Unit 3: Manifest Destiny

Rising Tensions in Texas

In 1829, the Mexican government outlawed slavery The settlers wanted to keep their slaves so they could grow cotton. The Americans also didn't want to learn Spanish or follow Mexican laws. Also, very few settlers had converted to Catholicism. In 1829, the Mexican government closed the state to further American immigration. Texans had to start paying taxes for the first time. Mexican president, General Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna sent more Mexican troops to Texas. Texans began talk of breaking away from Mexico. When Stephen Austin was jailed for supporting insurrection, the Texans revolted. Santa Anna led 6,000 troops to Texas to put down the revolt.

Lone Star Republic

In 1836, Texas declared itself The Lone Star Republic. Sam Houston was elected president. Some Americans wanted Texas to be part of the U.S. Some people were afraid of Texas becoming a slave state, others of war with Mexico. Both would eventually happen.

The Annexation of Texas

In 1844, the big litmus test for the Presidency was whether or not a candidate was in favor of the annexation of Texas. The leading candidate for the Democrats in 1844, former President Martin Van Buren, had already articulated an anti-expansionist stance on Texas. When neither Lewis Cass nor James Buchanan proved capable of securing the votes needed for nomination, the Democrats sought a compromise candidate, and James K. Polk - who was outspokenly in favor of the annexation of Texas - was their choice.

In what ways was nationalism present after the War of 1812?

-Patriotism -Political -Economic -Cultural

Posturing for War With Mexico

In Polk's diaries, he records: "Gen'l Taylor shall be instructed that the crossing of the Del Norte (Rio Grande) by a Mexican Army in force shall be regarded as an act of war on her part, and that in that event, Gen'l Taylor to be ordered, if he shall deem it advisable, not to wait to be attacked but to attack her army first." He also authorized a blockade of all Mexican ports on the Gulf of Mexico if practicable. These orders are essentially an act of war - and remember that the declaration of war IS NOT a power of the President.

Election of 1824

In one of the most significant and odd elections in U.S. history: The Constitution would be tested The 12th Amendment was put to the test and it became the only election ever to go to the House of Representatives The Democratic-Republican party would self-destruct 4 candidates officially ran for the office with a few others dropping out before the election

California added

In the 1830s, Mexico offered cheap land to American ranchers & farmers to move to California When the Mexican War broke out in 1846, Californians revolted from Mexican rule & created an independent nation Lead by John C. Fremont American navy will form a blockade to ensure the territory's possession by the United States The California Republic (or Bear Flag Republic) was annexed by the USA as part of the Mexican Cession in 1848

The Panic of 1819 and the Curse of Hard Times

1819 a paralyzing economic panic descended: It brought deflation, depression bankruptcies, bank failures, unemployment, soup kitchens, and overcrowded pesthouses—debtor's prisons Factors contributing to the catastrophe: Large issue was the over speculation of frontier land West especially hard hit by the Bank of the United States, forced the speculative ("wildcat") western banks to the wall and foreclosed mortgages on farms Panic of 1819: Hit the poorer classes hard Hard times directed attention to the inhumanity of imprisoning debtors Mounting agitation against imprisonment for debt bore fruit in remedial legislation in an increasing number of states

Fletcher vs. Peck (1810):

After Georgia fraudulently granted 35 million acres in the Yazoo River county (Mississippi) to privateers, the legislature repealed it after public outcry. But Marshall ruled that it was a contract, and that states couldn't impair a contract. It was one of the earliest clear assertions of the right of the Supreme Court to invalidate state laws that conflicted the Constitution.

Effort to ease the tensions

After Texas Annexation, Mexico threatened war. U.S. President James K. Polk sent John Slidell to Mexico to work for better relations between the two countries.

Gains and Losses

America 27,000 deaths (7,000 from fighting) Gain citizens (Chicanos) Gain territory 100,000 dollars of costs Mexico 100,000 deaths Lose 529,000 square miles Lose citizens (Chicanos)

Moses Austin

An American, Moses Austin was given permission by the Spanish government to start a colony in Texas. All the Americans had to do was follow Spanish laws. Moses died in 1821, so his son Stephen tried to start the colony.

"Young Hickory"

As President, he would act independently of his Cabinet, and attempt to personally intervene to manipulate Congress just as he had when he served as Speaker of the House.

Negotiating for Oregon

As the situation in Texas escalated and the possibility of actual military conflict with Mexico appeared more and more eminent, Polk opted to negotiate a deal with England for the Oregon Country. In 1846, he dispatched Secretary of State James Buchanan (another Sec. of State who becomes Pres.) to negotiate a treaty with England to divide the territory in half. Americans would claim the land to the south of the 49th Parallel; the English would claim the territory north of the line. Resolving the dispute with England allowed Polk and his administration to focus exclusively upon the conflict with Mexico.

Abraham Lincoln

Before he was the first Republican President of the United States of America, Abraham Lincoln was a Whig Congressman from Illinois. Lincoln's views against the promotion of slavery evolved over time; he was always, however, a strong proponent of internal improvements and Union.

The American System: Tariffs

British competitors dumped their goods onto America at cheap prices after the war. America responded with the Tariff of 1816, the first in U.S. history designed for protection, which put a 20-25% tariff on taxable imports. Rep. Henry Clay advocated "The American System" He called for: a strong banking system, a protective tariff to encourage manufacturing, and also wanted a network of roads and canals.

Impact of the Erie Canal

Cost of shipping 1 ton of grain from Buffalo to NYC drops $100 to $5; time from 20 days to 6. Food prices drop as a result; potato prices drop 50% (hurts New England farmers, who move west). Towns and cities emerge on the canal; transforms the Trans-Allegheny west into a center of commercial agriculture.

Dartmouth College vs. Woodward (1819):

Dartmouth had been granted a charter by King George III, but New Hampshire had tried to change it. Dartmouth appealed, using alum Daniel Webster to work as lawyer, and Marshall ruled that the original charter must stand. It was a contract, and the Constitution protected those.

Political

Death of the Federalist Party "Era of Good Feelings" / One party rule emerges James Monroe elected 1816 / 1820 Makes "tour" of the nation on 1817 John Marshall & Judicial Nationalism Decisions increase the power of the federal gov't and expand its authority Washington D.C. rose from the ashes to be stronger than ever, and the navy and army strengthened themselves.

Tejanos

In 1821, only about 4,000 Tejanos lived in Texas. Tejanos are people of Spanish heritage who consider Texas their home. The Spanish government tried to attract Spanish settlers to Texas, but very few came.

Cultural

Literature Webster's New American Dictionary History books were now being written by Americans for Americans. North American Review (1815) Knickerbocker School - group of NY writers who gain international recognition Art Hudson River School American landscape artists Romanticized images of the American West

Marbury v. Madison (1803):

Marbury v. Madison was a U.S. Supreme Court case that established the principle of judicial review in the United States, meaning that American courts have the power to strike down laws, statutes, and some government actions that violate the Constitution of the United States.

McCulloch vs. Maryland (1819):

Maryland wanted to eliminate the Bank of the U.S. by taxing its currency notes. Marshall denied Maryland's right to tax the bank, saying that a state could not pass laws that violate the federal constitution. He implied that the Constitution was to last for many ages, and urged the end to be legitimate, and let it be within the scope of the Constitution.

Gibbons vs. Ogden (1824):

Overturned a monopoly granted by the New York state legislature to certain steamships operating between New York and New Jersey. In empowering Congress to regulate interstate commerce, the Constitution automatically deprived the states of the power to obstruct interstate commerce in order to serve their own interests. The long-term impact was ending many state-granted monopolies and promoting free enterprise.

Attempts to Acquire California by Diplomacy Fail

Polk sent the diplomat John Slidell to Mexico in an effort to purchase California for the United States, but met with no results. The Mexican government refused to talk with Slidell which angered the U.S. The desire to acquire California, along with the hard stance on establishing the border between Mexico and the United States at the Rio Grande River - not the Nueces - led to an escalation of the conflict in Mexico. Many believe Polk provoked the war willfully in order to seize Mexico's territory in the Southwest.

Nationalism in Foreign Policy: Acquiring Florida

Revolutions in South and Central America caused Spain to re-assign troops from Florida. Native attacks ravaged American land and then retreat back into Spanish territory. Taking initiative, Andrew Jackson swept across the Florida border, hanged two Indian chiefs without ceremony, executed two British subjects for assisting Indians, and seized Spanish forts at St. Marks and Pensacola. Monroe consulted his cabinet as to what to do against Jackson. All wanted to punish him except for John Quincy Adams, who demanded huge concessions from Spain. The Adams-Onis Treaty of 1819 had Spain cede Florida and their claims in Oregon in exchange for American claims in Texas... Silly Spain, they though this was going to last.

Art: Hudson River School

Romanticized elements of the American frontier

Mechanization: (beginnings of industrialization)

Samuel Slater 1791 - establishes first textile mill in Rhode Island Textile factories emerge slowly, but boom from 1807-1814 After Treaty of Ghent, 150 of 151 mills close in Rhode Island Tariff of 1816 implemented to protect textiles Eli Whitney 1793 patents the Cotton "Gin" - device for removing seeds from cotton; leads to cotton "kingdom" in deep south and a renewed commitment to slavery. 1798 - interchangeable parts - contract for gun manufacturing for the US Gov't ( Allowed relatively unskilled workers to produce large numbers of weapons quickly and at lower cost, and made repair and replacement of parts infinitely easier.)

Battle at San Jacinto

Santa Anna had over 300 more Texians executed at Goliad. Texan general, Sam Houston gathered more troops, 800 in all. It included Tejanos, American settlers, volunteers from the United States, and many free and enslaved African Americans. They met Santa Anna at San Jacinto. Their battle cry was, "Remember the Alamo!" It was over in 18 minutes. More than half the Mexican army was killed. Santa Anna was forced to sign a treaty giving Texas its freedom. With the Battle of San Jacinto, Texas was now an independent country. General Santa Anna surrenders to a wounded General Houston and signs the treaty of Velasco, surrendering Texas.

Why would the Mexican government not accept the treaty of Velasco?

Santa Anna only signed the treaty of Velasco because his life was in danger. Slidell was given permission to negotiate the official border between Mexico and the United States and to purchase New Mexico and California territories at virtually any price.

Slavery and the Sectional Balance

Sectional tensions between the North and the South came to a boil when Missouri wanted to become a slave state. Tallmadge Amendment - provided that no more slaves be brought into Missouri and also provided for the gradual emancipation of children born to slave parents already in Missouri (this was shot down in the Senate). Angry Southerners saw this as a threat. Plus, the North was starting to get more prosperous and populous than the South.

Mexican Independence Changes Texas

The Mexican government told Stephen Austin his settlers would have to: become Mexican citizens members of the Roman Catholic Church learn Spanish... are you kidding me? I ain't learnin no Mexican! Between 1821 and 1827, Austin attracted 297 families to his new settlement. The success of Austin's colony attracted more land speculators and settlers to Texas from the United States. Some were looking for a new life, some were escaping from the law, and others were looking for a chance to grow rich. By 1830, the population had swelled to about 30,000. Americans (Texians) outnumbered the Tejanos six to one.

Spanish Texas

The Spanish had been in the Americas since Columbus in 1492. Spain owned a large part of North America, including Texas.

Nationalism in Foreign Policy: Sharing Oregon

The Treaty of 1818 put the northern boundary of the Louisiana Purchase at the 49th parallel. It also provided for a ten-year joint occupation of the Oregon Territory with Britain, without a surrender of rights and claims by neither Britain nor America. Also secured fishing rights for both Americans and Canadians along the coast of Newfoundland.

Economic

The War of 1812 illustrated problems with roads and transportation in the west 1807-1814 - years of Embargo and blockades had enabled American manufacturing to develop. 1815 - cheap British goods flood the American market Henry Clay calls for an "American System"

Henry Clay

The de-facto leader of the party, Henry Clay's "American System" was the clearest expression of the Whig Party's Platform, if it had one. Although there were many sectional differences between the Whigs, most concurred with Clay's plans, at least in a broad sense.

The Alamo

The first battle between the Texians and Mexicans took place at on old Spanish mission that was used as a fort. It was called the Alamo.

Monroe's Doctrine Appraised

The monarchs of Europe were angry, but couldn't do anything about it, since the British navy would be there to stop them. Monroe's declaration was barely recognized in Latin America. Those who know of the message recognized that it was the British navy and not America that was protecting them, and that the U.S. was doing this only looking out for its own interests. Not until 1845 did President Polk revive it and use it. In the Russo-American Treaty of 1824, the Russian Tsar fixed the southern boundary of his Alaskan territory at 54°40'. The Monroe Doctrine might better be called the Self-Defense Doctrine, since Monroe was concerned about the safety of his own country, not Latin America. The doctrine has never been law, a pledge, or an agreement, yet it has guided American policy since its declaration. It was mostly an expression of post-1812 U.S. nationalism, gave a voice of patriotism, and added to the illusion of isolationism.

The Fight for the Alamo

There were only 183 Texans guarding the Alamo. The Mexican army had 1,800 men. The Texans held the Alamo for twelve days. On the thirteenth day, after continual bombardment, Santa Anna ordered his men to storm the fortress. When it was over, all but several Texians were dead. The men not killed in the battle were executed by Santa Anna. Several people were spared, including William Travis' slave and a handful of women and children. Texians were shocked by the slaughter at the Alamo and vowed to fight for their freedom. There are many mysteries and legends that have surrounded this battle, even today.

"Tippecanoe and Tyler too" "Log Cabin and Hard Cider"

William Henry Harrison ran on a war hero and "backwoods" common man platform (that's so Andrew Jackson) that propelled him over Van Buren. He died after a month in office from pneumonia (that's why you always put your coat on when mom tells you to). His VP John Tyler took over and derailed the unity of the Whig party as he was formerly a Democrat with matching values. Tyler's presidency is most notable in his annexation of Texas in his "lame duck" last months in office and his succession to the presidency being formally accepted over 120 years later with the passing of the 25th Amendment (officially stated that VP would replace Pres).

How was nationalism reflected in the post-War period

an emphasis on national issues, an increase in the power and scope of the national gov't, and a growing sense of American identity

When was Texas Annexed

in 1845 After James K. Polk won the election of 1845, Virginian and pro-slavery President John Tyler encouraged a joint resolution for the annexation of Texas to be passed by the lame duck Congress. The motion carried, and Texas joined the Union as a slave state.

Why was the election of 1836 unique

in the fact that it was the first time that the Whig party ran candidates. Jackson's Vice President Martin Van Buren won the election fairly easily. However, his presidency was marred by issues of Texas annexation, border disputes with England, and the Panic of 1837

John O'Sullivan

was the author and Democratic strategist who coined the phrase "Manifest Destiny" in the 1840s to describe the United States divine right to rule over North America, from sea to shining sea. Under Polk, the promotion of westward expansion by peaceful means was given the blessing of the United States government. The expansion of the Oregon Trail, the Mormons settlement of the Great Salt Lake region, the Donner Party (although cannibalism isn't a requirement for Manifest Destiny), the California Trail, and the gold rush of 1848 all occurred, not coincidentally, during his term in office.

Slidell's Mission

1) Get Mexican recognition of the Rio Grande as the border between Mexico and the United States 2) To forgive about $4.5 million owed to U.S. citizens by Mexico from the Mexican War of Independence 3) To discuss the purchase of the New Mexico and California territories

Erie Canal (1817-1825)

363 miles - connects Lake Erie to the Hudson River

Cumberland Road

621 Miles - connects Cumberland, Maryland to Vandalia, Illinois

The Thornton Affair

A company of U.S. Calvary commanded by Captain Seth Thornton got into a skirmish with Mexican forces near the Rio Grande. Thornton was ordered to scout an area about twenty miles northwest of what later became Brownsville, Texas. In April 1846, the Calvary, investigated an abandoned hacienda (Ranch). Some two thousand Mexican soldiers were encamped in and around the hacienda, and a firefight occurred. Both sides fought ferociously, but the greatly outnumbered U.S. force was forced to surrender after several hours of skirmishing.

Texas

Even in his inaugural address, Polk considers the annexation as a chance to claim greater glory for his Presidency. Knowing that Mexico views Texas as a renegade province and that Mexico had never formally acknowledged the independence of the nation, he fairly gloats, "Texas was an independent power, owing no allegiance to Mexico and constituting no part of her territory or rightful sovereignty and jurisdiction."

Goals of Polk's Administration

Even in his inaugural address, Polk articulated goals related to "Manifest Destiny." He strongly supported the "re-union" with Texas which the Congress had passed by joint resolution. (A treaty would still need to be ratified by the Senate.) Said Polk, who identified an independent Texas as a rival to the United States if Westward Expansion were to continue: "None can fail to see the danger to our safety and future peace if Texas remains an independent state or becomes an ally or dependency of some foreign nation more powerful than herself." He continued to posture and threaten war with England over the Oregon Territory. He openly planned to take California from Mexico - by purchase if possible, but by force if required.

The Missouri Compromise

Finally, the deadlock was broken by a bundle of compromises known as the Missouri Compromise. Missouri would be admitted as a slave state while Maine would be admitted as a free state, thus maintaining the balance. All new states north of 36°30' line would be free.

The Election of 1844: Polk vs. Clay

Henry Clay was the standard bearer of the Whig Party in 1844. The second resolution of the Whig Party platform in the 1844 election summarized Clay's American System. The party sought: "a well-regulated currency; a tariff for revenue to defray the necessary expenses of the government, and discriminating with special reference to the protection of the domestic labor of the country; the distribution of the proceeds from the sales of public lands; a single term for the Presidency; a reform of executive usurpations (wrongful or illegal encroachment, infringement, or seizure), and generally such an administration of the affairs of the country as shall impart to every branch of the public service the greatest practical efficiency, controlled by a well-regulated, wise economy."

Horace Mann

Horace Mann was devoted above all else to the assimilation of immigrants into the national fold. He was the strongest advocate of the public schools in the 19th Century. The common school movement of the 1840s which he supported was an attempt to teach the values of citizenship to children.

Victory for Polk

James K. Polk's narrow victory over Henry Clay in the Election of 1844 was coupled with a Democratic majority in both houses of Congress, and Polk would interpret these results as a strong public mandate for his political agenda. Polk was not bound to any faction of his own party either; he had been a compromise candidate an owed allegiance to no one!

The Era of Good Feelings

James Monroe defeated his opponent in 1816 183 to 34, and ushered in a period of one-party rule. He straddled the generations of the Founding Fathers and the new Age of Nationalism. He was also the last in the Virginia Dynasty. Early in 1817, Monroe took a goodwill tour venturing deep into New England, where he received heartwarming welcomes. A Boston newspaper even declared that an "Era of Good Feelings" had begun. Continued: Considerable tranquility and prosperity did exist in the early years of Monroe But it was a troubled one: Issues of the tariff, the bank, internal improvements, and the sale of public lands were being hotly contested Sectionalism was crystallizing Slavery was beginning to raise its hideous head

Reducing the Tariff

James Polk played a decisive role in convincing Senators to support the Walker Tariff of 1846, which reduced the tariff significantly. Polk did not believe that a high tariff was required in order to raise revenue - he also did not believe that internal improvements or government sponsored legislation was a priority. About the only increase in the government's influence would come via sponsorship of the military.

Monroe and His Doctrine

John Quincy Adams assumed that the European powers weren't going to invade America anytime soon, and knew that an alliance with Britain would be unwise. He knew that the British boats would need to protect South America to protect their merchant trade, and presumed it safe to blow a defiant, nationalistic blast at all Europe. Late in 1823, the Monroe Doctrine was born, incorporating his policies of non-colonization and nonintervention. Dedicated primarily to Russia in the West, Monroe said that no colonization in the Americas could happen anymore. He also said European nations could not intervene in Latin American affairs. In return, the U.S. would not interfere in the Greek democratic revolt against Turkey.

The American System: Lack of transportation

Lack of effective transportation had been one of the problems of the War of 1812, especially in the West. In 1817, Congress sought to distribute $1.5 million to the states for internal improvements (known as the Bonus Bill) but Monroe vetoed it, saying it was unconstitutional. States had to look for their own money to build the badly needed transportation. This culminated with the completion of the Erie Canal in New York in 1825, funded through private funds.

Menace of Monarchy in America

Monarchs in Europe crushed democratic rebellions in Italy (1821) and in Spain (1823), much to the alarm of Americans. Russia's claims to North American territory near the Pacific were intruding and making Americans nervous. In August 1823, the British foreign secretary, George Canning, proposed that the U.S. and Britain combine in a joint declaration renouncing any interest in acquiring Latin American territory.

The Bank of the United States Defeated

National Bank controls currency and interest rates National Treasury controls the government's money and financial obligations Polk resolved to create an independent US Treasury, and to keep private banking interests on the sidelines. The Whig's dream of a Bank of the United States was defeated under his leadership.

The "Corrupt Bargain"

No candidate won the majority and so the vote went to the House of Representatives. John C. Calhoun who dropped from the race early on, was easily elected as Vice President due to his popularity among Adams and Jackson supporters. Henry Clay was able to swing the House vote to John Q. Adams through persuasion. Adams immediately named Clay as his Secretary of State. (The previous 4 went on to become president) Jacksonians accused the two of collusion and deemed it the "corrupt bargain." Which would later be used against Adams. Remember: In 1818-19, Andrew Jackson swept across the Florida border, hanged two Indian chiefs, executed two British subjects for assisting Indians, and seized Spanish forts at St. Marks and Pensacola. Monroe consulted his cabinet as to what to do against Jackson. All wanted to punish him except for John Quincy Adams, who demanded huge concessions from Spain leading to the Adams-Onis Treaty. This will set up one of the most heated elections in U.S. history in terms of mudslinging and personal attacks...

Daniel Webster

One of the so-called Great Triumvirate, Webster was a New Englander with uncommon oratorical skill. He advocated for internal improvements to bring the nation together through transportation, communication,

Cohens vs. Virginia (1821):

The Cohens had been found guilty by Virginia courts of illegally selling lottery tickets. Marshall enforced the supremacy of federal law over conflicting state law and overturned the Virginia supreme court. The decision held that the federal judiciary can act directly on private parties and state officials, and has the power to declare and impose on the states the Constitution and federal laws.

The Whigs Hatred for "Old Hickory" - Andrew Jackson

Whigs despised "King Andrew" and their ideal President was his opposite: A one-term President No "Spoils System," or patronage. Little use of the veto power of the executive. Deference to the Cabinet on important issues for the nation.

Growing Pains of the West

The West: Nine frontier states joined the 13 original between 1791 and 1819 To keep the balance between North and South: They were admitted alternately, free and slave There was a continuation of the generation-old westward movement Also because the land was cheap Other causes of the growing West: Eager newcomers from abroad Acute economic distress during the embargo years The crushing of the Indians in the Northwest and South by Generals Harrison and Jackson The building of highways improved the land routes to the Ohio Valley-the Cumberland Road in 1811 The use of the first steamboat on western waters in 1811 heralded a new era of upstream navigation The west was still weak in population and influence: Settlers demanded cheap acreage The Land Act of 1820: Authorized a buyer to purchase 80 acres at a minimum of $1.25 an acre in cash. Reduced the amount from 160 acres and cost from $2.00. The West demanded cheap transportation and slowly received it

The Bank of the United States

The Whig Party consistently supported the Bank of the United States. They wanted the Bank to regulate lending rates and provide stability to the currency of the nation. Lower rates would encourage expansion and growth; when contraction of the economy was necessary, they could manipulate the rates accordingly.

Whig Pacifism

The Whig Party was keenly opposed to violence in all forms, including expansionist imperialism. Whigs spoke out against Andrew Jackson's refusal to uphold the Supreme Court's decision in Worcester V. Georgia. (Guess who ruled in this case...) They opposed the Mexican-American War and the imperialist Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo. They viewed James K. Polk's "Fifty-Four Forty or Fight!" campaign slogan as jingoist (extreme, often warlike, patriotism) posturing.

The Whig Ideology

The Whigs articulated a patient, far-sighted vision for America. ('Merica waits for no one) They supported a high tariff on imported goods, in order to promote and expand domestic industries. Even Whigs in the South often voted in favor of the higher tariffs, hoping that expanding industry in the Southern States would promote an alternative to the single crop, slave labor based plantation system.

Economic Paternalism

The Whigs believed that the National Bank should actively manage aspects of the United States' economy. Their support for internal improvements was motivated by the desire to unify the nation's economy by promoting trade. Harbor Improvements River Navigation Canals Railroads Highways

Whigs and "Manifest Destiny"

The Whigs recognized the potential of "Manifest Destiny" to divide the nation. Accordingly, the party crafted a land policy which acknowledged the need to settle the West, but attempted to curb the nation's appetite for expansion. They encouraged higher prices for land, for example, in order to raise revenue, pay for internal improvements, and slow the rapid expansion of the nation.

Whigs and the Executive Power of the President

The Whigs were a party born of opposition to President Andrew Jackson, and it should not be surprising that they were opposed to Presidential usurpation of power. Only two Whigs were ever elected President; both men died in office, and neither was an "issue-oriented" leader. William Henry Harrison was a war hero from the War of 1812; he died after a month in office from pneumonia. Zachary Taylor, a hero of the Mexican-American War, died after a year in power.

Who were the Whigs?

The Whigs were born as a party of opposition - a party of opposition against Andrew Jackson. Why the Whigs opposed Jackson varied, though, from region to region. In this sense, the party was always divided, and friction was omnipresent. In general, however, the Whigs were a party of national unity first and foremost (kind of ironic). All of the most articulate leaders of the Whig Party were advocates of national unity, and all were devoted to the preservation of the Union.

Posturing for War With England

Using the excuse that Mexico had broken off diplomatic ties with the United States, Polk sent the US Army to the border region of Texas and Mexico - between the Nueces and the Rio Grande Rivers. Meanwhile, Polk continued the jingoistic (characterized by extreme patriotism, especially in the form of aggressive or warlike foreign policy) rhetoric he had maintained with England over the Oregon Territory:

War Vote in Congress

Vote Yes-Declare War Treaty of Velasco is valid Belief in Manifest Destiny exas Annexation is legal Vote no-not to Declare War Will expand slavery Manifest Destiny is unfair to Mexico Treaty of Velasco is a sham and not valid Annexation is illegal without Mexico approval.

Cultural Nationalism: Knickerbocker School

Washington Irving: -The Sketch Book, -Rip Van Winkle, -Legend of Sleepy Hollow James Fenimore Cooper: (Writer from frontier NY) -The Spy, -The Leatherstocking Tales, -The Last of the Mohicans Themes explore the contrast between the "natural men" of the American wilderness v. the artificial men of the "civilized" world William Cullen Bryant (First American poet to gain recognition) -Thanatopsis - Poem about death and nature

James Knox Polk

When the Election of 1844 came along, Polk was angling for the Vice Presidency, not the head of the ticket. He had been the floor leader in the House of Representatives under Andrew Jackson. He had served as Speaker of the House in the 1830s. In 1839, he had quit the Congress to pursue a career in local government, and quickly risen to the rank of Governor of Tennessee. Although out of politics altogether in 1844, he was not out of the public mind, and his candidacy was viable.

"American Blood on American Soil"

When the inevitable provocation occurred - and it is much disputed among historians whether the shots fired were even in American territory - 16 of Taylor's men were killed. President Polk asked for a declaration of war before a joint session of the United States Congress, summing up the need for war by famously stating: "American blood has been shed on American soil" Congress declared war on Mexico, despite protests by the Mexican government that Thornton had crossed the border into Mexican Texas — a border that Mexico claimed as the Nueces River. The ensuing Mexican-American War was waged from 1846-1848 and witnessed the loss of many thousands of lives and nearly half of the territory of Mexico. One of the few Whigs to speak out against the war was Abraham Lincoln, who declared that he would want evidence to indicate the very spot where American blood had been shed. Know as the Spot Resolution, the speech was not popular, and it may have cost him re-election.

Sectionalism

devotion to one's region; holding the interests of a region over the interests of the whole nation.

Nationalism

loyalty or devotion to a nation, especially an attitude, feeling, or belief characterized by a sense of national consciousness; an exaltation of one nation above all others, and an emphasis on loyalty to and promotion of national culture and interests as opposed to subordinate areas or other nations.