married women to belong to her husband's family. Some korean customs eroded under the pressure of Confucian orthodoxy. So did the practice of plural marriages for men. 1413 a legal distinction between primary and secondary wives required men to identify one of their wives as primary- her and her children more privileges/status which led to tension among families. The country's political independence was largely intact although it was threatened. Although for Buddhism, Chinese culture had little impact beyond the aristocracy and did not penetrate the lives of Korea's peasants, slaves- amounting to ⅓ of country's population. A Chinese style examination system to recruit gov officials never assumed prominence that it gained in Tang/ Song dynasties. Korea's aristocratic class was able to have stronger monopoly on bureaucratic office than Chinese counterparts. Korea moves toward grater cultural independence- phonetic alphabet- HANGUL. Conservative male elites wanted Chinese characters, this new form of writing took hold in private correspondence, in popular fiction, and among women. Although China was so powerful in order, Korea retained a distinctive culture as well as separate political existence.

ISLAM IN SPAIN

Conquests by Arabs and Berbers in the 8th century (700's). Chistians and Jews were tolerated in the early days of 'Al Andalus' (islamic ruler) Islam became less tolerant. The islamic ruler forbade Christians and Jews from worshipping or walk around the streets. Significance was making Islamic learning available to Christians

TRACE

Functional items used in daily life & left behind (coins, great wall of china)

EAST ASIA

Governance/ State Building - developed distinct style of gov (emperors/ dynasties) - frequent interaction with Korea, Japan, Vietnam - 4 dynasties before the Song Cultural Development and Interaction - Popular philosophies helped gov rule & gain legitimacy - Confucian values came to dominate Chinese society - Culture shared with neighbors ("Kowtow System") Warring States (rise of new philosophies) - Confucianism - Legalism - Daoism Qin Dynasty - Strict Legalism Han Dynasty - Confucianism - Kept some legalist foundation Economic Systems - The Chinese Imperial system facilitated trade within empire - Long distance trade flourished on Silk Road & South China Sea - Income inequality led to instability in Han and Tang Dynasties Technology and Innovation - Chinese government built irrigation, roads, walls, and canals to facilitate governance, trade and legitimacy - China was a center of innovation = Confucianism is a philosophy of respect for the past and its traditions- FILIAL PIETY. In order to be a "good" Confusion, you need to respect elders, traditions, have proper etiquette, follow the law/government, and be socially aware of people and surroundings. Their outlook is more about personal growth, live in harmony with others and be peaceful, they follow moral behavior. Confucianism talked about how life would be orderly if everyone behaved within their relationships, We need to have a respect for elderly and filial piety (devotion to family, elders in your family, treating them with respect). It is based on superior and subordinate relationships (teacher and students). Honor the ancestors. = Daoism recognizes no law but the Dao, or the Way. The Dao - way of nature, let nature takes it course, we will do our own thing, Wu Wei - effortless, goes with the flow, not my problem mindset. Being a "good" Daoist would be to adapt calm manners, be accepting of the situation, live a very carefree life with no anxious thoughts. They would believe in equality. Live so far from your neighbor you will never see them but still see their house from a distance (an example). = Shang Yang, a reformist statesman from the state of Qin. Legalists would follow the rules to avoid punishment. They will use the fear of their people to their advantage. You can have strict opinions, never break the rules, be obedient, the rules would be harsh to make sure their society is in check.

According to Guzman, how did the Mongols influence history? Make a note about each of the following:

Gregory Guzman: Breakout Rooms 1-4 According to Guzman, how did the Mongols influence history? Make a note about each of the following: Trade Asian Intersteppe highway was the main trade route, which spread technology, ideas, innovations to the Middle East and Europe. The steppe Barbarians were the prominent reason why ideas and practices of one civilization were spread. Chinese innovations such as printing and gunpowder made its way to the Middle East and Europe because of the PAX MONGOLICA. Lastly, Mongols contributed to the development and diffusion of these resources. Spread of technology Horseback riding, archery, trousers, and boots. Fused with the different technologies of the sedentary peoples. When they conquested civilized centers, they destroyed the old and outdated in favor of newer elements. Innovations in technology: horseback riding, archery, trousers, and boots. Fused with the different technologies of the sedentary peoples Innovation in society Chinese built the Great wall to defend from "Barbarian" cavalry with bows and arrows. The Mongols were attacking, and no one was prepared for it. China built the Great Wall to defend from barbarian cavalry w/ bows and arrows; Popularized horses as a means of travel, Warfare techniques Development of cultures/civilizations Horse culture was a huge practice with Mongols- it lead to the emergence of the Centar Motif in Middle Eastern Art. Horse culture led to emergence of the centaur motif in Middle Eastern art. Destroyed/eliminated the old and outdated, preserved and passed on the good/useful elements. Introduced new ideas; barbarian innovations fused with useful practices from the sedentary peoples movement of Barbarians along the Inner Asian steppe highway allowed for cultural diffusion (writing, bronze, chariots,etc.) Chariots were introduced to China, on the eastern end of the steppe highway. What is the definition of PAX MONGOLICA? The Eurasion pacts of Mongolica was an example of cultural diffusion. Also used to show the positive impacts of the barbarians. It was the movement of the barbarians along the Asian Intersteppe Highway. It was positive because it spread technology to the Middle East and Europe. (Other Group Response) Pax Mongolica refers to the cultural and economic effects to Eurasia after the Mongolian conquests. One of the main positive impacts of Pax Mongolica is the cultural cross fertilization of trade, including goods, ideas, and people. Marital and military relationships also occurred between societies creating alliances and stronger bonds between governments. Why have most historians' interpretations and historical accounts of the Mongols portrayed them negatively? Mongols were known as barbarians who had a horrible reputation. They were presented as evil, despicable intruders, slaughtering the townspeople. However, the majority of the earliest sources were very one sided and opinionated due to them be written by the members of the civilized societies. Although for these biased resources, their horrible reputation have persisted throughout the years. (Other Group Response) Most historians interpretations and historical accounts of the Mongols have been portrayed as negatively because since the Mongols were illiterate there is no written data or documents from their perspective, goals, or morals. Historians are often studying the civilizations that the Mongols invade or conquer. The civilizations that they would invade or conquer would write a biased document about them because they were invading and taking over their land. Because they were recently defeated by the Mongols, the records tended to bring to light only negative aspects and left out the positive. Therefore, the historians would view the Mongols from that civilizations biased perspective and not look into the improvements the Mongols made. What is Guzman's argument about the mongols? To what extent is his argument convincing? Guzman argued that not all barbarians were terrible, they contributed to human civilization, have created a complex pastoral lifestyle as an alternate for sedentary agriculture, played a huge role in the development and diffusion of early human history. They were strategic, intelligent, they destroyed and eliminated outdated resources and replaced them. They invented new innovations, as well as practices which enabled dynamic creativity. They deserve to have a lot more credit than what they received. (Other Groups Response) While Guzman claims that the mongols weren't necessarily the good guys, he argues that they definitely weren't the bad guys either. They were given a bad connotation based on the biased written sources from civilized peoples in which many historians focused on. These sources portrayed them as being inferior and less advanced, claiming they only cared for war. They left a positive impact on human civilization that can be seen in their advanced military techniques and good rulership.The mongols also were in a central location for the passing of land trade. This caused them to be influenced and influence others with new ideas. Their culture was active and dynamic, eliminating the old and outdated of their conquered areas, passing on only the good and useful elements.

What economic and social changes occurred in West Europe after 1300?

Growth in commerce changed the social pyramid of Western Europe.- small number of nobility/ clergy. The middle class, known as the bourgeoisie/burghers (shoekeepers, merchants, craftsmen). Gave power to the common people. Took shape as Europe joined Byzantine Empire. Social structures became more fluid, new economics rather than purely Chrstian ideals/ military defense and conquests/ Cities were beginning to grow. Marco Polo, italian native from Venice, visited the court of Kubilai Khan in Dadu, (Beijing). His captivating descriptions of the customs of the Mongois , described their practice of multiple marriages and drinking mare's milk. Curiosity about Asia skyrocketed, stimulating interest in cartography, or mapmaking. During the Middle Ages, the small population of Jews inChristnian Euopre began to grow, lived in Muslim areas in Iberian Peninsula around the Meditarrean Sea, overtaken by European Christians. Jews who could afford moved northward in Europe. Political leaders, in Amsterdam and other commercial cities welcome them, brought valuable experience in business/trade/

How/why did Hinduism maintain and Buddhism lose popularity in India?

Hinduism took what Buddhism did right, it was a lot easier to follow, you only had to be devoted to their God, devoting yourself to the religion, acts of yoga, BHAKTI. Yoga means connecting with the spiritual world, lots of aspects, Yoga is practiced differently in India than how it is in America- here it is more workout classes. Hinduism has a lot of different Gods, however in Devotional Hinduism you only focus on ONE. Hinduism with a lot of Gods was very difficult, so Dev. Hin. allowed people to pick ONE god to have devotional focus. Eternal freedom is MOKSHA. The Vishnu Purana, if you read the doc then your sins will go away. Hinduism changed when Buddhism came along in order to keep people with their religion which is odd because if you have a doctrine, then you need to follow it.People in India said it is hard to read Moksha because they didn't want people to go up to the top, and to still go lower. While Buddhism had a whole path to salvation that took thousands of years. However, Mahanayas Buddhism became very popular (even though Hindu is more popular) , made Hinduism rethink their doctrine, isn't a bad thing, religion is always interpreted differently over the years in order to adapt to the present environment. It is easier for Hinduism to win the people back when they rethought their doctrine and made it easier/ better. So people chose Hinduism instead because Hinduism adapted to become easier, it offered salvation (no priests), just be a good Hindu (no matter what caste), devotion to ONE of the Hindu Gods was allowed instead of all of them, the government also wanted Hinduism to continue because it was the existing religion, they donated money to Hindu schools and favored it much more. With devotional Buddhism, you can reach Moskha in ONE life.

How/why did the rise of devotional cults increase the popularity of Hinduism in India?

Hindus embraced the new cults since it promised salvation. Became popular in Southern India, individuals/ family groups went to honor their chosen deities. Cults originated when individuals identified Vishnu/ Shiva with a local spirit/ deity associated with a particular region/ geographica; feature. Famous cult of Shiva as lord of the dancers arose. Chola kings took the dancing of Shiva as their family God and spread the cult's popularity throughout southern India.Hindus hoped to achieve a mystical union with the Gods that would bring grace and salvation. They proliferated temples, shrines. Veneration of Vishnu and Shiva became more popular among Hindus in northern as well as southern India.

How/why did Champa rice change China?

Improved rice of the old rice they were growing. Enabled them to grow during more times of the year and in more places. Trading allowed increase of population and food. It also Southern China an important place, it was feeding the population. North is cold, cannot grow lots of crop (mostly grains and noodles). Champa rice came from Malay Peninsula, specifically Vietnam. The Grand Canal was used to float the rice to the North of China.

Where did the rise of states emerge in India and what religion did each state follow?

In the 13th century, Islamic states- Sultanates of Delhi were established. Delhi was the capital, a strategic site that controlled Punjab to the Ganges valley, ruled northern India for more than 3 centuries. They had an army of 300,000 men, and was ranked the most prominent in the Islamic world. Built mosques, and supported literature and arts. Their authorities didn't extend past Dehli, had no prominent bureaucracy/administration. In northern India, they imposed Islamic political and military authority on Hindu land and depended on the HIndu kings to advance their policies. Of the 35 sultans of Delhi, 19 perished at the hands of assassins. Nevertheless, the sultans sponsored Islam and established Islam in the regions of Bengal.

When, where, and how did Islam take hold in India?

India experienced the arrival of Islam and establishment of Islam states. One way was the use of military- arab forces entered India, their first expeditions were exploratory ventures rather than campaigns of conquests. However, 711, their expedition conquered Sindh, the Indus River Valley (northern India) incorporated into the Umayyad Empire- Sind was passed to the hands of Abbasid caliphs. Sind was on the fringe of the Islamic world, its population remained Hindu, Parsee, Buddhists, unorthodox Islamic movements. The parties allowed opportunities for Hindu authorities to look over Sind while it remained nominally under the jurisdiction of the caliphs until it collapsed. In short, conquerors brought Islam to Sind. Another way was merchants; they spread their faith in the coastal regions of Northern and Southern India. Arab and Persians visited Indian ports before Muhammed, and their Mulim descendants dominated trade/ transportation between India and western lands. They formed many groups/ communities that influenced Indian business and commercial life. In short, Islam entered through the port cities in a gradual way. Another reason was migrations and invasions of Turkish speakers from Central Asia. Several Turkisk groups became familiar with Islam through Abbasid caliphs- they entered the Abassid realm as mercenary soldiers or migrated into Byzantine Anatolia or Afghan where they established Islamic states. (section of Intro of Islam in Northern India).

WHEN (years) did Indian Ocean Trade flourish? How/why did the Mongols impact Indian Ocean trade?

Indian Ocean was like the SIlk Road, it was a network of trade routes that connected people who had stuff and people who could afford it. Silk Road was not a single road, there was lots of Indian ocean trade routes connecting various port cities. Indian ocean trade was richer, diverse, bigger. The Monsoon Marketplace, it blew up 1000 CE to 1200 CE declines because of the Mongols- became cheap and safe. Then it surged again in the 14 and 15 century.

What Indian influences became popular in Southeast Asia and how did they get there?

Indian merchants visited the islands/mainlands of Southeast asia. THey became familiar figures throughout that area, their presence brought opportunities for native ruling elites of the region. IN exchange for spices/ products (pearls, animal skins), indian merchants brought textiles, beads, gold, silver, etc. southeast asian rules used products from trade for political control. Southeast asian ruling elites became acquainted with Indian political/ cultural/religious faiths and more. They adopted kingship as the principal form of political authority. Surrounded themselves with courts featuring administrators/ rituals found in India. The elites sponsored the introduction of Hinduism/ Buddhism into their courts. Embraced Indian literature such Ramayana and Mahabharata promoted Hindu values, treatises that exemplified Buddhist views on the world. Not like the caste system, continued to like the deities and nature spirits. Ruling elites adopted Hinduism, Buddhism because the Indian faiths reinforced the principle of monarchical rule. Bhakti movement was present- look at notes below.

What religions spread via trade and where did they spread to?

Islam spread to Indonesia via the Monsoon Market place, the region previously inclfuenced by Hinduism and Buddhism became increasingly Islamic as rulers adopted the relgion so they could have religious as well as economic ties to the people they were trading with. Islam didn't spread to centers of trade.

What technologies spread via Indian Ocean Trade?

It was not just products, technology spread too! Magnetic compasses. Popularized the astrolate, stern-post rudders were easier to steer .Triangular lateen sail which became important it allowed ships to tack against the wind. Ideas traveled in the Monsoon marketplace.

The Introduction of Islam to Northern India

Mahmud of Ghazni - leader of the Turks in Afghan, his attention was the rich lands in the south. He was a patron of the arts, built Ghazni into a refined capital, supported historians, mathematicians, literary figures, and was a ruthless warrior, he mounted 17 expeditions to India, annexed in India. He didn't care about conquering/ruling India, but plundering the wealth in their temples. Although he destroyed sites associated with Hinduism or Buddhism structures, that didn't want people converting to Islam. Muhmad's successor mounted a more systematic campaign to conquer northern India and place it under Islamic rule. By 13 century, they conquered most of the Hindu kingdoms in northern India and established Islamic states- sultanate of Delhi. (Rest of notes are answers to Question 2). The Hindu Kingdoms of Southern India - was politically divided, southern india escaped the wars, invasions that happened in the north, the hindu rulers from the south focused mostly on the smaller states. Although there were minor wars among the states, they weren't as bad as wars in the South than there were in the North. The Chola Kingdom- Two kingdoms expanded over Southern India, one was the Chola Kingdom in the deep south, ruled the Coromandel coast (4 centuries). They conquered Ceylon and parts of southeast Asia. The navy dominated the seas from South China Sea to the Arabian sea, financed by profities of trade. Wasn't a tightly centralized state, allowed autonomy for local villages, as long as they maintained the order/ rules and paid taxes. Chola's focus wasn't to be a powerful state, but using profits that came from trade in the Indian Ocean. It declined later on because of the loose structure it held. Native Sinhalese expelled the Chola officials from Ceylon, and revolts within southern India. The realm didn't entirely collapse, but much of the power and size went to one kingdom among many in southern india. Kingdom of Vijayanagar- second state that dominated southern india, based in northern Deccan. Owed its origin efforts by the sultans of Delhi to extend their authority to southern India. Exploratory battles of Turks forces [provoked a defense reaction in the south. Officials in Delhi dispatched two brothers; Hariahara and Bukka, represented the sultan and implemented court policies in the south. They converted from their native Hinduism to Islam, they recongized an opportinity to establish themselves as independent rulers. They soon renounced Islam, returned to Hindu faith, proclaimed their empire of Vijayanagar (City of victory). Did not lead to hostility between Muslim and Hindus. Mulism merchants continued their trade in the ports of Southern India. The Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagar was the dominant sate in southern India for years until it feel to an alliance of Muslim Kingdoms. Political division conflict between states characterized southern India's political history. India did not generate the centralized, imperial state that guided societies in easter Mediterranean, southwest Asia, China states. The sultanate of Delhi in northern India/ kingdoms of Chola/ Vijayanagar were powerful enough to organize political life in the subcontinent. Basis of trade, common social structures, inherited cultural traditions, a distinctive society flourished in post classical India. Production & Trade in the Indian Ocean Basin- In the Med., southern Asia, China agricultural yields increased in post classical India by; enabling large numbers of people to do trade/ manufacturing rather than production of food. Trade allowed links between regions of the subcontinent, increased economic development in southern India. Created links between India and distant lands, Transformed the Indian Ocean basin into a vast zone of communication/ exchange. Increase in trade/ industry brought change to Indian society, erchant/ artisan guilds were better. However, caste system/ loyalties remained strong, most powerful organizing feature of Indian society. Agriculture in the Monsoon World- The Monsoons- Due to rhythms of monsoons, irrigation was huge for the maintenance of large populated agricultural societies. During spring/summer, moist winds from the southern west brought India's rainfall. Autumn/winter, dry winds blow from the Northeast. To achieve their age. Potential, Indian land required watering by the southern monsoon, from irrigation during dry months. Short supplies of water led to drought, reduced harvests, and widespread famine. Irrigation systems- Northern india, irr was a fixture of the countryside. Later when Aryans migrated into Ganges River valley, the found surface water and opportunities to build in most regions, served as centers of local/ social life. In the 11th century, caste had become the principal basis of social organization in southern India. The Meeting of Hindua & Islamic Tradition- Indian cultural landscape underwent a transformation during the post classical era. Jainism and Buddhism lost much of their following. Neither one completely disappeared from India, smaller communities continue these faiths. (Notes on Question 3). Hinduism and Islam differed. Hinduism made places for numerous Gods and spirits. Islam; foundation of a firm monotheism. Development of Hinduism- Toward the end of the first millenium, Buddhism flourished in east, central and parts of southern Asia but came under great pressure in India. Similar to Mahayana Buddhism, Hinduism and Islam promised salvation to devout indivitudals- gradually attracted Buddhism to their community. Invasions from the Turks in India declined Buddhism because the invaders looted, destroyed Buddhists stupas and shrines. Muslim forces ran the city of Nalanda, ravaged the schools, foreign pilgrims had studied with world's leading Buddhist philopshers. The conquerors torched Buddhist libraries and either killed or exiled thousands of monks living at a destructive deity: brought life, took it away when its season had passed. Hindus associated many Gods/ Goddesses with Vishnu and Shiva, recognized other cults. The most popular devotional cults focused on veneration of Vishnu or Shiva. Devotional Cults - (Question 4) Shankara- Hinduism influenced philosophy. Christianity and Islam influenced moral thoughts/ philopshy in other lands, deviotanl Hinduism guided the efforts of the most prominent philophers. Brahmin philosophy such as Shakara and Ramanuja took the Upanishads as a point of sophisticated metaphysics. (Question 5). Vishnu and Shiva- Hinduism benefited from the decline of Buddhism, increased popularity of Hinduism was the growth of devotional cults, particularly those dedicated to Vishnu and Shiva (most important deities). Vishnu preserves the world, observes the universe from the heavens, occasionally enters the world in human form to resist evil or communicate his teachings. Shiva; god of fertility. The Bhakti Movement- Gap between Hinduism/ Islam narrowed in postclassical India, both relgions drew cultural traditions. Sufis attracted schools of followers in the manner of indian gurus, spiritual leaders who taught Hindu values. Bhakti movement- a cult of love and devotion that sought to erase the distinction between Hinduism and Islam. Emerged in the southern india, encouraged traditional piety and devotion to hindy values. Spread to the north, the leaders encountered Muslims and loved their values, especially monotheism and spiritual equality of all believers. Guru Kabir- gradually rehected the features of Hinduism and Islam. Guru Kabir, blind weaver, most famous bhakti teacher, went to teach that Shiva, Vishnu, Allah were all a part of a single deity of whom all devout believers could find within their own hearts. It didn't succeed in Muslim merchants, many were Indian, established trading communities in the port cities of the region. Islam attracted a big following, became a permant feature in much of southeast Asia. The Influence of Indian Society in Southeast Asia- India served as the principal source of political/ cultural traditions, throughout south and southeast Asia. Southeast Asian adapted Indian political structures, religions to local needs and interests. Indian armed forces ventured into the region, southeast asian lands reflected the influence of indian society, merchants introduced Hinduism, Buddhism, Sanskrit writings, Indian forms of political org. Funan- first state that reflected Indian influence., dominated lower reaches of the Mekong river. Consolidated their grip on the Mekong valley, built a capital city at the port of Oceo. Grew wealthy, dominated Isthmus of Kra, a narrow portion of the Malay peninsula where merchants transported goods between China and India. Drew enormous wealth by controlling trade between China and India, and used profits to construct a system of water storage and irrigation. Trade with India was an important source of the economy. Adopted Indian political, cultural, religious tradition. Took Sanskrit term Raja (King), claimed it divine sanction. Established positions for adminsastors/bureaucrats, those found at Indian courts, conducted official business in Sanskrit. Introduced indian ceremonies, rituals, worshiped Bishnu, Shiva, other Hindy deities (gods). Continued to honor them, eagerly welcomed Hinduism, offered recognition and divine legitimacy for their rules. Indian cultural/ religious traditions were most prominent and observed at ruling courts. Those traditions extended well beyond ruling elites and won a secure place in Southeast Asian society. Srivijaya- After the fall of Funan, a political leadership in Southeast Asia passed this kingdom, on the island of Sumatra. THe kings built a powerful navy, controlled commerce in southeast asian waters. Compelled port cities in southeast asia, financed the navy. Bureaucracy from taxes. Maintained an all sea trade route between China and India, no need for portage of trade goods across the Isthmus of kra. VOlume of shipping increased in the postclassical era, the Srivijaya kingdom prospered until the expansive Chola Kingdom of Southern India eclipsed. Decline of this kingdom, the kingdoms of Angkor, Singosari, Majapahit dominated affairs in southeast asia. Funan had its base of operations in the Mekong valley, Srivijaya at palembang in southern SUmatra, Angkor in Cambodia, Singosari and majapahit on the island of Java. Funan and Angkor were lanvased states, most of their wealth from agriculture, whereas Srivijaya, Singosar, Majapahit were island based states that prospered they controlled maritime trade. Funan and Majaphit were largely Hindu states, the king of Sriv and Aang made deep commitments to Buddhism. Native southeast asian tradition survived in all these states, Singosari- religious authorities fashioned a cultural blend of Hindu, Buddhist, indifenous values. Depicted HIndy and Buddhist personalities- used them to honor local gods and natural spirits rather than Indian deities. Angkor- their monuments were influenced of Indian traditions in southeast asia. Kings of Khmers began building a capital city here. Help of Brahmin advisors from India, the kings designed the city as a microscopic rejection of the Hindu world. Center, built a temple representing the Himalayan Mount Meru, abode of SHiva, surrounded numerous smaller temples representing other parts of the Hindu universe. As Khmers turned to Buddhism, they added Buddhist temples to the complex, removing earlier structures inspired by Hinduism. THe Khmer kings constructed a smaller, elaborate temple center at Angkor Wat. The Khmers abandoned Angkor after Thai people invaded the capital and left much of it in ruins. THe jungle reclaimed both Angkor Thom and Angkor Wat, largely forgotten until French missionaries explored the site. The temple complexes of Angkor stand today, reminders of the influence of Indian traditions in southeast Asia. Melaka- (Question 8) India differed from post classical societies in China, southwest Asia, eastern meditarranean basin, India didn't experience a return of centralized imperial rule. India's development was similar to other post classical societies. Increased agricultural production fueled population growth and urbanization, trae encouraged industrial production, rapid economic growth,. Influenced the structure of economics/ societies from east asia to east africa. Brought prosperity to India, contributed to cotton, pepper, sugar, iron, steel and other products. Post classical India experienced cultural change, tradition deeply influence cultural development of other lands. Hinduism and Islam emerged as the two most popular relgious gaths within the subcontinent, Indian merchants helped to establish Hinduim, Buddhism, islam in southeast asian lands. India participated in cross-cultural communication and exchange.

THE GOLDEN KING- MANSA MUSA

Mansa Musa was born in 1280 [CE] into a family of rulers. His brother, Mansa Abu-Bakr, ruled the empire until 1312, when he abdicated to go on an expedition. According to 14th Century Syrian historian Shibab al-Umari, Abu-Bakr was obsessed with the Atlantic Ocean and what lay beyond it. He reportedly embarked on an expedition with a fleet of 2,000 ships and thousands of men, women and slaves. They sailed off, never to return. Some, like the late American historian Ivan Van Sertima, entertain the idea that they reached South America. But there is no evidence of this. In any case, Mansa Musa inherited the kingdom he left behind. Under his rule, the kingdom of Mali grew significantly. He annexed 24 cities, including Timbuktu. The kingdom stretched for about 2,000 miles, from the Atlantic Ocean all the way to modern-day Niger, taking in parts of what are now Senegal, Mauritania, Mali, Burkina Faso, Niger, The Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Guinea and Ivory Coast. With such a large land mass came great resources such as gold and salt. During the reign of Mansa Musa, the empire of Mali accounted for almost half of the Old World's gold, according to the British Museum. And all of it belonged to the king. "As the ruler, Mansa Musa had almost unlimited access to the most highly valued source of wealth in the medieval world," Kathleen Bickford Berzock, who specializes in African art at the Block Museum of Art at the Northwestern University, told the BBC. "Major trading centres that traded in gold and other goods were also in his territory, and he garnered wealth from this trade," she added.

What role did the Mongols play?

Mongol Empire spread all of these resources and allowed the increase of the development of technology.

trade and mongols

Mongol Wrestler Princess- Born around 1260 in the extended family of Chinggis Khan, Khutulun was among the elite Mongol women who played important public roles. Her father was the Mongol ruler of Central Asia and bitter to Khubilai Khan (Chinggis Khan grandson). She excelled in horse riding, archery, and wrestling. She joined her father on the battlefield, was awarded, and gained a reputation for being blessed by the Gods. She turned down marriage, a cousin who governed Mongol Persia, didn't want to live as a secluded urban wife. She said she would marry a man who could defeat her in wrestling . The Mongol Empire as a Eurasian Network- Chinese culture and Buddhism provided a measure of integration among people of East Asia. Chrisitinaity did the same for Europe, Islam connected most lands in between. However, the Mongol Empire brought all regions into a single interacting network- a step towards the modern era! Mongols produced little value for distant markets, and weren't active traders. However, they promoted international commerce so they could tax and extract wealth from civilizations. Provided financial backing for caravans, standardized weights/ measures, gave tax breaks to merchants. Mongol Empire brought the two ends of the Eurasan world into closer contact and launched a new phase of the SIlk Roads. Merchants returned with tales of rich lands, prosperous commercial opportunities, and described long- established trading networks of which European had been largely ignorant. The Mongol trading circuit was a central element in a larger commercial network that linked much of the Afro-EUrasian world, also connecting ocean routes through the SOuth CHina Sea and Indian Ocean Diplomacy on a Eurasian Scale- Mongol Empire facilitated long distance commerce, and prompted diplomatic relations from one end of Eurasia to the other. Their invasion of Russia spilled into Eastern Europe, destroyed Polish, German, and Hungarian forces. However, the death of Great Khan Ogodei required Mongol leaders to return to Mongols. The pope and European rulers dispatched dleeegations to the Mongol capital, hoped to learn something about Mongols intentins to secure Mongol aid in Christian cursade against Islam, and if possible to convert Mongols to Christianity. No alliance or widespread conversion occurred. Perhaps the most important outcome of these diplomatic probings was the useful info about lands to the east that European mission brought back. THey contributed to European awareness of the wider world, certainly providing later historians with info about Mongols. Persia sought an alliance with European powers to take jerusalem and curhs the focus of Islan, but the Persian Mongols' conversion to Islam put an end to anti-Muslim coliation. Mongol Empire itself, close relationships development between the courts of Persia and China, exchanged ambassadors, shared info, fostered trade between their regions. The political authorities all across Eurasia engaged in diplomatic relationships with one another to an unprecedented degree. Cultural Exchange in the Mongol Realm These transcontinental economic and political relationships was a substantial exchange of peoples and cultures. Monol policy transferred thousands of skilled craftsmen, educated people from their homelands to distant parts of the empire, Monol's religious tolerance and support of merchants drew missionaries and traders from afar. The capital- Karakorum was a cosmo city with places of worship for Buddhists, Daoists, Muslims, and Christians. The movement of people facilitated the exchange of ideas and techniques, encouraged by Mongol authorities. A great deal of CHinese technology and artistic conventions- painting, rptining, gunpowder, weapons,compass, navigation, high temperature furnaces, medical techniques flow westward. Mulism astronomers brought their skills and knowledge to China because Mongol authorities wanted second opinions and assistance in constructing accurate calendes. Europeans gained more than most from these exchaned, they had long been cut off from the fruitful interchange with Asia, in comparison to the Islamic and Chinese worlds, they were less technologically developed. Now they could reap the benefits of much new technology, new crops, and knowledge. Historians argue that Mongo laid the roots of Ueropes' remarkable rise to goal prominence in the centuries that followed. The Plague- An Afro-Eurasia Pandemic- Plague or the pestilence (The Black Death) derived from Mongol networks/ trade. Originating most likely in China, it spread across the trade routes of the vast Mongol Empire in the early 14th century. It initially erupted in 1331 in northeastern China and had reached the Middle East and Western Europe. In 1409 it reached East AFrica by way of the famous Chinese maritime expeditions that encompassed he Indian Ocean basin. It is the swelling of the lymph nodes, in the groin- terrible headaches, high fever, internal bleeding. China, Islamic world, Europe, steppe lands claimed enormous numbers of human victims- decrease in Eurasian population. The Black Death worked longer term in European society, the region where the plague's impact has been most thoroughly studied. Labor shortages following the initial outburst provoked sharp conflict between scarce workers, who sought higher wages or better conditions, and the rich who resisted those demands. A series of peasant revolts reflected this tension, undermining the practice of serfdom. It may have fostered a greater interest in tech innovation and created more employment opportunities for women. European civilizations survived a cataclysm that had the power to destroy in, it may have actually fostered its future growth. The plague also had larger consequences; Population contracted, cities declined, volume of trade diminished across the Mongol world. 1350, Mongol empire was in disarray, lost control of Chinese, Persian, Russian civilizations. Central Asian trade route, so critical to the entire Afro-Eurasian world economy, largely closed. The disruption of Mongol based land routes to the east coupled with desire to avoid Mulsim intermediaries, provided incentives for Europeans to take the sea in efforts to reach riches of Asia .Their naval tech gave mobility on horseback gave nomads an edge in land battles. Europeans penetrated Asian and Atlantic water, tok the role of Mongols in organizing and fostering world trade, creating a network of communication and exchange over an even larger area. Europeans were people on the periphery of the major established civilizations, they too were economically less developed in comparison to Chinese and Islamic civilization; both were prone to forcibly plundering the wealthier civilizations they encountered; and EUropeans empire- building in the Americas, like that of the Mongols in Eurasia, brought devastating disease and catastrophic population decline in its wake. Europeans brought far more of their own culture, Christianity, languages, settler societies, western science and tech took root within their empires. Their imperial presence lasted far longer and operated on some resemblance to those of their Mongol predecessors. Reflections: Changing Images of Pastoral People Pastoral nomads received bad press, these negative connotations of pastoral peoples, educated observers in China, Middle East, and Europe often described them as bloodthirsty savage or barbarians, slaughter and panic. Because pastoral people generally did not have written languages, the sources available to historians came from less than unbiased observed in agricultural civilizations. The long running conflict across the farming pastoral frontier, agricultural civilization ultimately triumphed. Some nomadic or semi agricultural peoples, such as the germanic tribes of Europe and Arabs created new civilizations. Others, Turkic or Mongol people took over existing civilizations or were encompassed within established agrarian empires. By 20 century, pastoral peoples had lost their former independence and had often shed their nomadic life as well. The negative view of pastoral nomads held by agrarian civilizations normally succeeded. Reflecting more inclusive contemporary values, historians have sought to present a balanced picture of pastoralists' role in world history, emphasizing what they created as well as what they destroyed. Highlighted achievements of hedging peoples, adaptations to inhospitable environments , their techn innovations, development of horse- camel, cattle based cultures, state building efforts. Less critical judgemental posture toward Mongols may have owed something to the total wars and genocides of the 20th century, the mass slaughter of civilians became a strategy to induce enemy surrender.

What kind of goods were traded on the Indian Ocean and from where? Africa? China? India? Southeast Asia? Sri Lanka? The Islamic World?

Much of the timber that was shipped that came from Africa- produced raw materials. The Swahility city states important finished goods. Spices and foodstuffs were shipped from Southeast Asia. Sri Lanka were black pepper was a primary export good. Islamic world provided everything!

ISLAM IN AFRICA-

Muslim merchants came across the Sahara to trade and brought Islam (North Africa has already converted to Islam). Conversion to Islam was not forced, it was voluntary, and peaceful Merchants and government officials liked it (trade connections and political legitimacy). Women remained more free.

What role did Islam play in Southeast Asia?

Muslim merchants ventured into Southeast Asia, became more prominant in the region. Some came from southern Arabia/ Persia, many were Indians from Gujarat or port cities of southern India. Indian influenced hkped establish Islam as well as Hidnsuim and Buddhism in southeast Asia. For several centuries, Islam maintained a quiet presence in southeast asia. Small communities of merchants observed it, attracted little interest. Gradually, ruling elites, traders, had regular dealing with foreign muslims- became interested in their faith. Marco Polo visited the island of Sumatra, noted that many people converted to Islam in the towns, whereas those living in the country side. Like Hinduism and Buddhism Islam didn't enter Southeast asia as an exculsive faith. RUling elites converted, and continued to honor Hindu, Buddhist, native southeast asian traditions. Asopted islam less as an exclusive creed than as a faith that faciailated their dealings with foreign Muslimes, provided divine sanction for their rules. Rarely pushed their subjects to convert to Islam, alowed SUfi mystic to preach their faith. In India sufis in southeast asia appealed to a large public bc of their reputation for sincerity and holiness. ALlowed converts to retain customs while adapting message of Islam to loval needs and interests. Spread of Islam gained momentum in Southeast Asia because the powerful state of Melaka sponsored the faith throughout the region. Founded by Paramesvara, a rebellious prince from Sumata, Melaka took advantage of its strategic location in the strait of Malacca, became prominent in the trading world of southeast asia. Melaka was more a lair of pirates than a state. However, Melaka had a built substantial nacy that patrolled waters of southeast asia and protected the region's sea. Melakan fleets compelled ships to call at the port of Melaka, ruling authorities levied taxes on the value of cargoes. Melaka became a powerful state through the control of maritime trade, like the southeast asian states earlier. Melaka differed from the earlier dates, although it vegas as a hindu state, it became predominantly Islamic. Welcomed theoligans, sufis and other islaic authories to melaka and sponsored missionary campaigns to spread Islam throughout southeast Asia. Mosques had begun to definine urban landscape of Java, Sumatra, Malay, Islam made first appreace in islands of Maluku and in the southern islands of Phillipine. Islam was a prominant feature in the cultural landscape of southeast asia. Alone with HInduism. Buddhism, Islam helped link southeast asia lands to larger cultural world of India, to larger commerical world of Indian Ocean basin.

China and the Northern Nomads In what ways did China and the nomads influence each other?

Nomads who rules China adopted Chinese ways- employ Chinese advisors, govern the same, immersing in Chinese culture/ learning. Went further among the Jurchen, who lived in northern China, spoke it, wore and married Chinese people, practice Buddhism/Daoism. Chinese had a modest impact on the nomads from the northern steppes. The founders of the Siu and Tang dynasties were mixed nomad and Chinese ancestry, where a blended Chinese/Turkic culture evolved. High ranking members of imperial family led troops to battle in the style of Turkic warriors.

Lineage-

Often people of one village claimed descent from the same ancestor, organized into villages were the bedrock of Africa's diverse societies.

Why did India get a reputation for marvels?

People would go to India because they had a great number system, and were considered very smart.They admired their knowledge with math, medicine, anything. This spread to the Islamic world, which was then called Arabic Numerals, even though they came from Hindu, (Hindu Numerals).

What role did geography play?

Played a part in India because it was the center of everything- land routes (silk roads- China to the Middle East) and the coast. Indian Ocean was all along the coast which helped importing and exporting of resources- overall trade!

How are printing and gunpowder related?

Printing and Gunpowder related are from China, they changed how society was developed. They both have an Indian relation, it connected Buddhism. Buddhist monks created printing, and Daoist chemists invented gunpowder. Printing enabled more literature, and literacy. Gunpowder enabled war resources.

What was similar and different about the teachings of Shankara and Ramanuja related to Hinduism in India?

Shankara, a southern India devotee of Shiva who was active, took it that all sacred Hindu writings harmonize their sometimes contradictory teachings into a single thought. Shankara held that the physical world was illusion- our imagination, reality lay beyond the physical senses. Although he was a worshipper of Shiva, he misstated emotional services and ceremonies, only by disciplined logical reasoning could human beings understand the ultimate reality of Brahman. THey could appreciate the fundamental unity of the world, Shankara considered an understandable expression of ultimate reality, even though to human physical senses that same world appears chaotic and incomprehensible. Ramanuja, a devotee of Vishnu who was actively challenged, challenged SHankara's insistence on logic. A brahmin philosopher from South India, thought reflected the deep influence of devotional cults. Intellectual understanding of ultimate reality was less important than personal union with the deity. Granted that intellectual efforts could lead to comprehension of reality, held that genuine bliss came from salvation and identification of individuals with their Gods. He followed the Bhagavad gita ,recommending intense devotion to Vishny, taught that by placing themselves in the hands of Vishny, devotees would win the god's grace and live forever in his presence. Thus in contrast to Shankara's intellectual system of thought, Ramanuja points to the Honey theology of salvation. His thought inspired the development of devotional cults throughout India, services as a philosophical foundation for Hindu popular regions.

How did kinship ties and gender roles shape economic activities in sub-Saharan Africa prior to 1000?

Sijilmasa located on the northern edge of the Sahara, in modern Morocco, originated al- Bahri reports, period market on a "bare plain" where local people came to buy/ sell goods- iron tools. He says the periodic market increased the population of the towns. Sijilmasa grew into an important trade depot ruled by a royal lineage whose founder claimed descent from a family who sold iron tools at the earliest periodic market. Twins like these became city- states whose main source of revenue was taxes from traders. This kingdom, 1000 miles to the northwest of modern day Ghana, first empire in the region of the western Sudan and arose through a similar process. Al-Bakri reported that one kingdom contained 2 cities; preachers, scholars lived in the Islamic one, which had twelve mosques where Friday prayers were said, and six miles away from the king and his sorcerer. His informants drew a sharp line between Muslims and "polytheists whose religion is paganism and the worship of idols_. The king didn't conver to Islam, but welcome Mulsim visitors. The king taxed goods going in and out of the cities he rules. Merchants paid a tax in gold. Archaeologists concluded that the kingdom did not have a sized capital and the king and his retinue regularly moved among different cities.

TRADE AND SOUTHERNIZATION NOTES

Silk Road- Central asia was key Boosted by land- based empires (When the empires fell, trade continued to happen, trade was its own thing) Diffused goods, ideas, diseases (Bubonic plague)(Buddhism spread, Satarta, made it to central Asia and China through Silk Road). Rise of Trade Cities- Kashgar and Dunjaung were important cities with trade that boosted because of it! Indian Ocean Trade- (look back at notes on video) Cheap transport costs Technology made it happen Diverse array of participants India was central Malacca = trade city, if you were trying to get to China you would say through Malacca strait- then they would tax whoever sailed through there- economy increased. West & East Africa Trans Saharan Trade; camels, technology, sanel kingdoms, Iaslam, gold, slaves, salt, trade cities. Swahili Coast Trade; monsoons, technology, Islam , trade cities, gold, slaves. The Asian camels had two humps, and African camel had one big hump on top. They invented the saddle- technology among the trade^ Trade in the Americas Regional connections (traded within the region, rare to trade long distance) Loosely interactive web Fewer direct connections A lot of the isolation has to do with the geography, hard to go on land due to rainforests.

China and the Northern Nomads What assumptions underlay the tribute system? In other words, why did the Chinese expect the tribute system to work?

Since China was so highly praised, and known as the Middle Kingdom- center of the world, people valued and respected it. They wanted to be apart of the kingdom and not be known as Barbarians. China was very wealthy, their economy, environment, culture was superior. Also, giving back to the others with gifts and bestowals to hopefully become allies helped the system tremendously.

What were the causes and consequences of the Crusades?

Social/ economic trends added to the pressure among Europeans to invade the Middle East. The landed nobles saw a military campaign as a manipulation. Merchants desired unfettered access to trade routes through the Middle East. The combination of these religious/social/economic pressures resulted of European military campaigns in the Middle East- The Crusades. (continue this section) Politics shaped the conduct of Crusades. Tensions between popes/kings strengthened the Roman Church to obtain control- used spiritual authority to recruit believers, granted relief from required acts of atonement and pendens, and promised people they would reach heaven if they joined a Crusade. Orthoox branch of Christainity supported it. Persecution of Christian pilgrims by Turks made the Orthodox patriarch to help retake the Holy Land from islamic control. Local economic self sufficiency in Europe, gradually gave way to an interest in goods from other European areas and from far ports.

How did Southernization impact China?

Southern Asian developments began a significant impact on China, after the Han dynasty had fallen, China was ruled by regional kingdoms. Buddhism became important, monasteries spread throughout the realm, cultural exchange between India and China gew. Influence of southernization underlaid the revolutionary social, political, economic, technological developments of the Tang dynasty. Chinese reformed advanced math from the Indians, which flourished. Cotton and indigo were established. Sugar was an important crop in the region, southernization introduced rice. Rice production brought significant changes in the landscape, before it was confined to lowlands, deltas, basins, river valleys. Then it spread up to hillsides, systematic terracing and techniques of water control on mountain slopes. The population of southern China tripled, and the total Chinese population doubled. Before southernization, Northern China was predominantly socially, intellectually, and politically. Southernization changed this dramatically, southern China was on its way to becoming the most prosperous/ commercial part of the empire. The Tang dynasty when Buddhist influence in China was strong, saw important technological innovations- printing/ gunpowder. Printing developed in walls of Buddhist monasteries, invention of gunpowder by Daoist alchemists, used as igniter in a flame thrower, then used of flaming arrows. rockets/ bombs/ catapults. China also perfect the "south- pointing needle" - the compass. The new version developed during Song was well suited for navigation. Mariners were using it. China's southern coasts became centers of overseas commerce; silk remained important, manufacture of true porcelain, exchanging large quantities of ordinary consumer goods, iron hardware, needs, scissors, cooking pos.

What parts of the world participated in this trade and who did John Green single out as NOT participating?

Swahili cities, Islaic empires, India, China, Asia and NOT Europe - trading. One of the reasons why it wasn't very famous. One of the reasons why this trade surged was the range of resources available and import needs- from ivory to timber, to books, to grain.

In what ways could it be argued that the Church was the most powerful institution in Europe, even more than that state?

The Christian Church in Europe experienced a division- The Great Schism. Two branches; the Roman Catholic Church and the orthodox Church. The Roman Church continued to dominate most of EUopre, while the Orthoodx church was powerful in East Europe and Russia. Roman church was a central part of life in West Europe during the Middle Ages, church staff were the only members of society who knew how to read/write. Asked church officials to write. The church established the first universities in Europe- most philosophers, writers, thinkers of the Middle Ages were religious leaders. Most artwork focused on religious themes, a way to educate the illiterate. The Church held great power in the feudal system- if the Lord was displeased with the Church, pressure the lord; local bishop might cancel religious services for his serfs- would anger the serfs. The Roman church had an extensive hierarchy of regional leaders (bishops), owed allegiance to the pope. Bishops selected/supervised local priests. Missionaries spread Christiantiy through Europe, common identity as regional monarchies. Although some Christian clergy withdrew to monasteries to meditate/pray, they remained part of the economies of Western Europe, and had the same economic functions of agriculture and protection as other manors. The church was very rich. (continue this section).

AFRICA NOTES

The Sahara desert divides the continent of Africa in two= sub-Saharan Africa in contrast to North and East Africa. Islamic aries conquered North Africa, East Africans contact with mulism trader through Abbasid period. A few muslims travelled to Sub-saharan Africa, so no source of info traveled there, don't know a lot about this region. Historians need to draw excavation, oral traditions, distribution of languages to piece together sub-Saharan Africa's history. GEOGRAPHY & LANGUAGES OF SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA Africa has a bigger area than US, Eurooe, China combined (huge continent). The first modern humans crossed the Sinal peninsula from Africa into western Asia. Africa's earliest complex societies- Nile River Valley, first in Egypt than Nubia, after its defeat, Rome's greatest rival, Carthage operated from a base from Egypt. Christianity spread throughout the Mediterranean to Egypt, northern Africa, Ethiopia. Islam replaced Christianity years later in much of northern Africa, but not Ethopia. The Sahara desert created a barrier between the coast and the sub-saharan regions. First traders to cross the Sahara did so riding camels. The single-humped camel they used originated in Arabia, then reached to North Africa. Camels were the preferable human porters, not needing roads. A semi-desert region from the south of the Sahara desert called Sahel, sufficient rain fell to the south. Rainfall was heaviest in Central Africa, rainforests stretching from the Atlantic coast to the Great Lakes region. Africans today speak nearly 2 thousand different languages, ⅓ of the total languages spoken in the world. Today, about 5,000 of Africa's 2,000 languages have written form. THE SPREAD OF BANTU LANGUAGES- Arabic is spoken throughout the Islamic regions, while the Bantu languages are widely distributed throughout sub-Saharan Africa. Earlier analysts posited that the migration of a single people, all speaking an earlier form of the Bantu language, accounted for the modern distribution. African historians recently pioneered the use of a linguistic method called glottochronology. Comparing vocab lists, linguists can couple many words in two languages the same, and their differences. Greater the number of shared words, the closer the two languages are. It can indicate which languages broke off from others, what order, but not exactly when. They suggest that multiple waves of change occurred. Scholars have discarded the theory of a single wave of Bantu migration. Different people learned how to work iron. This tool was more effective than stone and wood in turning the earth and preparing it for seed. First evidence inAfrica is 600 BCE. People living north of the Sahara,along the Nile River in modern Sudan, and south of the Sahara in central Nigeria learned how to work Iron at about the same time, their differing metallurgical techniques indicate that they did so independently of each other. Africans built a variety of furnaces for smelting iron- some furnaces had tall shafts, others used preheated air. THeir techniques allowed Agricans to make iron from much leaner ores than those used elsewhere. Technology for smelting iron spread throughout southern Africa by 300. Although iron is extremely useful (agriculture/military weapons), it is soft and rusts. Steel is much stronger and more resistant to rusting. The difference between both of the amounts of carbon in the meta, iron- 02% carbon. Steel contains up to 1.5% carbon. Same century of the developing agriculture and iron, Bantu languages spread southward. Indigenous people adopted farming, iron-smelting, Bantu languages at different times in different regions. By 1000, agriculture people who used iron tools settled throughout sub-Saharan Africa, many speaking Bantu. Iron tools allowed them to move into and settle heavily forested areas such as the Great Lake region. SOCIETY AND FAMILY LIFE - Arab geographers began to record some preliminary notes, often on the basis of hearsay, about sub-saharan Africa, and Arabic sources dominate the historical record, particularly for North and East Africa. Lack of records means historians must rely on oral histories. In Africa, storytellers or griots recited the events of the past to the monarchs they advised. Exciting breakthroughs in African history have come when historians have linked events from oral histories with archaeological finds or Arabic language sources. Ibn Battuta's account was among these Arabic sources. Historians have been able to reconstruct the past by examining history, considering aspects of social/ economic life. Jan Vansina, a historian of Africa coined the term upstreaming for their task- resembles standing on a riverbank, observing what happens, and guessing what occurred. Upstreaming had led historians to concur that certain generalizations probably hold true for most of sub saharan africa before 1000. People lived in villages, thousands of residents, fertile areas heavily populated than barren regions like the Sahara Desert. Often people of one village claimed descent from the same ancestor, using the term lineage or clan for such family units. Avoid the word tribe, negative association and condescending use in the past. Lineages and clans organized into villages were the bedrock of Africa's diverse societies. KINGDOM OF MALI - (Question 3). A man might take a single wife or multiple wives, sometimes whiten his own lineage, or from other groups. Men formed tight bonds with other men of the same age, undergoing invitations into adulthood. Younger men respected and obeyed more senior men. A man who father many children attained great wealth- called a great man. They earned their position at the top of village society, and military prowess. Great men led villages, led successful battles, and formed large political units such as a chieftaincy or a kingdom. Villages they had conquered would submit gifts to them, even after their death. However, the fragile units they formed could easily break. Ibn Battuta met several great men who headed their own kingdoms, one of whom was the ruler of Mali. THE KINGDOM OF GHANA 700 - 1000- Muslim geographer Al-Bakri provided the earliest and most deatiled description of the kingdom Ghana in his book. He drew all of his info from earlier geographic accounts. The kingdoms began as small settlements located at points where different routes crossed each other. (rest answered in question 1). JENNE- JENO: A DIFFERENT PATH TO COMPLEX SOCIETY- Outside the kingdom of Ghana, southeast of Jenne, a large urban site of Jenne-jeno the Middle Niger Valley. It's population in the 700s was between 15k - 27k. Smaller surrounding towns of 500- 1500 people formed a nester hierarchy of villages, small towns, medium size towns. In the years leading up to 1000, JJ had a large population but no resemblance to cities in the world, no evidence of a clear political center, no prominent buildings made of stone, archaeologists did not recognize Middle Niger Valley as a complex society until the 1980s. They changed their minds when they realized how big the settlement was; covered 80 acres. Enormous mounds of debris standing over thousands of pieces of dirt foundations and mud bricks, waste from iron working, copper ornaments, clay figures used as toys, grinding stones, more. The city's most prominent feature was its mud-brick wall. The ruler of Jenne-Jeno converted to Islam between 1200 and 1300- first mosque was built around that time. The great Mosque was the largest mud brick structure in the world. Supported by more than 90 wooden pillars. Archaeologists are not certain why the city declined- it is possible that the Black Death (plague) reached the city. No written records about the plague, and because of DNA analysis, historians instead look to material evidence. Some states in pre-1500 Africa like GHana controlled large amounts of territory, but like JJ, they exercised direct political control over only a small core area. Kings normally had little independent political power, usually serving as mediators and consensus builders for councils of lineage and clan elders, who made the most important decisions at the local level. Africa states arose through control and taxation- water and gold. SUNDIATA & THE FOUNDING OF THE MALI KINGDOM- Malinke language spoken in Mali, the version of the tale Sundiata tells how the son of a local ruler overthrew the Sosso King Soumaoro, united the different peoples of the region. Each king of Mali had his own griot who had been taught the story of his dynastic predecessors and whose task was to compose new sections of reigning king. The griots extensive knowledge of ancestral teaching granted prominent positions in Mali society, and advised rulers on matters of state and diplomacy. Ibn Battuta's description is one of the earliest we have of the griots and their close relationship to the sultan. Ibn Battuta used the world sultan for the Mali king bc his predecessors had converted to Islam sometime around 1000. They would recite their poems. Once they were done, griots climbed up the platform on which the sultan was sitting, placed their head on the sultan's right shoulder, his left and then his lap to show their respect. The story still remains the most detailed source of early Mali. Born to a long and hump-backed wife, he walked only at the age of seven, these traits indicated to the audience that both mother/ son possessed unusual spiritual powers. In the hope that Sundiata would someday succeed to the throne, his father assigned him his own griot. One day, mother yelled at Sundiata because he still depends on others for food, his griot sent word to the village blacksmith to send an iron bar. He grew into a strong and powerful warrior and later resolved to overthrow the oppressive rule of Soumaoro. This story reveals much about African religion. His enemy, Soumaoro is a sorcerer who knows how to make small figurines, and recite spells to wound his enemies. He isn't invincible though. Sundiata's half sister finds out that he must observe a taboo against touching a cock's spur. If he violates the taboo, he will lose the mysterious power. Sundiata attaches a cock's spur to an arrow that hits Soumaoro. By the end of the epic, Sundiata rules the kingdom of Mali. The epic illustrates how local African religion absorbed the conception from Islam. SUndiata never explicity mentions God or the power of Islam, even though al-Bakri's report about the Mali ruler's conversion to Islam dates to 1068. Historians specializing inAfrica who work with oral sources have gradually changed their approach. First gen historians including Jan Vansina, believed that they collected various oral accounts, found out what happened. Recently, historians have realized that differing accounts cannot always be matched up. In the 1500, two different oral histories circulated in Mali; both versions tried to explain the source of Mali's greatness. One related how Sundiata tamed different spirits, while the other told of the great deeds of Mansu Musa, a later ruler, without even mentioning Sundiata. First account held that SUndiata's power over the spirit world underlay Mali's former greatness, the second, that Mansu Musa's support for Islam was the key. Arab chronicles record that the kingdom of Mali existed in the 13th century, the arab historian Ibn Khaldun, recorded the names of the Mali kings and the major events of their reigns. Most important Muslim historian of all time, Ibn Khaldun formuatled an enteriely orginial definiition of history as the study of human society and its transformations- makes it possible to date Sundiata's reign to around 1230. The process of state formation by a series of conquests that the Sundiata narrative described is plausible; armies several thousand strong did fight with iron tipped bows and other metal weapons. The Mali army consisted of different independent armies, each led by a local leader. Mali leaders began to import horses from North Africa. The most important leaders fought on the horseback. The Kingdom of Mali extended more than 1000 miles east to west, including basins of the Senegal and Niger Rivers. The kinds of Mali led armies of mounted warriors into battle. Mali's government primary source of revenue was taxing trade. One of Sundiata's wealthiest successors was Mansa Musa who visited Cairo on his way to Mecca. 500 servants, each carrying a staff of fold weighing 6 pounds, for a total of 3000 pounds, walked in front of him. These sources may exaggerate of course. 100 camels were required to carry his travel money, 700 pounds.

importance of crusades

The crusaders were influenced by the Middle Easterners. They came back with highly spiced foods. After the Crusades, many European were opened with the events that were happening in the East, wanted to explore, became curious. Wanted to learn languages, such as arabic. Ideas born in the Muslim cities began to filter into Europe, changed Western thoughts. Muslim ideals formed all basis of European culture, began the start of the Renaissance. Unified parts of the globe that haven't been witnessed before. After shoving off the ,sadly the Islamic empires were brought to ruins. However the crusade wasn't politically significant. The trade, the silks, foods, spices, they learned how to soaps, demand for resources/goods. Europe had lost info, Muslim world wrote the info, so they rediscovered it due to the Muslim. The Muslim world was credited for the "rebirth" of Europe.

How did MONSOON WINDS impact trade?

The most important thing was the wind! India Ocean has special winds called monsoons, wind that brings rainy seasons- season came regularly and so do these winds. If you were a sailor, you want the winds to bring you from Africa to India during April and Septembers, and one that brought you back in November and February. Predictable winds made trade a lot less risky, which meant cheaper trade, more trade, which meant more people could buy more resources. Indian ocean trade incorporated many more people than participated in Silk Road trade. Set trading communities, to sell resources- much diversity.

China and the Northern Nomads - How did the Chinese and their nomadic neighbors to the North view each other?

The nomads were drawn toward China, trading, raiding, extorting to obtain resources vital to live. 2,000 years or more, pressure from the steppes and the intrusion of nomadic people were constant factors in China's development. Nomads threat came from Chinese, who directed their military forces deep into steppes, built Great Wall of China keep nomads out, not allow pastoral people easy access to trading opportunities within China. However, China did need the nomads because they had lands- source of horses, essential for Chinese military. Steppes resources- skins, furs, hides, amber China needed. Interaction between China and nomads brought together peoples occupying different env, different eco, gov themselves with dif institutions, different views.

The spread of Islam

The spread of Islam affected African states and societies by creating spiritual, commercial, and cultural bonds, as well as introducing paper to the African people so they could read the Quran. Before Islam spread to Africa there were many spoken languages but very few that were written. By introducing Islam it helped unite the eastern parts of Africa. With the spread of Islam into African states around 1200 to 1450, the architectural styles of western Africa changed to adapt both African styles and styles from other regions. The west African mosques were built usually of clay and incorporated wood beams and decorations. This style resembles the styles of Middle Eastern mosques and contrasts with the typical brick or mud building techniques that were previously used in Africa. Regardless, African mosques still show building patterns unique to African culture, so the resulting product was a mix of the two regions. The retention of African religious traditions resulted in a blend of worship practices in the practice of Islam. Though Islam is a monothestic religion, many Africans continued to worship polythestic deities and ancestors after converting to Islam. This combination of traditions as Africans didn't commit to one religion gave birth to a new African style of Islam, distinct to all other regions where Islam is practiced.

How is math related to India?

They had Hindu numerals systems with a 0- they invented the 0, then Islamic Empire called Arabic Numerals, even though they were from Hinduism. Look at next questions for thorough answers.

What role did the Islamic world play in this story?

They made advantages in algebra, trigonometry, important for the spread of crops (citrus fruits, sugar) and were main exports of gold and sugar. Europe got a lot of resources from here.

How did Malaysian sailors navigate without devices?

They used wind and stars, Malaysian sailors also used water patters, color of water, clouds, certain animals, geography, weather. They were super knowledgeable of the world and its patterns.

Islam Empire of Fatih

This video shows how the Islamic Empire is expanding in a very short time- largest empire civilization had ever known. People would go on sacred pilgrimages known as the Hajj to the city of Mecca- became central/ devotional/ ritual feature in Islamic life. Exchanged goods were exported back and forth over many distances, it radiated everywhere. Due to Islamics Empire, the geographical position was beneficial to trade because it was in the middle of west and east. It was a natural bridge connecting China to Europe. In only 2 centuries, Islam has spread from Spain to India. Baghdad empires meteoric growth had left its new leaders overwhelmed, in the new empire, now you have more responsibilities being a citizen. Many human knowledge threads came about, more things came, scholars from all over the world came to this empire. Scholars were dispatched across the empire to locate as many ancient texts as possible- the first international scientific venture in History. The Renaissance had its beginning in Baghdad- managed to receive the rich legacy of the hellenistic world. Many new traditions, cultures, methods, education, medicine, ways of living comes from Islamic Empire. The muslim bureaucracy started using paper- paper was everywhere now, which led to scribes (mostly women) who were busy transcribing pieces of work from the Baghdad scholars. Once done, they would sell these books- at this time in Europe a monastery would be lucky to have just one book, so Islamic Empire was advanced in its day. The spread of paper enabled the link of 3 continents. There was one place, the Christian world experience the lifestyle muslims took for granted- Southern Spain. Since there was a spread of Islam in southern Spain, it impacted the European civilization around. Thousands ago, the city Cordoba was a center of learning and culture that rivaled Baghdad. Most prosperous and sophisticated metropolis on the continent. Alhambra is the most famous example of Islamic architecture to most westerns. It reveals the pinnacle of isalmic culture and urbanity. 11th century, a tragedy in jerusalem would put muslims and european christians on a collision course. Jeruslaem was ruled by an Egyptian caliph who was a deviation from the norm.

JOURNEY TO MECCA- MANSA MUSA

Though the empire of Mali was home to so much gold, the kingdom itself was not well known. This changed when Mansa Musa, a devout Muslim, decided to go on a pilgrimage to Mecca, passing through the Sahara Desert and Egypt. The king reportedly left Mali with a caravan of 60,000 men. He took his entire royal court and officials, soldiers, griots (entertainers), merchants, camel drivers and 12,000 slaves, as well as a long train of goats and sheep for food. It was a city moving through the desert. A city whose inhabitants, all the way down to the slaves, were clad in gold brocade and finest Persian silk. A hundred camels were in tow, each camel carrying hundreds of pounds of pure gold. It was a sight to behold. And the sight got even more opulent once the caravan reached Cairo, where they could really show off their wealth.

What parts of Europe developed stronger monarchies in the late middle ages, and what were some important new f

Two common characteristics that increased the power of monarchies at the expense of the feudal lords was; monarchs hiring growing bureaucracy to carry out their decisions, organized an army that was controlled by the monarch. Bureaucracy/ army didn't work for gov/ people of state. Worked directly to the king/queen. Desire of people for representation and desire of monarch for strong absolutist gov conflicted, created tension between monarchs and the pope. (FRANCE) King Philip was the first French King to develop a real bureaucracy. Philip IV ruled the first Estates- General Met- body to advise the king that included representatives from 3 legal classes- clergy, nobility, commoners. Clergy and nobility (upper two classes) weren't required to pay taxes The estates had little power. Clergy/nobility felt little responsibility to protect a gov that they weren't financing, a problem that increased in France. (HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE) German king Otto's successors survived a power struggle with the pope, right to appoint Bishops. Won the battle/ strengthened their power, separate from the power of the state. Remained in power until the 30 year war. Formal end when Napoleon invaded Europe. (NORMAN ENGLAND) descendants of Vikings, settled in northwest of France- Normandy. Successfully invaded Englad WIllim the COnqueror) gave him kingdoms on both sides of English Channel. Tightly organized feudal system, used royal sheriffs as his administrative officials. Many nobles rejected the power of William and succeeded Norman monarch. Nobles were responsible for limits on that power in England. Magna Carta, signed by King JOhn under pressure from nobles, required the King to respect certain rights, right to a jury trial before a noble could be sentenced to prison, nobles won the right to be consulted on issue of scutage (tac placed ona knight who wanted to "buy out" of military service. The English Parliament increased the rights of ENglish nobility, not the general population. First meeting, the house of lords represented the nobles/ church hierarchy. House of Common made up of elected wealthy townspeales. Power of these two legislative bodies in England became stronger than that of similar bodies on the EUropean continent.

Historical Developments in the Americas

AZTEC EMPIRE- Environment - The Aztec empire was largely the work of the Mexica people, a semi-nomadic group from northern Mexico who migrated southward. Culture - over the years developed military capacity, served as mercenaries, negotiated elite marriage alliances, built capital of Tenochtitlan - Triple alliance between Mexica and two nearby city states launched an aggressive program of military conquest- brought more of Mesoamerica than ever before. . - The high calling of the Aztec state was to supply this blood, largely through its wars/expansion and form prisoners of war, who were destined for sacrifice. - Massive sacrificial rituals, displayed great wealth, impress enemies, allies, subjects with immense power of the Aztecs and their gods. State Building - 5-6 million people, loosely structured/ unstable conquest state, witnessed frequent rebellions by its subject people. - Human sacrifice assumed an unusually prominent role in Aztex public life. - The growth of the empire became the means for maintaining cosmic order, avoiding utter catastrophe. - Tenochtitlan- a metropolis of 150,000 to 200,000 people. Economic - Conquered peoples/ cities needed to deliver to their Aztec rulers textiles, animal products, building materials, rubber balls, paper, more - Teno- vast marketplaces reflected the commercialization of the economy. - Rapid growth in the empire stimulated markets, production of craft goods- biggest market was Tlatelolco Technology Teno- had canals, dikes, causeways, bridges, palaces, temples, pyramids 200 ft high. Also had floating gardens- artificial islands created from swamplands that supported highly productive agriculture. The avoiding catastrophe of the empire enabled Aztex warfare, capturing prisoners rather than killing the enemy. Social - Pochteca- were legally commoners, but their wealth exceeding that of the nobility, allowed them to rise in society. - They obtained slaves, destined for sacrifice in blood rituals. INCA EMPIRE- Environment "an ancient Inca device for recording information, consisting of variously colored threads knotted in different ways". Culture - More in the daily activities,requiring them to do certain things, Quechua becomes the second most common language in South America-second to Spanish. Mita was a labor service that was required for most households,the people worked for the gov, produced goods. State Building - Bureaucratic empire- emperor was the absolute ruler on top, subjects were in hierarchy units which were supervised by officials that were appointed by the emperor. - The government was in everyone's business- controlling (can be known as socialism even if it didn't exist back then) Economic They had sun farms- solely devoted to sending their goods to the state, and temples. Technology Terraced farming- allowed irrigation, and developed canals. Social Followed that women had different roles than men, regarded women as equal but different. They operated in different spheres- Gender parallelism

What are the origins an history of sugar?

Sugar was first crystalized by the Indians. Sugar has made massive imprint in world history negatively. Sugar is responsible for slave labor- negative impact on Africa. Islamic rode into India (conquered), so it was introduced with sugar. Therefore Islamic world enslaved Africans in the Indian Ocean to get sugar... we aren't sure where sugar came from.

What is Southernization and how is it related to Westernization?

Southernization- refer to a multifaceted process that began in Southern Asia, then spread globally. Included interrelated strands of development, most important are the metallurgical, the medical, and the literary. Those included development of math; production of marketing of subtropical or tropical spices, pioneering new trade routes, cultivation, marketing of southern crops (sugar, cotton, other technologies). This term is meant to be analogous to westernization- refers to a development first occurred in Europe- changed europe and eventually spread to other places and changed them as well. Southernization changed Southern Asia, spread to other places, then underwent change. Southernization was underway by the 5th century, during the reign of India's Grupta king- already spreading to China. Characteristics of the South. Began spreading through the lands of Muslim caliphates. These changes in China and lands of the caliphates led to dramatic changes, impacting the Christian Mediterranean. Indian beginning- cotton was in the Indus River valley, by then Indians had begun to develop dyeing techniques. These merchants lived in Mesopotamia, where they sold cotton textiles. Egypt became an important overseas market for indian cotton- strong demands for these textiles in the Mediterranean and East Africa, being traded in Southeast Asia. Cotton was so worldwide "India clothed the world". Another strand in the process of southernization, search for new sources of bullion in India. During the Mauryan Empire, Siberia was the main source of Gold, but nomadic disbutbaces in Central Asia disrupted the traffic- Mauruyans fell. Indian sailors began to travel to the Malay peninsula, islands of Indonesia searching for alternative sources. Indians introduce god to international trade routes. This search of gold led to the shores of Africa. Gold was being sought in East AFrica who were India's most important trading partners. Indian bouage on Indian Ocean allowed sailors of various nationalities to knit together on the shores of "Southern Ocean- chinese terms to all waters from South China Sea to the east. Malay sailors began to ride the monsoons. "Kunlun" sailors, Malay seamen were sailing north to the southern coasts of China, and may have been sailing east to India. They may have been the first to establish contact between India and Southeast Asia. Malay sailors reached the eastern coast of Africa, and might have reached the Red Sea area. Malay sailors could be found ⅔ of the way around the world. Their most likely route to Africa and the Red Sea would have been by way of the island clusters. Used balanced lug sails, possible to tack against the wind. Pepper trade developed after the cinnamon trade. India began supplying the Mediterranean with pepper, merchants could be found living in Socotra, near the Red Sea. Indian traders/ shippers and Malay sailors were also responsible for opening up the all-sea route to China. The traders' desire for silk drew them out into dangerous waters. Later on, Indian merchants could make the trip by sea but the route was slow, taking at least two years round trip. Years later, travelers began to use a new all sea route to China, went around the Malay peninsula, and avoided the Isthmus of Kra portage. The most likely developers of this route were Malay sailors, since the new stopover ports were located within their territories. All sea routes began to direct commercial traffic through the Java Sea, not fine anything, before to assume importance of international markets. Moluccan islands were only places in the world able to produce cloves, nutmeg, mace in commercial quantities. During the time of the Gupta King, Indians discovered crystallized sugar, cultivatitation spread to india. Indians laid the foundation for modern math during the time of the Guptas, western numerals (arabic) were acquired from the Arabs actually came from India. Most important invention was the number 0- a mathematical appendix, made place- value system of writing numbers superior to all others- one indication of the global significance of southernization. Leaders in astronomy, mathematics, medicine, music, architecture, literature, and more!

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MONGOL EMPIRE

The Mongol Empire- Breakout in the 13th century from Mongolia, stretching from Pacific coast of Asia to Eastern Europe. Joined nomadic people of inner Eurasina steppes with settled agricultural civilizations Brought for civilization of Eurosia- Europe, China, Islamic world. It led to direct networks of exchange and communication, numbering only about 700,000 people. Lets a modest cultural imprint on the world, unlike Islamic, it bequeathed the world no new language, religion, or civilization. Whereas Islam offered common religious home for all converts, Mongols never tried to srpead their own faith among subject people. Their religion centered on ituals invoking ancestors, performing the family hearth. Rulers sometimes consulted religious specialists- shamans who might predict future, sacrifices, and the spirit world (Tengri= the supreme sky god of the Mongols). Mongols offered the people they conquered more than the status of defeated, subordinate, exploited people, they were put to work for Mongol authorities. Mongol remains confined in Mongolia, following the tradition of Xiongnu and Turkic state building. Some Mongols became absorbed into the settled societies they conquered, after their decline they turned against the pastoralists inner EUrasia who were swallowed up in expanding Russian or China empires. Nevertheless, the Mongol Empire impacted Eurasian world. From Temujin to Chinggis Khan: The Rise of the Mongol Empire- Most scholars have found themselves forced to look closely at the role of a single individual- Temujin later known as Chingigis Khan (universal ruler). He found the Mongols an unstable and fractious collection of tribes and clans, much reduced from a somewhat earlier and more powerful position in the shifting nomadic alliances in what is now Mongolia. They declared a leading Mongol Shaman. The early life of Temujin showed signs of a prominent future. His father was a minor chieftain of a noble clan, but murdered. Temujin;s small family were forced to live by hunting, fishing, and gathering wild foods- they had fallen to the lowest level of nomadic life. However, his personal magnetism and courage allowed him to build up a small ally with powerful tribal leaders- received a boost from Chinese patrons, who were eager to keep the nomads divided. Military activity over a rival tribe resulted in Temujin's recognition as a chief in his own right with a growing band of followers. The unification of he Mongol tribes raised an obvious question: What was Chinggis Khan to do with the powerful army he had assembled?" The new and fragile unity of the MOngols would dissolve into qualles and chaos; without external resources to reward his followers, Chinggis Khan would be hard pressed to maintain his supreme position. In 1209, the first major attack on settled agiulcutal societies south of Mongolia set off Mongolia's world war; series of military campaigns, massive killing and empire building without precedent. IN the process, Chinggis Khan followed by his sons and grandos constructed an empire that contained CHina, Korea, CEntral Asia, Russia and much of the Isalmic Middle East, parts of Eastern Europe. Various setbacks marked the outer limits of the Mongol Empire- The Mongols withdrew from Eastern Europe, their defeat in Palestine at the hands of Egyptain forces, the failure of their invasion of Japan owing two typhoons, difficulty of penetrating the tropical jungles of Southeast Asia. NOTES- Explaining the Mongol Moment- Like the Roman Empire, the Mongol realm grew its own momentum without any grand scheme or blueprint for world conquest. Each victory brought resources for making war/ new threats that require further expansion. Chinggs Khan had come to see his career in terms of universal mision. The odds seemed overwhelming for China alone outnumbered the Mongols and had greater resources. THe mongols didn't enjoy any tech superiority over their sources. THey did enjoy the luck of good timing for CHina was divided, having lost control of its northern territory to the nomadic Jurchen people, while the Abbasid caliphate had shrunk to a fraction of its earlier size. The key to the Mongol's success lay in their army; better led, organized, disciplined. Chin Khan reorganized the entire social structure of the Mongols into military units, an arrangement that allowed effective command control (to diminish a divisive tribalism). Conquered tribes were broken up and scattered among these units, enrolled virtually all nomadic men and supplied the valry forces of Mongol armies. An imperial guard would recruit tribal lines, which further decline of old tribalism as a social revolution- reshaped Mongol society. An impressive discipline and loyalty to their leaders characterize their military forces.These discipline and loyalty made possible tactics of encirclement, retreat, and deception that proved decisive in many battles. Their empress flow of wealth from conquered civilization benefited all Mongols, not always equally. Even Mongols could now dress in linens and silks rather than hide and feel, could own slaves derived from the many prisoners of war ,had far greater opportunities to improve their social position while expanding their empire. To compose siege warfare for their small population, they incorporated huge numbers f\of conquered peoples into their military forces. They penetrated major civilizations, with walled cities and elaborate fortifications, they acquired CHinese techniques and technology siege warfare. Some CHinese artillery crews took part in the Mongol invasion of distant Persia. Beyond military recruitment, Mongols demanded their conquered people serve as laborers, building roads and bridges and ferrying supplies over long distances. Artisans, craftsmen and skilled people generally were carefully introduced, spared for massage, often sent to distant regions of the empire where their services were required. A french goldsmith wa \s captured, slaved in the Mongol capital of Karakorum. A further element in military effectiveness of Mongol forces lay in growing a reputation for ruthless brutality and utter destructiveness. The Central Asian kingdom of Khwarizm whose ruler had greatly offended Chinggis Khan by murdering Mongol envoys and merchants was among the first to feel the full effects of Mongol terror. Their cities were destroyed, their solderied were passed to Mongol troops for execution, women were enslaved. These policies also served as a form of psychological warfare, to surrender for the uniqueness of the Mongol's brutality, but their reputation for unwavering harshness proved a military asset. Underlying the purely military dimension of the Mongol's success was an impressive ability to mobilize both the human material resources of their growing empire. The Mongol leaders were tabibel to them, made possible systematic taxation of conquered people/ Marco Polo who traveled through Monogol domains claimed that Mongols maintained stations together with thousands of horses available to authorized users The beginning of acentralizedburarucray with various sepciilies decrees into the various languages of the empire, Perisna, Uighyr, Chinese, Tibetan. Other policies appealed to various groups among the conquered people. INterested in fostering commerce, Mongolr ulcers offered merchants 10%R for their asking price and allowed them the free use of the rely stations for transporting their goods THey conquered regions, MOngol held highest decision making posts but CHinese and Msulim officials helped many advisory and lower level positions in CHina and Persia. Buddhist, CHirstian, MUslim, Daosit did not become focus of political opposition. THis policy of religiou sotleration allowed Muslims to seek converts aomong the Muslim rule. Toward the end of his life, Chinggin Khan summoned a famous Daoist master from China and begged him to communicate the means of preserving life. SUch economic administration, and religious policies provided some benefits and a place within the empire for its conquered people.

What kind of merchants dominated trade on the Indian Ocean and why?

Wester half of the Indian Ocean, the trade was dominated by Muslim merchants because they had money to build ships, the 15th century China changed that balance completely. In Indian Ocean terms of trade was from merchants and demands of market, not by the political rulers, this trade was peaceful. These merchant ships were free to sail without the protection of states navy. Kashmir, where Kota Rani was the ruler until 1339. He was kidnapped by a raival noble, disguised army as a bunch of merchants, forced to marry your kidnapper who the ruler of Kashmir, but then he died. THen he was the ruler, but some guy comes in to marry you and forces you to do it by attacking you. Then he commit suicides. THe great thing about seaborne trade is you can trade bulk goods, cotton, cloth, timber that too heavy to strap onto a camel or mule. Arabian peninsula becomes a chapter than to trade,suddenly more people can have better houses.

SECONDARY ACCOUNTS

Written by Historians

PRIMARY ACCOUNTS

Written by people who lived though the events