Unit 5 notecards

Munn v Illinois

(1877), case in which the U.S. Supreme Court upheld the power of government to regulate private industries. The case developed as a result of the Illinois legislature's responding in 1871 to pressure from the National Grange, an association of farmers, by setting maximum rates that private companies could charge for the storage and transport of agricultural products. The Chicago grain warehouse firm of Munn and Scott was subsequently found guilty of violating the law but appealed the conviction on the grounds that the Illinois regulation represented an unconstitutional deprivation of property without due process of law. The Supreme Court heard the appeal in 1877. Chief Justice Morrison Remick Waite spoke for the majority when he said that state power to regulate extends to private industries that affect the public interest. Because grain storage facilities were devoted to public use, their rates were subject to public regulation. Moreover, Waite declared that even though Congress alone is granted control over interstate commerce, a state could take action in the public interest without impairing that federal control. Munn v. Illinois, one of the Granger cases (see Granger movement), was a watershed in the struggle for public regulation of private enterprise. Later court decisions, however, sharply curtailed the government's power to regulate business.

Terrorism

After the bush administration and 9/11 America has turned towards a larger anti-terrorist tactic, with more ability to investigate people at home and abroad, an increase of money towards national defense, and growing coverage of terrorism

containment doctrine

A United States foreign policy doctrine adopted by the Harry S. Truman administration in 1947, operating on the principle that communist governments will eventually fall apart as long as they are prevented from expanding their influence.

Bureaucracy

A bureaucracy is "a body of non-elective government officials" and/or "an administrative policy-making group."[1] Historically, bureaucracy was government administration managed by departments staffed with non-elected officials.Today, bureaucracy is the administrative system governing any large institution.The public administration in many countries is an example of a bureaucracy. Bureaucracies have been criticized as being inefficient, convoluted, or too inflexible to individuals.[11] The dehumanizing effects of excessive bureaucracy became a major theme in the work of German-language writer Franz Kafka and are central to his novels The Trial and The Castle.The elimination of unnecessary bureaucracy is a key concept in modern managerial theory and has been an issue in some political campaigns. Others have noted the necessity of bureaucracies in modern life. The German sociologist Max Weber argued that bureaucracy constitutes the most efficient and rational way in which one can organize human activity, and that systematic processes and organized hierarchies were necessary to maintain order, maximize efficiency, and eliminate favoritism. Weber also saw unfettered bureaucracy as a threat to individual freedom, in which an increase in the bureaucratization of human life can trap individuals in an impersonal "iron cage" of rule-based, rational control.

economic interdependence

A characteristic of a society or macroeconomy with a high degree of division of labor, where people depend on other people to produce most of the goods and services required to sustain life and living.

Embassy

A diplomatic mission is a group of people from one state or an international inter-governmental organization (such as the United Nations) present in another state to represent the sending state/organisation officially in the receiving state. In practice, a diplomatic mission usually denotes the resident mission, namely the office of a country's diplomatic representatives in the capital city of another country. As well as being a diplomatic mission to the country in which it is situated, it may also be a non-resident permanent mission to one or more other countries. There are thus resident and non-resident embassies.[1][2][3][4]

Policy Implementation

A policy needs to be communicated from the creator (e.g., a local official, or the President) to the relevant governing body within the bureaucracy that has the power to enact it. Thus, a policy designed to enforce traffic safety by cutting down on the number of drunk drivers would be passed down to law enforcement officials for implementation. When no existing agency has the capabilities to carry out a given policy, new agencies must be established and staffed. This is reflected most clearly in the "alphabet soup" agencies established by Franklin D. Roosevelt under the New Deal. Second, a policy needs to be communicated clearly and easy to interpret if it is to be implemented effectively. Too much ambiguity in this stage can lead to involvement by the judiciary that will force legislators to clarify their ends and means for policy implementation. The judiciary may overrule the implementation of such policies. Finally, the resources applied to implementation must integrate with existing processes and agencies, without causing extensive disruption, competition, or conflict. In addition to the aforementioned elements, policy implementation can further be complicated when policies are passed down to agencies without a great deal of direction. Policy formulation is often the result of compromise and symbolic uses of politics.

Pardon

A president can exercise a check on the judicial branch through their constitutional authority to grant pardons. A pardon is an executive grant releasing an individual from punishment or legal consequences of a crime before or after conviction, and restores all rights and privileges of citizenship. Presidents exercise this power for federal offenses except impeachment, which cannot be pardoned. ex. Washington pardoned John Mitchel after being charged with treason in the Whiskey Rebellion

Sanctions

A sanction is a restriction, . economic sanctions, typically a ban on trade, possibly limited to certain sectors (such as armaments), or with certain exceptions (such as food and medicine) like sanctions against Iran international sanctions, coercive measures adopted by a country or a group of countries against another state or individual(s) in order to elicit a change in their behavior pragmatic sanction, historically, a sovereign's solemn decree which addresses a matter of primary importance and which has the force of fundamental law

Treaty

A treaty is an agreement under international law entered into by actors in international law, namely sovereign states and international organizations. Bilateral treaties are concluded between two states[4] or entities. It is possible, however, for a bilateral treaty to have more than two parties; A multilateral treaty is concluded among several countries.[4] The agreement establishes rights and obligations between each party and every other party. Multilateral treaties are often regional] Treaties of "mutual guarantee" are international compacts, e.g., the Treaty of Locarno which guarantees each signatory against attack from another.[4]

Informal powers

Along with his/her formal powers given by the Constitution, the President also has various informal powers. They include: setting and enacting a legislative agenda, executive orders, sending out troops without a declaration of war, and conducting foreign policy initiatives, among others. Throughout the modern presidency (1933-present), Presidential power has significantly increased from the office's original position through the widening array of informal powers. The Roosevelt Administration ushered in a new era with the New Deal legislation, causing a growth of federal bureaucracy and allowing the President to be active in the legislative process. Before that point the President had very little influence over legislation. Technically the President still cannot directly participate in the creation of legislation, but the office has had much more influence over the process over the last 80 years. Abraham Lincoln was another president to use inherent powers like no other before him during the Civil War. He claimed that his actions were necessary for the preservation of the union. Increased power has transformed the Presidency into being active (and leading) in the role of domestic and foreign policy, legislation, and has become closer to the American public by way of mass media, from radio to television to the internet.

FAA

An agency of the U.S. Department of Transportation, it was established as the Federal Aviation Agency by the Federal Aviation Act of 1958. When the Federal Aviation Agency became part of the Department of Transportation on April 1, 1967, the word agency in its title was changed to administration. The primary responsibilities of the FAA are to regulate air commerce in order to promote its development and safety and fulfill the requirements of national defense; promote and develop civil aviation and a national system of airports; manage navigable airspace within the United States and regulate air traffic in the interests of safety and efficiency; consolidate research and development and the installation and operation of air navigation facilities; and develop and operate air traffic control and navigation systems for both civil and military aircraft.

Ambassadors

An ambassador is an official envoy, especially a highest ranking diplomat who represents a state and is usually accredited to another sovereign state, or to an international organization as the resident representative of their own government or sovereign or appointed for a special and often temporary diplomatic assignment.[1] The word is also often used more liberally for persons who are known, without national appointment, to represent certain professions, activities and fields of endeavor. An ambassador is the ranking government representative stationed in a foreign capital. The host country typically allows the ambassador control of specific territory called an embassy, whose territory, staff, and vehicles are generally afforded diplomatic immunity in the host country. Under the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, an ambassador has the highest diplomatic rank.

Roles of the president

Commander-in-Chief: In Article II, Section 2, Clause 1 of the Constitution gives the president authority over "the Army and the Navy of the United States, and of the Militia of the several States, when called into the actual service of the United States;" The power the president has as commander-in-chief has played a crucial role in American political history. This power allows the president to mobilize troops in times of war or crisis without Congressional approval to effectively meet a threat. One of the earliest examples of this is the Whiskey Rebellion. When farmers violently protested the new taxes levied on whiskey, President Washington called for state militias to put down the rebellion. However, the use of this power and the power over the military as a whole has greatly expanded under the president. Since World War II, not a single one of America's conflicts have been officially declared as a war. So, to prevent the president from using this role abusively, Congress passed the War Powers Act in 1973, which limited and clearly defined the president's power as commander-in-chief to ensure accountability to Congress. Chief of Party: As the most powerful individual in American government, the president has an informal responsibility to use his office to promote his party's political success. If president's party is prominent in the federal government, it will make the job easier for him/her and for successors taking the office afterwards. The president can support congressional candidates by endorsing them in battleground districts and giving campaign donations. The president also has the role of promoting the party ideology through policy and the execution of the office to further advance the party influence. Chief Executive: As head of the executive branch, the president must carry out the laws passed by Congress, the court decisions made by federal courts, grant pardons issue executive orders, appoint officials, and oversee the bureaucracy. One example of this was the integration of the schools in Little Rock, Arkansas. The Supreme Court ruled in Brown v. Board of Education in favor of Brown and ordered that the schools in Little Rock be integrated. President Eisenhower didn't support integration, but enforced the integration by sending the National Guard to protect the students. Chief Legislator: Each bill that passes through both houses of Congress ends up on the President's desk who either signs or vetoes it. Therefore, he has a crucial role as chief legislator. Not only is every law approved by the president (unless Congress overturns the veto), but he can campaign for legislation and present it to Congress. One example of this was the Affordable Care and Patient Protection Act. The Obama administration wrote and presented the bill to Congress, and fought for it until it passed and it became law. Guardian of the Economy: The president protects and promotes the welfare of the national economy. He/She protects US interests from foreign businesses with tariffs. The president also spends the budget and collects the taxes. Head of State: Head of State is a mainly ceremonial role for the President. This part of the job requires him to the living representation or symbol of the United States as a whole. In this role he publicly promotes and conveys American values as well as listening to and acknowledging those who do them same. This role can be taken in foreign nations, or in the United States. Examples of duties the President would conduct as head of states would be; Holding dinners with leaders of foreign countries. Speaking to other countries about the American way of life. Attending ceremonies over seas to be the figurehead representation of the United States such as the Olympics. Awarding medals to soldiers. Recognizing the achievement of outstanding citizens. This very ceremonial role is very important for the country as a whole. The President is the one person who is the living representation of the entire country. The President must convey what the United States believes as well as listening to what others have to say. Chief Diplomat: Diplomacy is a very important part of any presidency. It is the role of the president to associate with foreign leaders and, along with the help of advisors and Congress, develop foreign policy. The president is the leader of the country and thus, meets and negotiates with other foreign leaders to form relationships and settle disputes. Some of the roles that the president must perform are; Decide what diplomats and ambassadors will say to other countries. Traveling to foreign countries to meet with leaders. Find diplomatic solutions to problems Communicate directly with leaders of other countries in order to form relationships. Negotiate treaties (with approval of the Senate). The president cannot only worry about what is happening domestically. He must worry about what is

Executive agreement

An executive agreement[1] is an agreement between the heads of government of two or more nations that has not been ratified by the legislature as treaties are ratified. Executive agreements are considered politically binding to distinguish them from treaties which are legally binding. An executive agreement is one of three mechanisms by which the United States enters into binding international agreements. They are considered treaties by some authors as the term is used under international law in that they bind both the United States and a foreign sovereign state. However, they are not considered treaties as the term is used under United States Constitutional law, because the United States Constitution's treaty procedure requires the advice and consent of two-thirds of the Senate, and these agreements are made solely by the President of the United States. Some other nations have similar provisions with regard to the ratification of treaties

Issue networks

An informal and relatively open network of public officials and lobbyists who have a common interest in a given area and who are brought together by a proposed policy in that area. Unlike an iron triangle, an issue network disbands after the issue is resolved.

Constitutional requirements for the pres.

Article Two, Section 1 of the United States Constitution sets forth the eligibility requirements for serving as President of the United States: No person except a natural born Citizen, or a Citizen of the United States, at the time of the Adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the Office of President; neither shall any person be eligible to that Office who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty five Years, and been fourteen Years a Resident within the United States.[1] The Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution also sets constraints on who may be elected to the Presidency: No person shall be elected to the office of the President more than twice, and no person who has held the office of President, or acted as President, for more than two years of a term to which some other person was elected President shall be elected to the office of the President more than once.[2]

FTC

Created by the Federal Trade Commission Act of 1914. The basic objective of the FTC is to promote free and fair trade competition in the American economy. The commission does so by investigating price-fixing agreements and other unfair methods of competition; prohibiting mergers and price discriminations that may substantially lessen competition or tend toward monopoly; investigating deceptive practices such as false advertising; and regulating packaging and labeling of consumer goods to prevent deception. It provides guidance to business and industry on what they may do under the laws administered by the commission. It also gathers and makes available to Congress, the president, and the public factual data on economic and business conditions. The FTC consists of five commissioners who are appointed for 7-year terms by the president, with the advice and consent of the Senate. Not more than three of the commissioners may be members of the same political party. One commissioner is chosen as chair by the president.

Government Corporations

Government corporations typically have unique tax and legal statuses that differentiate them between state agencies and commercial enterprises. The nature of the corporation is not required to be directly correlated with the government, but it will be in association in some type of way. Government corporations are most common in sectors involving natural monopolies. Such sectors include energy production and exploitation of natural resources. For instance, most OPEC countries have government corporations managing their oil production. Amtrak Commodity Credit Corporation Conrail Corporation for Public Broadcasting Farm Credit System Insurance Corporation Federal Crop Insurance Corporation Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation Federal Retirement Thrift Investment Board Federal Savings and Loan Insurance Corporation Legal Services Corporation NeighborWorks America Overseas Private Investment Corporation Partnership for a Drug-Free America Pension Benefit Guaranty Corporation Picatinny Arsenal Reconstruction Finance Corporation Resolution Trust Corporation Rural Edge Securities Investor Protection Corporation State Justice Institute Tennessee Valley Authority

Impeachment

Impeachment is the process by which a legislative body formally levels charges against a high official of Government. Impeachment does not necessarily mean removal from office; it is only a formal statement of charges, akin to an indictment in criminal law, and is thus only the first step towards removal. Once an individual is impeached, he or she must then face the possibility of conviction via legislative vote, which then entails the removal of the individual from office. In the United States, for example, impeachment at the Federal level is reserved for those who may have committed "high crimes and misdemeanors". Several Federal officials, including two Presidents (Andrew Johnson and Bill Clinton, who were both acquitted) and several judges, have been impeached over the course of US history. US President Richard Nixon resigned before Watergate scandal impeachment proceedings could begin. majority in the house The federal procedure in the United States involves a vote for impeachment in the House of Representatives on a document known as the Article of Impeachment. Each separate grounds will be a separate Article. House members who support the impeachment then appoint managers who will act like prosecutors in the preparation for the Senate hearing. The hearing for removal is conducted in the Senate and in the case of the impeachment of a President, the Chief Justice of the United States presides over the proceedings (otherwise the Vice-president presides) which are conducted as a trial with witnesses being heard under oath or affirmation. The defendant has the right to legal counsel, the right to cross-examine all witnesses and to testify in his or her defense. The senators must also take an oath or affirmation that they will perform their duties honestly and with due diligence. The hearing cannot be conducted without a 50% plus one quorum. After the hearing the deliberations are held in private. Removal requires a two-thirds majority of the Senate

Impoundment

Impoundment is an act by a President of the United States of not spending money that has been appropriated by the U.S. Congress. Thomas Jefferson was the first president to exercise the power of impoundment in 1801. The power was available to all presidents up to and including Richard Nixon, and was regarded as a power inherent to the office. The Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974 was passed in response to perceived abuse of the power under President Nixon. Title X of the act, and its interpretation under Train v. City of New York, essentially removed the power. The president's ability to indefinitely reject congressionally approved spending was thus removed.[1] The Impoundment Control Act of 1974 provides that the president may propose rescission of specific funds, but that rescission must be approved by both the House of Representatives and Senate within 45 days. In effect, the requirement removed the impoundment power, since Congress is not required to vote on the rescission and, in fact, has ignored the vast majority of presidential requests.[2] Forty-three states in the U.S. give their governors authority not to spend money allocated by the state legislature. The states which deny their governor the authority are Indiana, Nevada, New Hampshire, North Carolina, Rhode Island, and Vermont.[3] The Mayor of Washington, D.C. also has the impoundment power.[4]

Pres. Salary/perks

In addition to the annual salary, there is an expense account, a non-taxable travel account and an account allotted for entertainment. As far as housing goes, there is the White House, complete with all the maid services and offices needed. There is also Camp David, where the president and his family can relocate to if in danger. Finally, there is also the Blair House, exceeding 70,000 square feet it serves as a guest house or second residency. Along with the housing, there is spectacular transportation with the Presidential State Car, which is an armed limousine, and Air Force One and Marine One for long distance travel. Security continues for the rest of the president's life, and there is protection by the Secret Service for him and his family. Presidents also receive a large pension for retirement, transition expenses, staff and office allowances, continued travel and medical expenses, Secret Service protection and a state funeral. The most recent salary increase, to $400,000/year from $200,000/year, took effect when George W. Bush became President. The President also receives a $50,000 non-taxable expense account. The compensation of the President is controlled by law, specifically 3 USC 102 ("Compensation of the President", Title 3, Section 102, of the US Code).

Executive privilege

In the United States government, executive privilege is the power claimed by the President of the United States and other members of the executive branch to resist certain subpoenas and other interventions by the legislative and judicial branches of government to access information and personnel relating to the executive branch. The concept of executive privilege is not mentioned explicitly in the United States Constitution, but the Supreme Court of the United States ruled it to be an element of the separation of powers doctrine and derived from the supremacy of executive branch in its own area of Constitutional activity.[1] The Supreme Court confirmed the legitimacy of this doctrine in United States v. Nixon, but only to the extent of confirming that there is a qualified privilege. Once invoked, a presumption of privilege is established, requiring the Prosecutor to make a "sufficient showing" that the "Presidential material" is "essential to the justice of the case" (418 U.S. at 713-14). Chief Justice Burger further stated that executive privilege would most effectively apply when the oversight of the executive would impair that branch's national security concerns.

Unfunded mandate

In the United States, federal mandates are orders that induce "responsibility, action, procedure or anything else that is imposed by constitutional, administrative, executive, or judicial action" for state and local governments and/or the private sector.[1] An unfunded mandate is a statute or regulation that requires a state or local government to perform certain actions, with no money provided for fulfilling the requirements. Public individuals or organizations can also be required to fulfill public mandates.[2] As of 1992, 172 federal mandates obligated state or local governments to fund programs to some extent.[3] Beginning with the Civil Rights Act of 1957 and the Civil Rights Act of 1964, as well as the Voting Rights Act of 1965, the United States federal government has designed laws that require state and local government spending to promote national goals.[4] During the 1970s, the national government promoted education, mental health, and environmental programs by implementing grant projects at a state and local level; the grants were so common that the federal assistance for these programs made up over a quarter of state and local budgets.[5] The rise in federal mandates led to more mandate regulation.[5] During the Reagan Administration, Executive Order 12291 and the State and Local Cost Estimate Act of 1981 were passed, which implemented a careful examination of the true costs of federal unfunded mandates.[6][7] More reform for federal mandates came in 1995 with the Unfunded Mandates Reform Act (UMRA), which promoted a Congressional focus on the costs imposed onto intergovernmental entities and the private sector because of federal mandates.[8][9] Familiar examples of Federal Unfunded Mandates in the United States include the Americans with Disabilities Act and Medicaid.[10]

proliferation

Increase rapidly in number; multiply.

Independent executive agencies

Independent Agencies of the Unites States government are tasked with administering the law as regarding specific areas such as the environment, social security, and veteran affairs. These Agencies are expert in the area they manage and are generally headed by a Board or Commission, while a few, such as the EPA, are headed by a single Administrator. Subject to Congressional oversight, Independent Agencies fall within the Executive Branch of government but operate more autonomously than Federal Agencies headed by Cabinet members such as the Department of State which must report directly to the President. (CIA)

Independent regulatory agency

Independent agencies of the United States federal government are those agencies that exist outside of the federal executive departments (those headed by a Cabinet secretary) and the Executive Office of the President.[1] In a more narrow sense, the term may also be used to describe agencies that, while constitutionally part of the executive branch, are independent of presidential control, usually because the president's power to dismiss the agency head or a member is limited Established through separate statutes passed by the Congress, each respective statutory grant of authority defines the goals the agency must work towards, as well as what substantive areas, if any, over which it may have the power of rulemaking. These agency rules (or regulations), when in force, have the power of federal law

EPA

Independent regulatory agency responsible for protecting the environment and maintaining it for future generations. It was established in 1970. The EPA superseded and assumed most of the activities of the former Environmental Health Service. Specifically, its aim is to control and diminish air and water pollution, noise pollution, and pollution by radiation, pesticides, and other toxic substances. The agency has established federal standards for air quality that limit the quantities of hazardous pollutants from industrial emission. It works with state and local governments to determine and enforce safer pollution levels. It conducts research to identify and regulate noise sources and also to refine techniques of solid waste disposal and reuse. The agency's efforts in the area of water pollution include establishment of water quality standards, regulation of regional water pollution controls and water supply methods, and scientific research into the effects of chemical and other contaminants. An especially important aspect of the EPA's work involves protection of the population from radiation: a national inspection program for monitoring radiation levels in the environment and the enforcement of rigid standards for disposal of hazardous wastes. The agency also regulates the handling and control of chemical substances deemed hazardous. In particular, the use of pesticides is closely scrutinized; the agency sets tolerance levels for those used around foodstuffs and carefully monitors residue levels in food, humans, and wildlife. In the late 1980s the EPA expanded its mission to include problems of global warming and environmental change. It created a Climate Change Division to develop research into the impact of increased carbon dioxide and other gases in the atmosphere. The EPA also initiated an Ecological Mapping Program (EMAP) to delineate vegetational patterns in the U.S. and, in 1990, established a grant program to improve environmental education.

SEC

Independent, quasi-judicial agency of the United States government, which is generally responsible for protecting the public against malpractice in the securities and financial markets. It was created by the Securities Exchange Act of 1934. The SEC requires most issuers of securities making public offerings in interstate commerce to make known in a prospectus all pertinent facts concerning those offerings. The commission also monitors trading in securities on exchanges and in over-the-counter markets, including short selling and options trading, and regulates the activities of brokers, dealers, and others in the securities business. The SEC enforces sanctions, including the issuance of injunctions, the initiation of administrative proceedings for the suspension or revocation of brokers' licenses, and the initiation of criminal prosecutions through the United States Department of Justice against those charged with securities frauds, manipulations, and other violations. In addition, the commission has responsibility for the enforcement of the Public Utility Holding Company Act of 1935. The SEC also examines protective provisions in mortgage debentures under which debt securities are sold to the public and participates in rehabilitation of failing corporations under Chapter 11 of the U.S. Bankruptcy Code. The agency supervises the activities of mutual funds and other investment companies (under the Investment Company Act of 1940) and of investment advisers (under the Investment Advisers Act of 1940). In 1975 the SEC ended the long-standing system of fixed brokerage fees, opening the way to competition in the securities business. The commission also had a major role during the late 1980s in highly publicized prosecutions of individuals and firms charged with so-called insider trading and other violations of securities laws. The SEC consists of five members, no more than three of whom may be members of the same political party. They are appointed by the president with the approval of the Senate for staggered terms of five years; one member is replaced each year.

unilateralism/ multilateralism

Multilateralism is where states interact guided by generalized principles of conduct. This includes principles which specify appropriate conduct for a class of actions, without regard to particular interests of parties or the strategic demands at the time. States consult and cooperate over shared aims without resort to coercion, bribery, and blackmail. States do not take unilateral action or apply joint pressure. Examples of this include The United Nations, The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), The World Trade Organization, The World Bank, and the International Monetary Fund. Unilateralism is exactly the opposite. It is the process of acting, reaching a decision, or espousing a principle performed by or affecting only on country involved in a particular situation, without the agreement of the others. The United States' foreign policy transformed after the Cold War for several reasons. US foreign policy goals cannot be achieved unilaterally. Economic liberalization requires multilateral cooperation. Security and economic issues cannot be separated easily in international diplomacy (failure to cooperate in one sphere may damage relations in another). Also, being the hegemon in the world, unipolarity gives the US opportunity to shape multilateral cooperation and institutions favorably. Finally, liberal visions must be institutionalized multilaterally to become regulatory norms in international politics. The pros of unilateralism include freedom of action, ability to act quickly, ability to maximize interest, and reduction of international obligations. The pros of multilateralism include the facts that burden-sharing reduces costs, agreements are mutually enforcing, and it appeals to norms and obligations. The cons of unilateralism include limited burden-sharing, negotiating costs are high, enforcement of agreements/impositions is costly, and limited appeal to norms and obligations. Cons of multilateralism include complex consultation process, limited freedom of action, national interests must be compromised in cooperating, and free-riding may occur.

NATO

NATO, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, is a military alliance of European and North American democracies founded after World War II to strengthen international ties between member states—especially the United States and Europe—and to serve as a counter-balance to the Soviet Union and the Warsaw Pact. Member states pledge to come to each other's aid whenever one is attacked. NATO's first significant joint action was involvement in the Korean War, far from Europe, which signaled NATO's global commitment to fighting the Cold War and supporting anti-communist concepts like those expressed in the Truman Doctrine. By 2010, NATO included 28 countries, including former Warsaw Pact members, and its collective security actions included the invasion of Afghanistan following the September 11, 2001, attacks.

Office of Management and budget

OMB prepares the President's budget proposal to Congress and supervises the administration of the executive branch agencies. OMB evaluates the effectiveness of agency programs, policies, and procedures, assesses competing funding demands among agencies, and sets funding priorities. OMB ensures that agency reports, rules, testimony, and proposed legislation are consistent with the president's budget and with administration policies. OMB also oversees and coordinates the administration's procurement, financial management, information, and regulatory policies. In each of these areas, OMB's role is to help improve administrative management, to develop better performance measures and coordinating mechanisms, and to reduce any unnecessary burdens on the public. The Office of Management anBudget (OMB) is the largest office within the Executive Office of the President of the United States (EOP). OMB's most prominent function is to produce the President's Budget,[2] but OMB also measures the quality of agency programs, policies, and procedures to see if they comply with the president's policies and coordinates inter-agency policy initiatives.

Cold War

One possible answer is hinted at in the preceding paragraph. Containment of the growth of new communist and socialist states was the overall goal during the Cold War years. While it is true that nations were absorbed into the Soviet Union, and communism spread to China and other nations, containment was basically an effective policy. The world, particularly Europe, was not tilted heavily towards communism. This achievement was an expensive one however. The perceived menace the other side posed caused the two superpowers to stockpile, and improve their weapons of mass destruction. The Cold War was a war of avoidance, not combat. (It didn't always work; i.e., Korea, Vietnam, Grenada) Defense systems were heavily funded as deterrence to actual war, the belief being the risk of mutual annihilation would be too great to be the side to make the first move. The Soviet Union told its people that sacrifices must be made in order to prevent the devastation endured during the Great Patriotic War (the name for World War II in the USSR). This was the justification for spending 60% of the Soviet Union's budget on defense. In the United States, huge amounts of money were spent on missiles, nuclear weapons, and anti-missile defense system research right up to the waning years of the Cold War. These expenditures turned into very real threats in the form of nuclear submarines and bombs, strategic missiles, and military buildup. The mere existence of these dangers may have contributed to the atmosphere that fostered the signing of the Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty in 1968 and the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty SALT I in 1972. These treaties helped to stem the tide of increasingly dangerous weapon development, and can be viewed as a positive outcome of the Cold War. Years of paranoia and watching "the Doomsday Clock" had taught us how capable we were of our own destruction.

Spoils system/patronage

Patronage is the support, encouragement, privilege, or financial aid that an organization or individual bestows to another In politics and government, a spoils system (also known as a patronage system) is a practice in which a political party, after winning an election, gives government civil service jobs to its supporters, friends and relatives as a reward for working toward victory, and as an incentive to keep working for the party—as opposed to a merit system, where offices are awarded on the basis of some measure of merit, independent of political activity. The term was used particularly in politics of the United States, where the federal government operated on a spoils system until the Pendleton Act was passed in 1883 due to a civil service reform movement. Thereafter the spoils system was largely replaced by a nonpartisan merit at the federal level of the United States. The term was derived from the phrase "to the victor belongs the spoils" by New York Senator William L. Marcy,[1][2] referring to the victory of the Jackson Democrats in the election of 1828, with the term spoils meaning goods or benefits taken from the loser in a competition, election or military victory.[3] Similar spoils systems are common in other nations that traditionally have been based on tribal organization or other kinship groups and localism in general.

isolationism

Political or economical policy that isolates a country from participating in international relationships. It has been suggested that the United States participates in isolationism because of its lack of involvement in particular wars or alliances. During World War I, the United States refused to join the League of Nations, thus isolating itself from other countries. Individuals that believe and support isolationism are considered isolationists.

22 amendment

Section 1. No person shall be elected to the office of the President more than twice, and no person who has held the office of President, or acted as President, for more than two years of a term to which some other person was elected President shall be elected to the office of the President more than once. But this article shall not apply to any person holding the office of President when this article was proposed by the Congress, and shall not prevent any person who may be holding the office of President, or acting as President, during the term within which this article becomes operative from holding the office of President or acting as President during the remainder of such term. Section 2. This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several states within seven years from the date of its submission to the states by the Congress.

Formal powers

The Appointment Power The Constitution grants the president the power to appoint, "Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, judges of the supreme Court, and all other Officers of the United States, whose Appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by Law." The president may appoint these officials with the advice and the consent of the Senate. Up until the Clinton administration the Senate approved on average 97% of the president's appointees but that all changed. A delay or even a rejection of a nominee can have a huge impact on the administration. It leaves the president without their first choice, weakens the presidents relationship with the Senate, and makes the administration look weak. If used correctly and wisely the power of appointment can give the president great strength but if no it will weaken his or her position. Convening Congress The power to convene congress authorizes the president to convene congress on "extraordinary Occasions." These occasions can mostly include war and security but can also include much lesser events as it has in the past. ex. In 1948 Truman convenes congress to meet with the republican side and try to persuade them to push civils rights and health care legislation. Making Treaties The power to make treaties authorizes the president to make official agreements with foreign nations. This power is not solely in the hands of the president as the senate must improve the treaty with a 2/3rds majority. This keeps the president mindful of both parties in congress. In addition to this power the president also has the power to recognize the existence of other nations. ex. In 2010 the president signed a treaty with Russia to reduce the amount of nuclear arms Vetoing The power to veto or reject bills is given to the president. This allows the president to have the final say unless 2/3rds of both houses can support something. Power as Commander in Chief Article II states that the president is "Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States." The power to declare war is granted to Congress but as the Commander in Chief the president can enter military actions and conflicts without specific approval from Congress. This can be seen through Lyndon B. Johnson's commitment of troops to Vietnam, Congress never actually declared war on Vietnam. The War Powers Act was passed by Congress in 1973 in response to Johnson's and Nixon's handling of the Vietnam War. This act limits the president's authority to introduce American troops into hostile foreign lands without congressional approval. The president can deploy troops overseas for no more than 60 days during peacetime without the consent of Congress (an extra 30 days is allowed for the removal of troops). The Pardoning Power A president can exercise a check on the judicial branch through their constitutional authority to grant pardons. A pardon is an executive grant releasing an individual from punishment or legal consequences of a crime before or after conviction, and restores all rights and privileges of citizenship.

General schedule rating

The General Schedule (GS) is the predominant pay scale for federal employees, especially employees in professional, technical, administrative or clerical positions. The system consists of 15 grades, from GS-1, the lowest level, to GS-15, the highest level. There are also 10 steps within each grade. The grade level assigned to a position determines the pay level for that job. Grade levels GS-3 or GS-4: Typically internships or student jobs GS-5 to GS-7: Most entry-level positions GS-8 to GS-12: Mid-level positions GS-13 to GS-15: Top-level supervisory positions Positions beyond GS-15 are part of the Senior Executive Service Pay and cost of living allowance Salaries under the GS system have two parts: base pay and a locality pay adjustment. The GS base pay is adjusted to accommodate of the cost of living in various geographical locations.

Cabinet selection

The Cabinet traditionally includes the Vice President and the heads of 15 executive departments: Agriculture, Commerce, Defense, Education, Energy, Health and Human Services, Homeland Security, Housing and Urban Development, Interior, Justice (the Attorney General), Labor, State, Transportation, Treasury, and Veterans Affairs. Other officials also hold Cabinet-rank, including the White House Chief of Staff; the United States Ambassador to the United Nations, the Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency; the Director of the Office of Management and Budget; the Chair of the Council of Economic Advisers; the Administrator of the Small Business Administration; and the U.S. Trade Representative. HOW ARE CABINET MEMBERS SELECTED? Cabinet officers are nominated by the President and confirmed by the U.S. Senate by a majority vote. Each official receives the title Secretary, except the Attorney General who leads the Department of Justice. Cabinet members serve at the pleasure of the President and may be dismissed at any time. Tradition holds that Cabinet Secretaries resign when a new President takes office. The Ineligibility Clause of the U.S. Constitution, however, states "no person holding any office under the United States, shall be a member of either House during his continuance in office."

Cabinet departments

The Cabinet was established in Article II, Section 2 of the United States Constitution to provide a source of key advisors to the President. Today, the Cabinet includes the Vice President and 15 executive departments. Here's a primer on the departments, in order of their succession to the Presidency. DEPARTMENT OF STATE Established: The Department of State was originally established by the First Congress of the United States as the Department of Foreign Affairs on July 27, 1789. The name was changed to the Department of State less than 2 months later, when Congress passed an Act to "provide for the safe keeping of the Acts, Records, and Seal of the United States, and for other purposes." Mission: Develop foreign policy, advance freedom, and create a secure and beneficial world for the American people and the international community. DEPARTMENT OF THE TREASURY Established: Like the State Department, the Department of the Treasury was formally established by the First Congress of the United States in 1789. Mission: Collect revenue (the IRS is the largest of Treasury's bureaus), produce money, and formulate economic policy. Notable: The Treasury is responsible for producing all of the currency and coinage in the United States. The Treasury building is depicted on one side of the $10 bill; Hamilton is on the other. DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE Established: The Department of Defense was founded with the signing of the National Security Act of 1947 by Harry S. Truman. The Act merged the Department of War, which had been established in 1789 as one of the original four Cabinet-level positions, and the Department of the Navy, and also created the United States Air Force. The new department was originally named the National Military Establishment, but the unfortunate pronunciation of its acronym prompted it to be renamed 2 years later. Mission: Provide the military forces needed to deter war and protect the security of the United States. DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE Established: In 1870, Ulysses S. Grant signed a bill to create a Department of Justice headed by the Attorney General -- a position that dates back to the First Congress. Mission: Enforce the law and defend the interests of the United States according to the law, prevent and control crime, and seek just punishment for criminals. Notable: The origin of the FBI can be traced to a force of Special Agents established by Attorney General Charles Bonaparte in 1908. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR Established: As its seal indicates, the Department of the Interior was established on March 3, 1849, the last day of the 30th Congress, to handle domestic matters. Mission: Protect and provide access to our nation's natural and cultural heritage and honor our trust responsibilities to Indian Tribes and our commitments to island communities. Notable: The U.S. Geological Survey and National Parks Service, bureaus of the DOI, were created in 1879 and 1916, respectively. The department's oldest bureau, the Bureau of Indian Affairs, manages over 66 million acres of land and was created in 1824 under the Department of War. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE agEstablished: The Department of Agriculture was established in 1862 by Abraham Lincoln. Mission: Formulate policy on farming, food, and natural resources, maintain food safety, and combat hunger worldwide. Notable: Public outrage at the unsanitary conditions at Chicago meatpacking plants described in Upton Sinclair's The Jungle prompted the 1906 Meat Inspection Act. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE commerceEstablished: The Department of Commerce and Labor was created in 1903, but the Department of Commerce wasn't established as it is known today until President William H. Taft split the department on his final day in office in 1913. Mission: Foster, serve, and promote the nation's economic development and technological advancement. Notable: Future President Herbert Hoover was the longest-serving Secretary of Commerce. During his 7+ years in the position, Hoover expanded the government's "Own Your Own Home" campaign, which promoted home ownership among the nation's growing workforce. DEPARTMENT OF LABOR laborEstablished: The Department of Labor was a bureau within the Department of Commerce and Labor until the aforementioned split of that department in 1913. Mission: Assure work safety, fair pay, and unemployment insurance benefits. Notable: Frances Perkins, who served as Secretary of Labor from 1933-1945, was the first female Cabinet-level secretary in U.S. history. The Labor Department's building is named after her. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES Established: The Department of Health and Human Services was created in 1980 following the separation of the Department of Health, Education and Welfare, a Cabinet-level department established by Dwight D. Eisenhower in 1953. Mission: Protect the health of all Americans and provide essential human services, especially for those who are least able to help themselves. Notable: Patricia R. Harris, who was secretary when the department's name changed in 1980 under Jimmy Carter, was the first African-American woman to serve in a Cabinet position. DEPARTMENT OF HOUSING AND URBAN DEVELOPMENT Established: The Department of Housing and Urban Development Act of 1965, which was signed by Lyndon B. Johnson, created HUD as a Cabinet-level agency. Mission: Increase home ownership, support community development, and increase access to affordable housing. Notable: President John F. Kennedy tried to establish a similar department in 1962 through legislation and his reorganization powers, but was blocked in both instances by Congress. DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION Established: The Department of Transportation was established on October 15, 1966, by President Johnson and consolidated 31 agencies and bureaus. Mission: Ensure a fast, safe, efficient, accessible, and convenient transportation system. Notable: Among the many responsibilities transferred to the DOT when it was established was oversight of daylight saving time. DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY Established: President Carter established the Department of Energy in 1977 to centralize the government's energy policy in the wake of an oil crisis. The DOE was the first addition to the Cabinet in 11 years. Mission: Advance the national, economic, and energy security of the United States and promote scientific and technological innovation. Notable: One of the DOE's first initiatives was the development of solar research. Carter remarked in 1978: "Nobody can embargo sunlight. No cartel controls the sun. Its energy will not run out. It will not pollute our air or poison our waters. It is free from stench and smog." Today, the DOE sponsors more basic research in the physical sciences than any other federal agency in the U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONEstablished: Carter delivered on a 1976 campaign promise to the National Education Association when he signed a bill establishing the Department of Education as the 13th Cabinet-level department in 1979. The Office of Education was previously within the Department of Health, Education and Welfare. Mission: Foster excellence and equal access by establishing policies on federal financial aid for education, distribute and monitor financial aid, and collect data on the nation's schools. Notable: President Ronald Reagan vowed to eliminate the Department of Education as a Cabinet-level department and appointed T.H. Bell as Secretary of Education with that goal in mind, but both men struggled to fight for its abolishment without appearing anti-education. DEPARTMENT OF VETERANS AFFAIRS Established:In 1988, Reagan signed legislation that would establish the Department of Veterans Affairs as a Cabinet-level department the following year. The Veterans Administration had been operating since 1930 and the elevation to Cabinet-level status did little to change its role. Mission: Care for the nation's veterans, issue checks for disability, education and pensions, and supervise national cemeteries. Notable: The Department of Veterans Affairs is the nation's second-largest federal agency. In fiscal year 2008, the department provided $38.9 billion in disability compensation, death compensation, and pension to 3.7 million people. DEPARTMENT OF HOMELAND SECURITY Established: The Office of Homeland Security was established to foster intelligence information sharing in the aftermath of the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001. DHS became a Cabinet-level department under George W. Bush with the passing of the Homeland Security Act in 2002 and merged 22 agencies, including the Customs Service, United States Border Patrol, Coast Guard, and Secret Service. Mission: Secure the country and preserve America's freedoms while preparing to respond to all hazards and disasters. Notable: FEMA, which had operated as an independent agency since 1979, was one of the agencies absorbed by DHS

Council of economic advisors (CEA)

The Council of Economic Advisers (CEA) is an agency within the Executive Office of the President that advises the President of the United States on economic policy.[2] The CEA provides much of the objective empirical research for the White House and prepares the annual Economic Report of the President. Parent agency: executive office of the president The council's chairman is nominated by the president and approved by the United States Senate. The members are appointed by the president. The staff of the council consists of a chief of staff as well as about twenty economists, plus three permanent economic statisticians.

FDA

The FDA is an agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services. Part of the Public Health Service, the FDA administers the federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act of 1938 and related laws to ensure that foods are pure and wholesome and produced under sanitary conditions; that drugs and therapeutic devices are safe and effective for their intended uses; that cosmetics are safe and made from appropriate ingredients; and that labels and packaging of products are truthful, informative, and not deceptive. The FDA also enforces the federal Hazardous Substances Act to ensure proper labeling and safety of chemical products, toys, and other articles used in the home. In 1969 the FDA became responsible for promoting sanitation in public eating places and interstate travel facilities and for federal-state programs to ensure safety of milk and shellfish. In 1971 the FDA was given responsibility for enforcing the Radiation Control for Health and Safety Act of 1968. This law was designed to prevent unnecessary human exposure to radiation from electronic equipment ranging from television receivers to dental X-ray machines. In 1972 the agency was assigned to regulate biologic drugs, including vaccines, antitoxins, and serums. The federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act prohibits interstate traffic in adulterated or misbranded products. Defective products may be voluntarily destroyed or recalled from distribution by shippers, or seized by U.S. marshals on court orders obtained by the FDA. Persons responsible may be prosecuted in the federal district courts or enjoined from further violations. All court proceedings are introduced by U.S. attorneys based on evidence supplied by the FDA. Field operations are carried out at regional and district offices and at 135 resident inspection posts in the United States and Puerto Rico. FDA inspectors periodically visit facilities and warehouses, and agency chemists analyze the samples that inspectors collect. Facts so determined are the basis of regulatory decisions. Specific products must be approved for safety prior to sale or use. Manufacturers submit samples of production batches of antibiotic drugs, insulin, or color additives to FDA laboratories for testing. The agency must certify their purity, potency, and safety before they may be shipped. New drugs and their labeling must be approved for safety and effectiveness. Food additives must be generally recognized as safe or proven safe by scientific tests. Residues of pesticide chemicals in food commodities must not exceed safe tolerances, which are established by the Environmental Protection Agency and enforced by the FDA. Such premarketing clearances are based on scientific data provided by manufacturers, subject to review and acceptance by FDA scientists. The FDA maintains extensive educational programs in order to promote compliance by industry with its regulations and to enable consumers to benefit from its work.

Federal Reserve System

The Federal Reserve System, often referred to as the Federal Reserve or simply "the Fed," is the central bank of the United States. It was created by the Congress to provide the nation with a safer, more flexible, and more stable monetary and financial system. The Federal Reserve was created on December 23, 1913, when President Woodrow Wilson signed the Federal Reserve Act into law. Today, the Federal Reserve's responsibilities fall into four general areas. Conducting the nation's monetary policy by influencing money and credit conditions in the economy in pursuit of full employment and stable prices. Supervising and regulating banks and other important financial institutions to ensure the safety and soundness of the nation's banking and financial system and to protect the credit rights of consumers. Maintaining the stability of the financial system and containing systemic risk that may arise in financial markets. Providing certain financial services to the U.S. government, U.S. financial institutions, and foreign official institutions, and playing a major role in operating and overseeing the nation's payments systems.

Joint chiefs of staff

The Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) is a body of senior uniformed leaders in the United States Department of Defense who advise the President of the United States, the Secretary of Defense, the Homeland Security Council and the National Security Council on military matters. The composition of the Joint Chiefs of Staff is defined by statute and consists of the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (CJCS), Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (VCJCS), and the Military Service Chiefs from the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, and the Chief of the National Guard Bureau,[1] all appointed by the President following Senate confirmation.[2] Each of the individual Military Service Chiefs, outside of their Joint Chiefs of Staff obligations, works directly for the Secretary of the Military Department concerned, i.e., Secretary of the Army, Secretary of the Navy, and the Secretary of the Air Force Following the Goldwater-Nichols Act in 1986, the Joint Chiefs of Staff do not have operational command authority, neither individually nor collectively, as the chain of command goes from the President to the Secretary of Defense, and from the Secretary of Defense to the Commanders of the Combatant Commands.[7] Goldwater-Nichols also created the office of Vice Chairman, and the Chairman is now designated as the principal military adviser to the Secretary of Defense, the Homeland Security Council, the National Security Council and the President.[8] The Joint Staff (JS) is a headquarters staff in the Pentagon, composed of personnel from each of the five armed services, that assists the Chairman and the Vice Chairman in discharging their responsibilities and is managed by the Director of the Joint Staff (DJS), who is a lieutenant general or Navy vice admiral.[9] Established in practice 1942 Number of members Seven Parent agency U.S. Department of Defense

Senior executive service

The Senior Executive Service (SES) lead America's workforce. As the keystone of the Civil Service Reform Act of 1978, the SES was established to "...ensure that the executive management of the Government of the United States is responsive to the needs, policies, and goals of the Nation and otherwise is of the highest quality." These leaders possess well-honed executive skills and share a broad perspective on government and a public service commitment that is grounded in the Constitution. Members of the SES serve in the key positions just below the top Presidential appointees. SES members are the major link between these appointees and the rest of the Federal workforce. They operate and oversee nearly every government activity in approximately 75 Federal agencies. The U.S. Office of Personnel Management (OPM) manages the overall Federal executive personnel program, providing the day-to-day oversight and assistance to agencies as they develop, select, and manage their Federal executives.

Strategic Defense Initiative

The Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), also known as Star Wars, was a program first initiated on March 23, 1983 under President Ronald Reagan. The intent of this program was to develop a sophisticated anti-ballistic missile system in order to prevent missile attacks from other countries, specifically the Soviet Union. With the tension of the Cold War looming overhead, the Strategic Defense Initiative was the United States' response to possible nuclear attacks from afar. Although the program seemed to have no negative consequences, there were concerns brought up about the program "contravening" the anti-ballistic missile (ABM) of the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks years before. For this reason, in conjunction with budgetary constraints, the Strategic Defense Initiative was ultimately set aside.

25th amendment

The Twenty-fifth Amendment (Amendment XXV) to the United States Constitution deals with succession to the Presidency and establishes procedures both for filling a vacancy in the office of the Vice President, as well as responding to Presidential disabilities. It supersedes the ambiguous wording of Article II, Section 1, Clause 6 of the Constitution, which does not expressly state whether the Vice President becomes the President or Acting President if the President dies, resigns, is removed from office or is otherwise unable to discharge the powers of the presidency.[1] The Twenty-fifth Amendment was adopted on February 10, 1967

executive orders

The U.S. Constitution gives the American President authority to create laws, or decide how an existing law should be carried out, through the use of executive orders. Because executive orders do not require congressional approval, the President can set important policy while sidestepping public debate. Executive orders may be used for a broad range of issues, from environmental conservation and protection, to prohibiting discrimination, and sending troops to other countries.

Civil service system

The United States federal civil service is the civilian workforce (i.e., non-elected and non-military, public sector employees) of the United States federal government's departments and agencies. The federal civil service was established in 1871 (5 U.S.C. § 2101).[1] U.S. state and local government entities often have competitive civil service systems that are modeled on the national system, in varying degrees. According to the Office of Personnel Management, as of December 2011, there were approximately 2.79 million civil servants employed by the U.S. government.[2][3][4] This includes employees in the departments and agencies run by any of the three branches government (the executive branch, legislative branch, and judicial branch), such as over 600,000 employees in the U.S. Postal Service. The majority of civil service positions are classified as competitive service, meaning employees are selected based on merit after a competitive hiring process for positions that are open to all applicants. The Senior Executive Service (SES) is the classification for non-competitive, senior leadership positions filled by career employees or political appointments (e.g., Cabinet members, ambassadors, etc.). Excepted service positions (also known as unclassified service) are non-competitive jobs in certain federal agencies with security and intelligence functions (e.g., the CIA, FBI, State Department, etc.) that are authorized to create their own hiring policies and are not subject to most appointment, pay, and classification laws.[5] In the early 19th century, positions in the federal government were held at the pleasure of the president—a person could be fired at any time. The spoils system meant that jobs were used to support the American political parties, though this was gradually changed by the Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act of 1883 and subsequent laws. By 1909, almost two-thirds of the U.S. federal workforce was appointed based on merit, that is, qualifications measured by tests. Certain senior civil service positions, including some heads of diplomatic missions and executive agencies, are filled by political appointees. Under the Hatch Act of 1939, civil servants are not allowed to engage in political activities while performing their duties.[6] Among the various executive departments, some include the State Department, Justice Department, Department of the Interior, Education Department, and Agriculture Department. Among the independent agencies are the United States Postal Service, NASA, and the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation

VP role/selection

The Vice President of the United States (informally referred to as "VPOTUS" )is a constitutional officer in the legislative branch of the Federal government as President of the Senate under Article One, Section Three, Paragraph Four of the United States Constitution The vice president is a statutory member of the National Security Council under the National Security Act of 1947 and under Amendment XXV, Clause One of the United States Constitution is the highest-ranking official in the presidential line of succession in the executive branch of the United States; the vice president is the first person who would normally ascend to the presidency upon the death, resignation, or removal of the president.[3] The executive power of both the vice president and the president is granted under Article Two, Section One of the Constitution. As the president of the United States Senate,[2] the vice president votes only when it is necessary to break a tie. While Senate customs have created supermajority rules that have diminished this constitutional tie-breaking authority, the vice president still retains the ability to influence legislation; for example, the Deficit Reduction Act of 2005 was passed in the Senate by a tie-breaking vice presidential vote Additionally, pursuant to the Twelfth Amendment, the vice president presides over the joint session of Congress when it convenes to count the vote of the Electoral College.[4]

National security council

The White House National Security Council (NSC) is the principal forum used by the President of the United States for consideration of national security and foreign policy matters with senior national security advisors and Cabinet officials and is part of the Executive Office of the President of the United States. Since its inception under Harry S. Truman, the function of the Council has been to advise and assist the president on national security and foreign policies. The Council also serves as the president's principal arm for coordinating these policies among various government agencies. The Council has counterparts in the national security councils of many other nations.

balance of trade

The balance of trade (BOT) is the difference between a country's imports and its exports for a given time period. The balance of trade is the largest component of the country's balance of payments (BOP). Economists use the BOT as a statistical tool to help them understand the relative strength of a country's economy versus other countries' economies and the flow of trade between nations. The balance of trade is also referred to as the trade balance or the international trade balance.

Moderate candidates

They draw votes away from the primary candidates, but don't get enough to really make it anywhere.

Personal characteristics/leadership skills

To become president these are two attributes needed by a runner, a good set of skills can cover most imperfections

Foreign aid programs

United States foreign aid is aid given by the United States government to other governments. It can be divided into two broad categories: military aid and economic assistance. Other large sums are given to non-government agencies and individuals in other countries through American foundations, churches and other organizations. Millions of individuals in the United States remit sums to their own relatives abroad, but that is not counted as "foreign aid". Foreign aid has been given to a variety of recipients, including developing countries, countries of strategic importance to the United States, and countries recovering from war. The government channels about half of its economic assistance through a specialized agency, the United States Agency for International Development (USAID). Government-sponsored foreign aid began a systematic fashion after World War II, with the Marshall Plan of 1948 and the Mutual Security Act of 1951-61. In the 21st century, the US government operates five major categories of foreign assistance: bilateral development aid (the largest amount), economic assistance supporting U.S. political and security goals, humanitarian aid, multilateral economic contributions, and military aid.[2] In fiscal year 2014-15, less than 1% of the national budget goes to foreign assistance.[3]

Watergate

Watergate was a major political scandal that occurred in the United States in the 1970s, following a break-in at the Democratic National Committee (DNC) headquarters at the Watergate office complex in Washington, D.C. in 1972 and President Richard Nixon's administration's attempted cover-up of its involvement. When the conspiracy was discovered and investigated by the U.S. Congress, the Nixon administration's resistance to its probes led to a constitutional crisis.[1] The scandal led to the discovery of multiple abuses of power by the Nixon administration, an impeachment process against the president that led to articles of impeachment,[2] and the resignation of Nixon. The scandal also resulted in the indictment of 69 people, with trials or pleas resulting in 48 being found guilty, many of whom were Nixon's top administration officials.[3] The affair began with the arrest of five men for breaking and entering into the DNC headquarters at the Watergate complex on Saturday, June 17, 1972. The FBI investigated and discovered a connection between cash found on the burglars and a slush fund used by the Committee for the Re-Election of the President (CRP), the official organization of Nixon's campaign.[4][5] In July 1973, evidence mounted against the President's staff, including testimony provided by former staff members in an investigation conducted by the Senate Watergate Committee. The investigation revealed that President Nixon had a tape-recording system in his offices and that he had recorded many conversations.[6][7] After a protracted series of bitter court battles, the U.S. Supreme Court unanimously ruled that the president was obliged to release the tapes to government investigators, and he eventually complied. These audio recordings implicated the president, revealing he had attempted to cover up activities that took place after the break-in and to use federal officials to deflect the investigation.[5][8] Facing virtually certain impeachment in the House of Representatives and equally certain conviction by the Senate, Nixon resigned the presidency on August 9, 1974.[9][10] On September 8, 1974, his successor, Gerald Ford, pardoned him.

Weberian model

Weber's ideal bureaucracy is characterized by the following: hierarchical organization delineated lines of authority with fixed areas of activity action taken on the basis of, and recorded in, written rules bureaucratic officials with expert training rules implemented by neutral officials and career advancement depending on technical qualifications judged by organization, not individuals Weberian bureaucracy was a term coined by Max Weber, a notable German sociologist, political economist, and administrative scholar, who contributed to the study of bureaucracy, administrative discourses, and literature during the mid-1800s and early 1900s . In his 1922 masterpiece, Economy and Society, Weber described many ideal types of public administration and governance. His critical study of the bureaucratization of society was one of the most enduring parts of this work. It was Weber who began the study of bureaucracy and whose works led to the popularization of this term. Many aspects of modern public administration date back to him. This is epitomized in the fact that a classic, hierarchically-organized civil service is still called a "Weberian civil service. "

United Nations

What is the 'United Nations - UN' The United Nations (UN) is an international organization formed in 1945 to increase political and economic cooperation among member countries. The organization works on economic and social development programs, improving human rights and reducing global conflicts. The United Nations is composed of the General Assembly (for legislation), a Security Council (for the promotion of peace), an Economic and Social Council (for economic development), a Secretariat (administration and information and the International Court of Justice (for judicial matters). It is also responsible for the World Health Organization (WHO), UNICEF and the World Food Programme. BREAKING DOWN 'United Nations - UN' The United Nations was formed in the wake of WWII as a way to reduce tensions among countries and to reduce the possibility of other large-scale conflicts. Almost every country and sovereign state is represented, and the organization's leader, the Secretary-General, is appointed by the General Assembly. Funding for the organization comes from its members, with the United States contributing the largest amount to the budget.

White house staff

White House Office White House Chief of Staff White House Chief Strategist National Security Council Council of Economic Advisers Council on Environmental Quality Executive Residence staff Office of Administration Office of Management and Budget Office of National Drug Control Policy Office of Science and Technology Policy Office of the United States Trade Representative Office of the Vice President of the United States Chief of Staff to The Vice President of the United States

Pendleton Civil Service Act

a United States federal law, enacted in 1883, which established that positions within the federal government should be awarded on the basis of merit instead of political affiliation.[1] The act provided selection of government employees by competitive exams,[1] rather than ties to politicians or political affiliation. It also made it illegal to fire or demote government officials for political reasons and prohibited soliciting campaign donations on Federal government property.[1] To enforce the merit system and the judicial system, the law also created the United States Civil Service Commission.[1] This board would be in charge of determining the rules and regulations of the act.[2] The Act also allowed for the president, by executive order to decide which positions could be subject to the act and which would not.[2] A crucial result was the shift of the parties to reliance on funding from business,[3] since they could no longer depend on patronage hopefuls.

CIA

a civilian foreign intelligence service of the United States federal government, tasked with gathering, processing and analyzing national security information from around the world, primarily through the use of human intelligence (HUMINT). As one of the principal members of the U.S. Intelligence Community (IC), the CIA reports to the Director of National Intelligence and is primarily focused on providing intelligence for the President and Cabinet. Unlike the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), which is a domestic security service, the CIA has no law enforcement function and is mainly focused on overseas intelligence gathering, with only limited domestic intelligence collection. Though it is not the only U.S. government agency specializing in HUMINT, the CIA serves as the national manager for coordination of HUMINT activities across the US intelligence community. Moreover, the CIA is the only agency authorized by law to carry out and oversee covert action at the behest of the President, unless the President determines that another agency is better suited for carrying out such action.[6][7][8][9] It exerts foreign political influence through its tactical divisions, such as the Special Activities Division.[10] Before the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act, the CIA Director concurrently served as the head of the Intelligence Community; today the CIA is organized under the Director of National Intelligence (DNI). Despite transferring some of its powers to the DNI, the CIA has grown in size as a result of the September 11 attacks. In 2013, The Washington Post reported that in fiscal year 2010, the CIA had the largest budget of all IC agencies, exceeding previous estimates.

Hatch Act

a congressional law that forbade government officials from participating in partisan politics and protected government employees from being fired on partisan grounds; it was revised in 1993 to be less restrictive

War powers act

a law passed in 1973 in reaction to American fighting in Vietnam and Cambodia that requires presidents to consult with Congress whenever possible prior to using military force and to withdraw forces after 60 days unless Congress declares war or grants an extension.

detente

a relaxing of tension, especially between nations, as by negotiations or agreements.

Tariff

a tax or duty to be paid on a particular class of imports or exports.

Incentive system

according to Charles Schultze, a more effective and efficient policy than command-and-control; in the incentive system, market-like strategies are used to manage public policy.

command and control policy

according to Charles Schultze, the existing system of regulation whereby government tells business how to reach certain goals, checks that these commands are followed, and punishes offenders.

EU

an association of European nations formed in 1993 for the purpose of achieving political and economic integration. Incorporating the European Community, the European Union's member states are Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, and the United Kingdom. In 2016 the United Kingdom voted by referendum to withdraw from membership in the European Union.

Trasnational corporations

are incorporated or unincorporated enterprises comprising parent enterprises and their foreign affiliates. A parent enterprise is defined as an enterprise that controls assets of other entities in countries other than its home country, usually by owning a certain equity capital stake.

standard operating procedures

better known as SOP's these procedures are used by bureaucrats to bring uniformity to complex organizations. Uniformity improves fairness and makes personnel interchangeable.

veto

constitutional power of the president to send a bill back to Congress with reasons for rejecting it. A two-thirds vote in each house can override it.

FCC

created in 1934, with jurisdiction over communications in the 50 states, Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands. The function of the commission is to regulate interstate and foreign radio, television, wire, and cable communications; to provide for orderly development and operation of broadcasting services; to provide for rapid, efficient nationwide and worldwide telegraph and telephone service; to promote the safety of life and property through the use of wire and radio communications; and to employ communications facilities for strengthening national defense. In the field of radio, the FCC regulates amplitude modulation (AM) and frequency modulation (FM) broadcasting and other kinds of radio services. It issues construction permits and licenses for all nongovernmental radio stations. It also assigns frequencies, operating power, and call signs; inspects transmitting equipment, and regulates the use of such equipment. Television broadcasting is regulated by the FCC in the same manner. The commission also regulates the use of cable channels and the quality of service delivered by cable television. In common-carrier operations, which include telephone, telegraph, radio, and satellite communications, the FCC issues regulations and supervises service. The FCC is responsible for domestic administration of the telecommunications provisions of treaties and international agreements, and licenses radio and cable circuits from the United States to foreign points. The Emergency Broadcast System, which alerts and instructs the public in the event of enemy attack, is supervised by the FCC; the system is regularly used for broadcasting weather warnings and may also be used in local emergencies. The FCC is administered by five commissioners appointed by the president, with approval of the Senate, to 7-year terms.

coalitions

group of individuals with a common interest upon which every political party depends. These people support their party to make sure they keep their promises.

Street level bureaucrats

is the subset of a public agency or government institution where the civil servants work who have direct contact with members of the general public. Street-level civil servants carry out and/or enforce the actions required by a government's laws and public policies, in areas ranging from safety and security to education and social services. A few examples include police officers, border guards, social workers and public school teachers. These civil servants have direct contact with members of the general public, in contrast with civil servants who do policy analysis or economic analysis, who do not meet the public. Street-level bureaucrats often have some degree of discretion on how they enforce the rules, laws and policies which they are assigned to uphold.

OPEC

mission: In accordance with its Statute, the mission of the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) is to coordinate and unify the petroleum policies of its Member Countries and ensure the stabilization of oil markets in order to secure an efficient, economic and regular supply of petroleum to consumers, a steady income to producers and a fair return on capital for those investing in the petroleum industry. As of 2015, the 13 countries accounted for an estimated 42 percent of global oil production and 73 percent of the world's "proven" oil reserves, giving OPEC a major influence on global oil prices that were previously determined by American-dominated multinational oil companies.

iron triangles

mutually dependent relationship between bureaucratic agencies, interest groups, and congressional committees or subcommittees. They dominate some areas of domestic policymaking.

regulation

the use of governmental authority to control or change some practice in the private sector. Regulations pervade the daily lives of people and institution.

presidential coattails

these occur when voters cast their ballots for congressional candidates of the president's party because they support the president.

legislative veto

the ability of Congress to override a presidential decision. Although the War Powers Resolution asserts this authority, there is reason to believe that, if challenged, the Supreme Court would find the legislative veto in violation of the doctrine of separation of powers.

administrative discretion

the authority of administrative actors to select among various response to a given problem. Discretion is greatest when routines, or standard operating procedures, do not fit a case.

merit principle

the idea that hiring should be based on entrance exams and promotion ratings to produce administration by people with talent and skill.

deregulation

the lifting of restrictions on business, industry, and professional activities for which government rules had been established and that bureaucracies had been created to administer.

Office of personal management

the office in charge of hiring for most agencies of the federal government, using elaborate rules in the process.

Globalization

the process by which businesses or other organizations develop international influence or start operating on an international scale.

pocket veto

veto taking place when Congress adjourns within 10 days of submitting a bill to the president, who simply lets it die by neither signing nor vetoing it.