Unit 7 Human Geography

Compare the World City Models. Explain South American City

(Griffin-Ford 1980s) This model combines radial sectors and concentric zones. It highlights the economic disparities & unequal distribution of resources between the center and periphery. The quality of houses decreases as you move outward away from CBD, & areas of worse housing occurs in Disamenity sectors. Aspects of the model are: CBD: focus of employment, entertainment, and economic activity. Roads, trains, & buses are reliable here. MARKET: Area made up of formal & informal economic activity. SPINE & ELITE Residential (spine/sector): Emanating from the core outward is the spine which is surrounded by elite residential sector. Houses are the wealthiest in the city and contains most urban amenities (water & electricity) and offices, shops, restaurants, parks, theaters. Strict zoning and land use laws. MALL: At the end of the spine sector is the Mall which reflects the emergence of suburban nodes/nuclei from North American Model. ZONE of MATURITY: Better homes typically traditional colonial homes & upgraded self built homes. Fully serviced. Population density not as high as CBD or Spine. GENTRIFICATION: process of converting urban neighborhoods from low income renter to middle/upper class owner occupied. More likely to occur near the CBD and elite areas. SITU ACCRETION: Middle & low income housing. Transitional area b/t zone of maturity and zone of squatter. Some neighborhoods have city provided utilities others have water and gas delivery trucks for services. Houses are of diverse sizes. DISAMENTIY: (name is b/c lack amenities) unchanging slums (barrios & favelas) that may not be connected to regular city services. Can reach all the way to the core but tends to stick to the outside. PERIPHERAL SQUATTER settlements: home for the poor and unskilled. Housing is mostly shantytowns (shelters made of scrap wood, iron, or cardboard). Many are immigrants. Lawless barrios/favelas usually behind main ring highway know as periferico. Streets unpaved and trenches to carry waste and carry water long distances. Electricity pirated. Larger poor areas reflect people moving from rural to urban areas. INDUSTRIAL PARK: manufacturing and industry. Opposite side of elite MIDDLE CLASS residential: middle class housing

Describe issues and challenges regarding infrastructure in urban areas.

1. Overcrowding & Congestion: Urban areas have high population densities which can put a strain on transportation systems, and amenities like water, sanitation, and energy. 2. Deteriorating Infrastructure: it becomes outdated and deteriorates over time especially when maintenance and upgrades are not taking place. 3. Inadequate Funding: cities may struggle to secure funding for infrastructure or maintenance. 4. Environmental Risk: Urban areas can be vulnerable to flooding, pollution, and extreme weather. Strong infrastructure is needed to cope with such issues. 5. Unequal access to services such as healthcare, education, sanitation is a major challenge for cities especially those areas that are marginalized.

Greenbelt

A designated area of land around a city or urban area that is protected from development in order to preserve open space, reduce urban sprawl, and promote sustainable land use

Zoning Laws

A law that limits the permitted uses of land and maximum density of development in a community.

Site

A place's physical features related to the costs of business production, such as land, labor, and capital.

What is a primate city? Adv. & Dis.

A primate city is the largest city in a country or region, and is significantly larger and more influential than any other city in the region. Primate cities often serve as the economic, cultural, and political center of their region. Examples: Tokyo, Japan & New York City London, United Kingdom Mumbai, India & Jakarta, Indonesia São Paulo, Brazil & Cairo, Egypt Moscow, Russia & Shanghai, China Advantages: Economic dominance (attract business & people); Cultural influence; Political importance; Transportation hub: (comprehensive network of roads, railways, and airports) Disadvantages: Overcrowding, Traffic Congestion, Social & Economic Inequality, Environmental Issues

Redlining

A process by which banks draw lines on a map and refuse to lend money to purchase or improve property within the boundaries.

Blockbusting

A process by which real estate agents convince white property owners to sell their houses at low prices because of fear that persons of color will soon move into the neighborhood

Why was there a decline in cities being located in the interior area of continents during the 1400s?

After European exploration took off, the dominance of interior cities declined b/c interior trade routes changed to the waterways. Cities sited along the coasts gained dominance. Examples: Bombay (India), Madras (India), Malacca (Malaysia), Tokyo (Japan). This also impacted Africa Timbuktu (Africa), Zaria (Nigeria). Coastal cities remained important after exploration lead to colonialism. During Colonial Period, New York, Lima-Callao (Peru), Cape Town (Africa) were very important cities in international trade.

Describe the causes and effects of suburban/edge city growth.

After WWII, the availability of personal cars and and construction of roads led to rapid suburbanization. Outer edges of urban areas grew quickly and became functionally independent from the central city. Edge Cities developed around shopping centers and attracted industrial parks, offices, hotels, restaurants, sports stadiums, entertainment. They attracted thousands of suburbanites b/c offered workplace, shopping, leisure activities so they became independent of the central city and other suburban areas. In 1973, american suburbs surpassed the central cities in total employment. There was rapid population dispersal to outer suburbs which created a distant nuclei but also reduced the volume and level of interaction b/t city and suburban cities. The regional shopping centers became the CBD of the outer nulclei. A new decentered urban metropolitan area came into being. Schaumburg, IL is an example of a edge city. It has Woodfield Mall, restaraunts, entertainment, Ohare Airport.

What are the differences and similarities between the 3 world models.

All 3 models try to understand how cities developed and why certain zones are found in particular areas. SouthEast Asia Model is similar to Latin American Model b/c they each show high class residential zones that stem from the center, middle class zones that occur in inner city area, and low income squatter that occur in periphery. Also, both are a hybrid structure of sectors and zones. One difference between Asia & Latin Model is Asian Model includes middle income housing in a suburban zone which shows a larger middle class in Asian cities and a small middle class in Latin American cities. Another difference between the Asian model and the others is that the Asian model does not have a formal CBD. A difference between the African models and the other two is that the African model has 3 CBDs. Another difference with the African newer model is that there is a lack of specific classes getting mentioned (middle class, elite class) A difference between Latin American model and the other two is that it is the only model that shows gentrification zone.

Exurbs

An area outside the typically denser inner suburban area, at the edge of a metropolitan area, which has some economic and commuting connection to the metro area, low housing density, and growth.

Edge City

An edge city is an urban area with a large suburban residential and business area surrounding it. These areas are tied together by a beltway. The edge cities started as suburban areas for those who worked in the central cities. Eventually, new shopping complexes developed in these suburban areas, such as enclosed shopping malls, and big-box chains. Many edge cities now a mix of business and some manufacturing centers.

Squatter settlements/shantytowns

Areas of poverty in which the people do not own the land, little planning, no public services or infrastructure

Explain the effects of redlining.

Before the Civil Rights Movement of 1960s, financial institutions in the business of lending money would engage redlining. Redlining involves identifying risky neighborhoods in cities (often black neighborhoods) and refusing to offer loans to those wanting to purchase a home in the neighborhood encircled by redlines on a map. The result/effect of this practice which is now illegal worked against those living in poorer neighborhoods and helped accelerate a downward spiral of those neighborhoods becoming more rundown since funds were not available to upkeep the neighborhood or purchase homes for sale.

Brownfields

Brown fields are abandoned or underutilized industrial or commercial sites that often pose environmental hazards due to the presence of toxic substances or pollutants. These sites are typically located in urban areas and may be contaminated with hazardous waste which can pose health risks. As a result, brownfield redevelopment has become an important issue in many cities as local governments work to revitalize underdeveloped areas.

Explain how central place theory affects the distribution of cities.

CPT was developed by Walter Christaller in the 1930s. CPT explains the spacing, size, and number of settlements in a given area. According to CPT, settlements are located in a hierarchical pattern. The size, spacing, and function of the settlements are determined by threshold and range. Threshold relates to the population and range relates to the distance traveled to support a good or service. CPT affects the distribution of cities by providing a framework for how cities are located and connected within the region. According to the theory, larger cities are spaced farther apart than smaller ones b/c they provide a wider range of services and goods so people are willing to travel greater distances to reach them. Smaller cities provide more basic services and larger cities provide more specialized services. As the size and importance of a settlement increases, so does the range and diversity of goods and services that it offers.

Compare North American city models. Explain Concentric Model

Each model offers a different way of understanding how cities developed and why certain zones are found in particular areas. Concentric Model (Burgess 1920s) - cities develop in rings defined by their function (zone) from the central business district. CBD is the focal point for all development (offices, consumer services, shopping, gov. buildings) and the neighborhoods are arranged concentrically around it. The fringe/transitional zone included warehouses, light industry, bus/train terminals, and run down housing and encroachment of businesses from CBD. Started with homes of blue collar workers from factories to medium income homes to high income commuters. Residential Geography (housing) of the city was driven by invasion and succession where new immigrants moved into the oldest houses near the city center and pushed earlier groups outward. Each new wave of immigration would push the previous group outward. This is a dynamic model so as the city grew, land was converted into zones. This model fit during the early 1900s when immigration was high and few families owned cars and nearly all jobs were either downtown or its fringe. Zones: CBD, Transitional zone, working class zone, residential zone, and commuter zone.

Compare North American Models. Explain Muliple Nuclei

(Harris & Ullman 1940s) This model has neither concentric rings nor sectors. The CBD is not the center of the model b/c they believed it was losing it dominance of the urban area and that there were actually several different nuclei. Each nuclei serves as a center for different activities and that urban development expands outward from the nuclei. The growing popularity of the car created economic developments in the suburbs. This mobility allowed for regional centers to specialize their businesses. In the last half of the twentieth century, researchers noticed that many of the new suburban CBDs in the United States became specialized toward a particular industrial or service sector. This model provides a more decentralized urban landscape. This model is more flexible than the other 2 models in that the districts are not always of the same shape or spatial arrangements. Middle class neighborhoods boarding exclusive neighborhoods and lower class neighborhoods bordering manufacturing and wholesaling. As cars became more prevalent and the suburbs cities grew, multiple nuclei model morphed to urban realms or suburban downtowns. Suburban dwellers interact on a regular basis with their nearby suburban downtown. There are several nuclei: CBD, outlying business district, Low class res, middle class res, high class res, light manufacturing, heavy manufacturing, industrial suburb, residential suburb.

Compare World City Models. Explain Southeast Asian City.

(McGee 1967) SE Asia has some of the most populous and fast growing cities in the world. High rise developments and some of the worlds tallest buildings. Most major Asian cities developed by European colonizers on ports. Hybrid of sectors and zones. There is no formal CBD. The focal point of the model is the colonial PORT ZONE combined with a largely commercial district. He found elements of the CBD present as clusters in government zone, WESTERN COMMERCIAL ZONE (for western business), ALIEN COMMERCIAL ZONE (dominated by Chinese & Indian business). MIXED LAND USE zone: has misc activities and light industry. It also contains various economic uses which includes informal business. MARKET GARDEN ZONE and INDUSTRIAL ESTATE/PARK are at the outskirts. MIDDLE CLASS RESIDENTIAL zone is fairly large HIGH CLASS zone NEW HIGH CLASS zone ZONE OF SUBURBS & SQUATTER AREAS

Explain the process of gentrification and its effects.

Gentrification is the rehabilitation of deteriorated houses in low income areas particularly in areas near the centers of many cities. Gentrification began in the 1960s in the US in areas of San Francisco, Portland, and Chicago, but slowed down in the 1990s. Gentrification is beginning again through the beautification programs and significant tax breaks to people who buy up abandoned or dilapidated housing. Gentrified central city neighborhoods attract residents who want to live within walking distance of work, culture, entertainment, nightlife and restaurants. Typically these people are not as concerned about family homes with large back yards (growth in single people population or childless couples). One consequence of gentrification is increased housing prices in central-city neighborhoods. It typically will displace lower income residents because property taxes rise as land values rise, and the cost of goods and services in the neighborhood. This consequence can be serious b/c rising cost can play a significant role in homelessness. Suburbs can also be subject to gentrification b/c they are close to the city. People will purchase smaller or older homes with the intention of tearing them down and building bigger homes which can be McMansion (supersized and stretch over limits of lot).

Favela

Illegal housing settlements, usually made up of temporary shelters that surround large cities.

What are urban land use models?

In the early 1900's, researchers wanted to find out how cities worked. They developed a variety of urban land use models to help describe and explain different types of cities and the neighborhoods that made up the city. It makes sense that scholars at the University of Chicago developed many of these land use models because Chicago was a city that saw rapid growth in the 19th century.

Give an example of urbanization occurring rather quickly in the modern world.

In the late 1900s, The Chinese government announced an economic development project in a small fishing village of Shenzhen in Guangdong Province. Gov established a SEZ and hundreds of industries moved from Hong Kong to Shenzhen to take advantage of lower labor cost and gov incentives. Population went from 20,000 to 8 million. Within 25 years, Skyscrapers replaced rice paddies and small thatch houses.

Compare the World City Models. Explain Africa City Model

In the tropic region, majority of people are farmers and less than 40% urbanized. Outside tropics, almost 60% urbanized. Africa is the world's fastest growing city followed by South Asia. North America, SOUTHERN South America, and Australia growing more slowly. Western Europe is barely growing at all. Africa has so many tribes and influences that it is difficult to formulate a model. The model was developed in 1962 and it shows the central city has 3 CBD (colonial CBD, and traditional CBD, and a Market Zone). Colonial CBD - reflects the past & is sophisticated commerce with vertical development. The small colonial CBD shows a lack of development since this is the area of formal economy and transnational corporations. Traditional CBD - single story buildings. Market Zone - open air, informal, curbside commerce. ZONE of LOWER to MIDDLE INCOME: Sector zones from CBD of residential zones (more affluent residents live closer to colonial CBD) ZONE of SLUMS & SQUATTER: peripheral squatter settlements (lack infrastructure, sanitation, clean water, and electricity). MINING & MANUFACTURING: reflects the nature of the types of jobs found in African cities

Modern Influences on Urbanization

Influences on urbanization include economic, social, political, and environmental factors. Economic factors like wages, access to resources, and opportunities for trade and commerce can attract people to urban areas. Social factors such as access to education, healthcare, and culture can be driving factors. Political factors such as government investment in infrastructure and services can fuel urban growth. Environmental factors such as climate, terrain, and natural resources can impact city growth.

Describe land use patterns and zoning in cities.

Land use patterns and zoning in cities depends on factors like population density, urban form (natural features, transportation, building heights) and economic activity. Zoning laws dictate acceptable methods of land use for a given area. For example, there will be zoning for residential, commercial, industrial, and institutional uses. Bid Rent Theory affects urban land use. Land value decreases as one moves away from the CBD and population density decreases as one moves away from CBD. Also, population density declines as distance increases. Led to vertical expansion. Explains why commerce is located in the CBD or close to CBD and residential areas/industry and manufacturing are willing to locate away from the CBD.Land use patterns can be influenced by the availability of infrastructure (roads, public trans, utilities). Some cities may have designated open space or natural areas such as parks or wetlands, that are protected from development. The goal of land use patterns and zoning in cities is to promote the efficient use of land and resources while ensuring community are safe and sustainable.

Explain the origins and influences of urbanization. (Explain the origins)

Many agree that the first cities came several millennia after the origins of agriculture. Agriculture villages were small in size and everyone was involved in agriculture just producing enough to get by. Two factors brought about cities, their growth, and stabilization: Agriculture surplus and social stratification. Most believe technology such as irrigation generated the surplus and a leadership class formed to control the surplus. Another theory is that a priest/king demanded the surplus to gain power. The leadership class generated the surplus & controlled distribution. In each urban hearth, people were engaged in economic activities beyond agriculture - crafts, military, trade, government. The innovation of the city is called the first urban revolution & it occurred in 6 separate urban hearths which are tied to the hearths of agriculture. 1. Fertile Crescent (agriculture) became urban hearth of Mesopotamia 3500BC. Signs of social inequality with houses & temples/palaces. Rulers levied taxes. 2. Nile River Valley 3200 BC - pyramids, known for irrigation. 3. Indus River Valley 2200BC - existence of leadership class but there was equality in housing & infrastructure. Significant trade long distances. 4. Huang He & Wei Valley 1500BC. - present day China; Enormous temples/palaces; Great Wall of China. 5. Mesoamerica 1100BC Religious Centers; Olmec died out and Mayan built their cities in same region. 6 Peru 900BC Chavin civilization.

Compare different types of cities (megacities, metacities, world cities).

MeGa cities have a population of over 10 million people. They are characterized by dense populations, high levels of economic development, and diverse culture. Examples: Tokyo, Delhi, Mumbai, New York, and Sao Paulo. MeTa City a city with a population of more than 20 million. World Cities - are ranked in order of importance to the global economy. There are several criteria that are looked at - Global Metro, Global Financial, Global Competiveness, Global Cities, City Prosperity. These cities are major players in the global economy and are connected to a network of other global cities through economic, cultural, and political linkages. They are often home to many international institutions (such as banks, universities, and are centers of industries such as finance, media, and creative arts). World cities are also often major transportation hubs, with a comprehensive network of roads, railways, and airports. Examples: (Most important according to numerous list: New York, London, Tokyo). Paris, Singapore, Hong Kong, Dubai, and London

New Urbanism

Outlined by a group of architects, urban planners, and developers from over 20 countries, an urban design that calls for development, urban revitalization, and suburban reforms that create walkable neighborhoods with a diversity of housing and jobs.

Why do people continue to migrate towards these over crowded populous cities such as Sao Paulo (Mexico). What are some other city examples?

People migrate from other cities or rural areas to these populous cities for a better life. Unfortunately, to often these expectations do not materialize because of overcrowding. Housing cannot keep up with the cities rate of growth. As a result, shantytowns develop around the city.

Explain how rank size rule and primate cities predict the size and distribution of cities.

Rank size rule is a principle that states that the population of a city or town will be inversely proportional to its rank in the hierarchy of settlements in an area. In other words, the 3rd largest city will be 1/3 the size of the largest city. Primate cities, are extremely large cities that are disproportionate in size to the rest of the settlements in the area. Primate cities dominate the economic, political, and cultural life of their countries and are Significantly (way over double the size) of any city in the area. Both of these principles have implications (draw conclusions) for the size and distribution of cities in a region. The rank size predicts there will be a relatively small number of cities in a given area, surrounded by a much larger number of smaller cities and towns. Primate suggest that there may be a single dominating city in an area that is much larger and more important than the other settlement.

Across the global periphery, what is the one trait all major cities display?

Stark contrast between the very wealthy and the very poor. Wealthy and poor areas can be found in major cities all over the world. For example, homeless people sleeping on cardboard boxes a half block from the White House in DC. In Cairo, Egypt, the wealthy area quickly disappears into unpaved dirt roads with temporary shelters.

Compare North American Models. Explain Sector Model

The Sector Model (Hoyt 1930s) - Cities develop in sectors (pie shaped) rather than concentric rings. He focused on residential patterns and he argued that the city grows outward from the center so low-rent area could extend from the CBD to the outer edge. The CBD is still in the center like the Concentric Model, but different zones wedge out from the center. High rent areas radiated outward along nice boulevards and environmentally desirable corridors such as high grounds, ocean fronts, lakeshores, and parks. Wealthy residents tried to locate as far as possible from low income zones which tended to be adjacent to industrial areas long rr tracks where many blue collar workers were employed. Middle income areas tended to be located on either side of high rent corridors. 7 sectors: CBD, low rent residential, middle class res, high rent res, industrial, transportation, and education/recreation.

Infrastructure

The basic structure of services, installations, and facilities needed to support industrial, agricultural, and other economic development; included are transport and communications, along with water, power, and other public utilities.

Functional Zonation

The division of a city into different regions or zones (e.g. residential or industrial) for certain purposes or functions (e.g. housing or manufacturing) zones.

Situation

The features of a location's surrounding area, especially as related to the cost of transporting raw materials and finished goods.

What changes were made between initial Griffin/Ford model to the New Improved updated one?

The following 5 new zones were added: Market, Mall, Gentrification, Industrial Park, and Middle Class Residential. Acknowledgement of a middle class residential area, awareness of gentrification taking place near CBD and elite areas. Acknowledgment of suburban nodes in the mall.

Explain Galactic City Model

The galactic city model provides a good representation of land use organization of today because the growth of suburbs and the CBD no longer being dominate. Specialized business areas have evolved to support the outskirts of the city. This model is also known as the peripheral model. The model is based on the city of Detroit, Michigan and is made up of an inner city, with large suburban residential and business areas surrounding it. These areas are tied together by transportation nodes, like beltways, to avoid traffic congestion. This model takes the multiple nuclei model one step further. It accounts for the fact that the classic CBD is no longer dominant, but is instead upstaged by several specialized suburban areas. The galactic city model shows the evolution of the post-industrial city and its movement away from the large central city CBD. In the galactic city model, the urban area is decentralized and more focus is placed on edge cities. Pressures of mega and meta cities and urban sprawl were relieved with the establishment of edge cities. Edge cities have lower density than inner cities. They have box stores, not many sky scrapers, more open space and new construction. Edge cities provide options so people don't have to go to the urban core. Schaumburg, IL is an example of an edge city. Earlier models (concentric & Sector model) were no longer realistic b/c developments in transportation made these models less realistic by the 1950s.

Suburbanization

The growth of cities outside of an urban area. They grow in the galactic/edge city model because of the interstate highway and the availability of goods outside of the city.

Gentrification

The process of renewal and rebuilding accompanying the influx of middle-class or affluent people into deteriorating areas that often displaces poorer residents.

Urban Sprawl

The process of urban areas expanding outwards, usually in the form of suburbs, and developing over fertile agricultural land. It is characterized by low-density development, with a proliferation of single-family homes, strip malls, and other automobile-oriented development.

Disamenity Sector

The very poorest parts of cities that in extreme cases are not even connected to regular city services and are controlled by gangs or drug lords.

First Urban Revolution

This is the innovation of the city and it occurred independently in six separate hearths. People were engaged in activities beyond agriculture, including crafts, military, trade and government.

Give an example of an edge city.

Tysons Corner, Virginia (outside Washington DC) and Irvine, California (outside Los Angeles).

Describe the characteristics of New Urbanism and Slow Growth cities.

Urban sprawl is the unrestricted growth of housing, commercial developments (businesses), and roads over large areas of land with little concern for urban planning. For example, you will see chain restaurants, strip malls, huge intersections and numerous housing developments spread out over many acres of land. New Urbanism attempts to counter urban sprawl by emphasizing walkability, mixed use development, and community oriented design. The planners choose the central shopping areas and open spaces and develop the neighborhoods around them with housing clustered around the central space so people can walk. Characteristics are compact, pedestrian friendly neighborhoods, balanced mix of residential, commercial, and government buildings; public spaces that encourage community gatherings. Critics believe this design takes away from the city's character and that the communities deepen racial segregation because the public spaces are privatized and not open to the public. Slow growth cities, on the other hand, are communities that prioritize quality of life over growth and development. They have strict zoning regulations, low population growth rates, and a focus on preserving natural areas and rural landscapes. They have strong environmental and sustainability initiatives.

Explain the origins and influences of urbanization. (Explain Urbanization & where it traces back to)

Urbanization is the process where people moved from rural areas to urban areas. For the majority of human history, the world was largely rural. The origins of urbanization trace back to the development of agriculture (where people settled in one place and began farming). As agriculture output increased, surplus food allowed for the growth of cities, which became centers of trade, commerce, and culture. The IR further accelerated urbanization as factories were set up in urban areas.

What is the consequence when cities lack enforceable zoning laws?

When cities lack enforceable zoning laws, there is mixed land use throughout the city. Cities in poorer parts of the world typically the periphery struggle with enforcing zoning laws. As a result, you will see open space between high rise building occupied by squatter settlements (in Madras, India) or elementary schools next to noisy polluting factories (in Bangkok Thailand). Rising land values and greater demand for enforcing zoning regulations are transforming some of these cities like it did for East Asia. However, South Asia, Subsaharan African, Southwest Asia, North Africa, and Middle & South American are still very unregulated.

How can governments counter suburbanization trend and shape cities?

When people leave the city for single family suburban homes with big yards, better schools, and safety, the city governments lose out on taxes b/c those families are paying taxes to the suburbs instead. To counter the trend, city governments commercialize CBD (transforming CBD into attractive area for residents and tourists) and gentrification of neighborhoods. Gov. revive central cities by cleaning streets/sidewalks; tearing down old buildings; and building up new residences and commercial (businesses) offerings. Examples: Chicago creating the waterfront river walk; New York and Miami have also created waterfront themed area (festival marketplaces, parks w/ sculptures, amusement zones). Governments can also use tax incentives to attract professional sport stadiums to the central area of the city (Detroit & Minneapolis). Most important factor needed is permanent residence so gov. uses gentrification to rehabilitate deteriorated homes in low income neighborhoods to attract buyers to move into the newly developed area.

What were the changes made within the African Model.

Zone of Slums & Squatter Settlements was replaced with the label Informal Satellite Townships which continues to be the outermost part of the city consist of poor neighborhoods or shantytowns. Zone of lower to Middle Income Residences was replaced with ethnic and mixed neighborhoods where people have strong ethnic ties & reflects tribalism. The lack of classes getting mentioned reflects the poverty of the area. The lack of mentioned areas of elite, middle class and gentrification also speak to this. No large cities to match Cairo. Kinshasa, Nairobi, Harare, Dakar, Abidjan were established by Europeans.