UNIT TEST (Development, Personality, Social Psych): Jeopardy Monday & Test Tuesday
Rationalization
Defense mechanism Coming up with a beneficial result of an undesirable occurrence Example: You miss the daily double, but you tell everyone that this was actually good because now you are going to study more for the test and go hard the next Jeopardy. Similar to Cognitive Dissonance
Personal Construct Theory
-George Kelly, argued that people, in their attempts to understand their world, develop their own, individual systems of personal constructs -Such constructs consist of pairs of opposites such as fair-unfair, smart-dumb, and exciting-dull -People then use these constructs to evaluate their worlds. Kelly believed that behavior is determined by how people interpret the world.
Reaction formation
Defense mechanism Expressing the opposite of how one truly feels Example: Scott doesn't want to be gay, so he becomes homophobic, even though deep down he really is gay.
Denial
Defense mechanism Not accepting the ego-threatening truth Example: I didn't really miss the daily double. I said the right answer, but Highfill said it was wrong, but it was right.
Displacement
Defense mechanism Redirecting one's feelings (often anger) toward another person or object "Kick the dog" Example: You try to argue with your coach, but you can't because you'll get thrown off the team, so you go home and yell at your little brother and you abuse your dog
Carol Gilligan
Criticized Kohlberg's stages of moral development because it did not consider the differences between men and women
Role
A set of expectations about a social position defining how those in the position might behave "Fake it until you make it" - we feel as if we are pretending at first, but then we become the role The Stanford Prison Study shows how THESE can change us
Projection
Defense mechanism Believing that the feelings one has toward someone else are actually held by the other person and directed at oneself Example: You cheat during Jeopardy, but when Highfill calls you out, you say "I'm not the cheater, Adam is the cheater. He copies Elsie's quiz."
Normative Social Influence
A desire to gain social approval. You don't want to be the different one in the group, so you go along with what the group is doing. You just want to fit in For example, in the Asch experiment, you know the group is wrong, but you change your answer anyway to as not stand out.
Heinz Dilemma
A moral dilemma developed by Kohlberg to test moral development. A man wanted to steal a drug for his dying wife. It didn't matter if you answered "yes" or "no," but it mattered how you answered.
Big Five Personality Traits
A number of contemporary trait theorists believe that personality can be described with: Openness: Creative, try new things Conscientiousness: Hardworking, responsible, organized Extraversion: Outgoing & sociable Agreeableness: get along with others Neuroticism: Emotional stability, consistent mood Acronym: O C E A N
temperment
A person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity Studies by Jerome Kagan have shown that temperment may be something that stays constant throughout life. Relaxed and calm babies tend to become relaxed and calm adults.
self-report inventories
A personality test that you take yourself - many different kinds of psychologists use THESE as one way to gather data about someone MMPI-2 is the most widely used personality test and it is THIS type A potential problem with THESE is that people may not be completely honest in answering the questions
Attitude
A set of beliefs and feelings THESE are evaluative, meaning that our feelings toward people, particular events, and places are necessarily positive or negative A great deal of social psychology research focuses on what affects people's THESE and what kind of impact behaviors have on THESE THESE do not perfectly predict behaviors. What people say they will do and what they will actually do often differ
Repression
Defense mechanism Blocking thoughts out from conscious awareness Example: You don't remember losing your team's Jeopardy daily double. THIS is the only defense mechanism that is NOT TRUE. Memory does not work like this.
Defense Mechanisms
An element of Freud's Psychoanalytic Personality Theory Used by the ego to help protect the conscious mind. Many of Freud's theories are wrong! However, THESE are correct (except for repression)
jigsaw classroom
Aronson and Gonzalez developed this idea based on the contact theory to ease tension between Mexican American students and white students in Texas. Elementary school teachers broke their classrooms into a number of diverse "expert" groups that all learned one part of a lesson. Next individuals from each expert group met with others in the jigsaw group, and this led to lowering stereotypes and higher self-esteem. After experiment, the white students had less prejudice and the minority students had higher self-efficacy
cognitive disonance
Based on the idea that people are motivated to have consistent attitudes and behaviors. When they do not, they experience unpleasant mental tension or dissonance.PEOPLE WILL ACT TO REDUCE THE TENSION Festinger and Carlsmith Example: Amira thinks that studying is only for geeks. If she studies for 10 hours for her chemistry test, she will experience THIS. Because she cannot, at this point, alter her behavior (she has already studied for 10 hours), the only way to reduce this dissonance is to change her attitude and decide that studying does not necessarily make someone a geek
Ethnocentrism
Belief in the superiority of one's nation, racial, or ethnic group. A specific kind of prejudice People from one culture are so used to their own culture that they see it as the norm as which to judge other cultures - look down on different clothes, food, or religion
Jean Piaget's Cognitive Developmental Theory
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT Using schemas
The Asch Line Judging Experiment
CONFORMITY EXPERIMENT One subject was surrounded by confederates in a room and asked to judge the length of lines, which was an easy task. If the confederates gave a wrong answer, it was likely that the subject would then want to CONFORM to the group and also give the wrong answer. Found in each separate test when the confederates gave an incorrect answer, the subject conformed to that wrong answer 37% of the time Approximately 74% of the subjects conformed on at least one of the trials
Unconditional Positive Regard
Carl Rogers' personality theory is based on the belief that people are innately good and require certain things from their interactions with others Rogers believed that people must feel accepted in order to make strides towards being fully functioning THIS is a "no judgement" blanket acceptance which helps people self-actualize
Teratogens
Chemicals or agents that can cause harm if ingested or contracted by the mother if it makes it through the placenta filter One of the most common is alcohol, which causes fetal alcohol syndrome
Schemas (schemata)
Cognitive rules we use to interpret the world For example, a child's schemata for a dog might be any animal with fur and four legs We assimilate OR accommodate PIAGET
Social-Cognitive Personality Theories
Combine behaviorists' emphasis on the importance of the environment with cognitive psychologists' focus on patterns of thought. Bandura's Reciprocal Determinism
Realistic Conflict Theory
Conflict happens when you combine negative prejudices with competition over limited resources Example: Sherif's Robbers Cave
Sublimation
Defense mechanism Redirection of unacceptable sexual or aggressive impulses frustration toward a more socially acceptable goal Example- Japan has one of the lowest murder rates in the world, but Japanese popular culture is extremely violent. People are sublimating their violent impulses into entertainment, like violent movies
Regression
Defense mechanism Returning to an earlier, comforting form of behavior Example: After a tough loss in Jeopardy, where you missed the daily double, you go home and relax to Sponge Bob.
Intellectualization
Defense mechanism Undertaking an academic, unemotional study of a topic Example: When asking a friend about his difficult divorce, he responds by saying "Well, 53% of all marriages end in divorce, and the US is 7th in the world in divorce rate."
Stages of Grief and Coping with Dying
Developed by Elisabeth Kubler-Ross 1. Denial 2. Anger 3. Bargaining 4. Depression 5. Acceptance
Longitudinal Research
Developmental research that takes place over a long period of time Instead of sampling from various age groups as in cross-sectional research, THIS study examines one group of participants over time
Permissive Parents
Do not set clear guidelines for their children The rules that do exist in the family are constantly changed or not enforced consistently. Family members may perceive that they can get away with anything at home. Example: If you came in 15 minutes after your curfew, your parents' reaction would be unpredictable. They may not seem to mind, or threaten you with a punishment that they never follow through on Researched by Diana Baumrind
Chromosome and Gene
Each DNA segment of a chromosome that determines a trait is a gene Males have 44 chromosomes, plus X and Y Females have 44 chromosomes, plus X and X
Attribution Theory
Explains how people determine the cause of what they observe in the behavior of others: dispositional attributions or situation attributions Dispositional: when we attribute a person's behavior to his or her personality rather than the situation the person is in Situational: when we attribute a person's behavior to the situation the person is in rather than his or her personality
Low-Ball Technique
First offer is a "cut rate price" but then ups it with additional costs we assumed were included Cheap airfare tickets have all sorts of added fees
Fixation
Freud suggested that children could get THIS in any one of the stages. THIS could result from being either under-gratified or over-gratified. Example 1: Someone who smokes is stuck in the oral stage, and is labeled as having an "oral fixation" Example 2: Someone is overly organized and loves rules would be stuck in the anal stage, and is labeled "anal retentive."
Alleles
Genes have different forms called alleles. An allele can be recessive or dominant Recessive: Only shows if the individual has two copies of the allele. You need two copies of the allele to have blue eyes. Dominant: Always shows, even if the individual only has one copy of the allele. You only need one copy of the allele to have brown eyes (and two copies will still give you brown eyes).
Validity
Good personality tests are both valid and reliable A personality test is THIS when it measures what it should measure
Reliability
Good personality tests are both valid and reliable A personality test is THIS when it returns consistent results
Maturation in Adolescence
Happens in any environment Puberty and primary and secondary sex characteristics Ever notice why girls complain that boys their age are not mature? It's because girls mature earlier than boys. Girls begin maturation two years earlier than boys, with a growth spurt two years before their first menstrual period called menarche
instrumental aggression
Has its purpose the satisfaction of some goal behavior or some benefit. Example: a mother will fight her way through a crowd at Christmas time to the last of the must-have toy for her child.
Sigmund Freud
Historically, first to theorize that we pass through different stages in childhood Said we develop through four psychosexual stages If we fail to resolve a significant conflict in our lives during one of these stages, he said we could become fixated in the stage, meaning we might remain preoccupied with the behaviors associated with that stage
Carl Rogers Self Theory and fully functioning
Humanistic theory that says the difference between our real self and our ideal self (what we think society wants) is called incongruence To become fully functioning (Rogers' term for self-actualization), we must accept ourselves (unconditional positive regard) and unite the real and ideal selves into one again.
Monozygotic Twins
Identical twins develop from the same zygote (egg). They are particularly interesting to psychologist because they help study the effects of "nature vs nurture" since they have the same exact genetic makeup. Fraternal twins, called dizygotic twins, are just regular brother/sister combinations born at the same time from two eggs.
Locus of Control
Julian Rotter Internal locus of control- they are responsible for what happens to them. For instance: Hard work leads to success. External locus of control- luck and other outside forces are responsible for what happens to them THIS can have a large effect on how one thinks and acts, which impact personality
Festinger & Carlsmith (1959)
Key Concept: Cognitive dissonance Results: $1 group changed their opinion of the knob turning task from boring to interesting two weeks later to justify the fact that they were easy to get to lie
Asch (1951)
Key Concept: Conformity, Normative Social Influence, Informational Social Influence Results: Subjects conformed about 37% of the time when confederates voted unanimously
Darley and Latane (1968)
Key Concept: Diffusion of Responsibility = Bystander Effect Results: People help when alone, but less likely when in a group (Seizure Experiment & Smoke Filled Room)
Aronson and Gonzales (1971)
Key Concept: Jigsaw Classroom and Contact Theory Results: Raised self-efficacy of minority children and reduced prejudice on the part of white children
Milgram (1963)
Key Concept: Obedience to authority Results: 66% of subjects went to the max 450 volts, only because subjects were told "the experiment requires that you continue"
Sherif and Sherif (1967)
Key Concept: Realistic Conflict Theory and Superordinate Goal Results: Two previously competitive groups worked together to solve problem
Zimbardo (1971)
Key Concept: Roles Results: The power of the situation where the prison simulation was cut off in 6 days because of sadistic guards and prisoners believing they were trapped by their role
Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968)
Key Concept: Self-fulfilling Prophecy Results: Pygmalion in the Classroom - Teacher's expectations that some kids would be "bloomers" actually made them bloom - expectations became reality
Triplett (1898)
Key Concepts: Social Facilitation and Social Impairment Results: Well-learned tasks were enhanced by audience but newly learned tasks were impaired (relates to Yerkes-Dodson)
Criticisms of Piaget
Kids might be far less egocentric than Piaget thought They might develop theory of mind much earlier Object permanence: Some studies suggest that infants develop object permanence much earlier, or may never lack it. In one experiment, young babies tracked a toy train going through a tunnel, which suggests they still thought train was there, even though they couldn't see it.
Erik Erikson
Known for his 8-stage theory of Psychosocial Development It's how people develop socially over the entire lifespan
Anxious/Ambivalent Attachments
One of the categories of infant attachment studied by Mary Ainsworth in her STRANGE SITUATION experiment In novel (with a stranger) situations, these infants had ambivalent reactions to the mother. They may have shown extreme stress when the mother left. Significant fear of stranger Approached mother but rejected contact after separation. 15% of infants
Deindividuation
Loss of self-restraint that occurs when group members feel anonymous and aroused You lose your personal identity to the group More likely to happen if wearing a mask or covering face Sometimes people get swept up by a group and do things they would never have done if on their own, such as looting, bench clearing brawls, or rioting.
Accommodation
Making a new schema to incorporate new information For example, a child who tried to incorporate a pony into his/her schema for a dog might finally realize the mistake and make a new schema for pony PIAGET
Gender Role Stereotype
Males have traits like self-reliance and leadership, while females are warm and understanding IT IS NOT GOOD TO STEREOTYPE!
Avoidant Attachments
One of the categories of infant attachment studied by Mary Ainsworth in her STRANGE SITUATION experiment In novel (with a stranger) situations, these infants resisted being held by the parents and explored the environment. Showed no interest when separated from mother. Played happily with the stranger. Ignored mother after separation
Norms of Reciprocity Compliance Strategy
One of the compliance strategy to get others to comply Occurs when people think they ought to do something nice for someone who has done something nice for them For example, you may feel compelled to send money to the charity that sent you free return address labels
Door-in-the-Face Compliance Strategy
One of the compliance strategy to get others to comply Suggests that after people refuse a large request, they will look more favorable upon a follow up request that seems, in comparison, much more reasonable For example, after flat-out refusing to lend you $100, your friend might feel bad. The least he or she could do then is lend you $10.
Sherif Robber's Cave Experiment
Muzafer Sherif and Carolyn Wood Sherif (1954) at a summer camp in Robber's Cave State Park, Oklahoma 22 boys, who did not know each other at first, aged 11-12, were dived into two teams: the Eagles and the Rattlers Step One: Realistic Conflict Theory and Out-group Conflict Each group grew to hate the other group through highly competitive activities for resources between the two groups Sherif noted that hostile and aggressive attitudes toward an outgroup arise when groups compete for resources that only one group can attain Step Two: Contact and Superordinate Goal Could the conflict be resolved by introducing a common goal (fix the water supply, move a stalled struck) that everyone has to work for? Sherif concluded that friction between groups can be reduced only in the presence of superordinate goals that promote united, cooperative action SUPERORDINATE GOAL AND REALISTIC CONFLICT THEORY
Neo-Freudian: Karen Horney
Neo-Freudian who criticized Freud for being too male focused. She suggested there was womb envy instead of Freud's penis envy
Neo-Freudian Alfred Adler
Neo-Freudian who said that our strive for superiority and inferiority complexes as children are what shape our personality He also believed the child's birth order shapes our personality as well
Obedience Studies (1961-1974)
Obedience is form of compliance that occurs when people follow direct commands, usually from someone in a position of authority Stanley Milgram (Experiments began at Yale in 1961, and published in 1962 and 1974) found that about 2/3rds of participants obey experimenters' orders (went all the way), even when the orders potentially involve hurting someone else. Milgram wanted to show how the Nazi's could influence the holocaust Milgram's research has been criticized on ethical grounds for mental "risk" of the subjects
Fundamental attribution error
Occurs when people tend to overestimate the importance of dispositional factors and underestimate the role of situational factors (even though when we think of our own behavior, we think of the situation) Example: Someone driving dangerously fast you think "that guy's a jerk" because you attribute it to his DISPOSITION. However, his wife is in the hospital and he never speeds until today, which is his SITUATION Example Two: People think Ross is unstable and mental (dispositional), but it's only because of the situation that the sandwich was the only good thing going on in his life
Preoperational Stage
One of Jean Piaget's cognitive development stages 2 to approximately 7/8 years old Language develops Egocentric thinking Can't do conservation well PIAGET
Concrete Operations Stage
One of Jean Piaget's cognitive development stages Age 7/8 to approximately 11/12 years old Children learn to think more logically about complex relationships between different characteristics of objects Develops concepts of conservation, theory of mind, and reversibility PIAGET
Formal Operations Stage
One of Jean Piaget's cognitive developmental stages Age 11/12 through adulthood The final stage describes adult reasoning: ABSTRACT REASONING We can manipulate objects and contrast ideas in our mind without physically seeing them. Also includes metacognition PIAGET
Sensorimotor Stage
One of Jean Piaget's cognitive developmental stages Birth to approximately two years old First use schemas In this stage babies at first DO NOT have object permanence, but then they GAIN object permanence PIAGET
Secure Attachments
One of the categories of infant attachment studied by Mary Ainsworth in her STRANGE SITUATION experiment In novel (with a stranger) situations, these infants confidently explored the environment while the parents were present Showed distress when separated from mother Avoided the stranger, unless with mother Came to mother and was happy to see her after separation 70% percent of infants
Cross Sectional Studies
Studies different age groups at the same time. A group is called a cohort. Quicker than a longitudinal study, but can have the cohort effect
Foot-in-the-Door Compliance Strategy
One of the compliance strategy to get others to comply Suggests that if you can get people to agree to a small request, they will become more likely to agree to a follow-up request that is larger For example, once your friend agrees to lend you $5, he or she will be more likely to lend you $10
ego
One of the components of Freud's Psychoanalytic Personality Theory THIS follows the reality principle; it negotiates between the desires of the id and the limitations of the environment, acting as a mediator between the other two parts according to Freud
id
One of the components of Freud's Psychoanalytic Personality Theory THIS is propelled by the pleasure principle; it wants immediate gratification
superego
One of the components of Freud's Psychoanalytic Personality Theory THIS operates as our sense of conscience, how we think about what is right and wrong
Conventional Stage
One of the stages of Lawrence Kolberg's Moral Development Theory LAWS AND OTHERS' POINT OF VIEW Children in this stage make a moral choice based on how others will view them Children learn conventional standards of what is right and wrong (FOLLOW THE LAWS, norms) from their parents, peers, the media, and so on, and believe that moral behavior involves following these standards
Preconventional Stage
One of the stages of Lawrence Kolberg's Moral Development Theory PUNISHMENTS AND REWARDS People in this stage believe that the right action to take is the one that results in the most positive (or fewest negative) consequences for them Their moral reasoning is limited to how the choice affects themselves
Postconventional Stage
One of the stages of Lawrence Kolberg's Moral Development Theory UNIVERSAL JUSTICE A person evaluating a moral choice using THIS examines the rights and values involved in the choice Kolhberg described how self-defined ethical principles (like a personal conviction to uphold justice) might be involved in the reasoning in this stage, weighing the merit of altruism or limiting certain rights for the good of the group
Central Route to Persuasion
One of the ways persuasive messages can be processed Involves deeply processing the content of the message, such as focusing on safety features when shopping for a new car Can use facts and statistics to convince you If you are persuaded by this route, it will be long lasting The opposite is the peripheral route
Peripheral Route to Persuasion
One of the ways persuasive messages can be processed Involves other aspects of the messages including the characteristics of the person imparting the message (the communicator) Certain characteristics of the communicator have been found to influence the effectiveness of a message (like attractive people, famous people, and experts are among the most persuasive communicators) Classical conditioning Appeals to your emotions, but it may not be long lasting The opposite is the central route
Self concept vs self esteem
Our self-concept is our overall view of our abilities, behavior, and personality, or what we know about ourselves. "I'm good at sports, but not good at math." Our self-esteem is part of our self-concept, or how we evaluate ourselves and is effected by our emotions and comes to mean how worthy we think we are. High self-esteem "I'm ok with being good at sports and bad at math." Low self-esteem: "I'm worthless being so bad at math."
Self-efficacy
Our sense of competence and effectiveness We can perform behaviors necessary to accomplish tasks and that we are competent Example: We might have high self-efficacy in basketball. We think we can hit the three-pointer to win the game. We might have low self-efficacy in math. We don't think we can solve the complex problem on the board.
Milgram's variations
Participants' compliance is decreased when they are in close contact with those people whom they are being ordered to harm. When the experimenter left in the middle of the experiment and was replaced by an assistant, obedience also decreased. When other people were present in the room and they objected to the orders, the percentage of participants who quit in the middle skyrocketed.
Projective personality tests
Personality tests that involve asking people to interpret ambiguous stimuli; psychoanalysts believe that your interpretations reflect your unconscious thoughts. Two examples are the Rorschach test and TAT
Social Loafing
Phenomenon wherein individuals do not put in as much effort when acting as part of a group as they do when acting alone or when a group's evaluation is per individual THE SLACKER OF THE GROUP! One explanation for this effect is that when alone, an individual's efforts are more easily discernible than when in a group Thus, as part of a group, a person may be less motivated to put in an impressive performance Example: If a large group of people are trying to load band equipment back into the van, each individual in the group might move more slowly than a single individual working alone would move
Concepts of Conservation
Piaget categorized children in concrete-operation stage when they demonstrated knowledge of THIS, the realization that properties of objects remain the same, even when their shapes change. A young child without THIS might think that there is more juice in a tall skinny glass than in a short wide glass because the level of the fluid is higher in the skinny glass PIAGET
Authoritative Parents
RESEARCH SHOWS THIS IS THE BEST STYLE OF PARENTING: Set consistent standards for their children's behavior, but the standards are reasonable and explained. Much more democratic. These parents encourage their children's independence but not past the point of violating rules. Praise works more than punishment. Example: If your parents were authoritative and you came in 15 minutes after your curfew, you would already know the consequences, why there's a curfew, and your parents would enforce the consequences Researched by Diana Baumrind
Trait Theorists
believed that we can describe peoples personalities by specifying their main characteristics or traits These personality characteristics (like honesty, laziness, ambition) are thought to be stable and to motivate behavior in keeping with the trait
Neonate (newborn) reflexes
Rooting: When touched on the cheek, turns head to the side to put object into mouth Sucking: Infant will suck objects put in mouth Grasping: put objects into hand or feet and will try to grab object with fingers or toes Moro: when startled, flings limbs outs, then retracts them Babinsky: Spread out toes when foot is stroked
Group Norms
Rules about how group members should act For example, businesses may have formal rules governing appropriate work dress Can also be informal rules in a group
Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory
Scaffolding: Understanding of what the child can do and skills the child can acquire next Internalization: We absorb info from our social environment Zone of Proximal Development: we advance through the help of mentors, teachers, and parents which brings us from what we can currently do to things that are at first out of reach
Baby X Studies
Schemas and perceptual sets can lead to stereotyping which can mislead our perception. Studies were done where a baby's gender was either unknown, or changed by giving it a boy's or girl's name and then dressing it in the named gender. Participants were asked to play with the baby and the "boys" were given more physical play and toys like toy hammers and footballs, while the "girls" were treated more gently and were given dolls. These studies show that there is a gender role stereotype from a very early age
Authoritarian Parents
Set strict standards for their children's behavior and apply punishments for violations of these rules Obedient attitudes are valued more than discussions about the reasons why. Punishment for undesired behavior is more often used than reinforcemement for desired behavior Example: If your parents were authoritarian and you came in 15 minutes after your curfew, you might be grounded from going out again for the rest of the month without any explanation or discussion Researched by Diana Baumrind
Gender Roles
Sets of expectations that prescribe how males and females should act, think, and feel
Psychoanalytic Psychosexual Stage Theory of Personality
Sigmund Freud believed that one's personality was essentially set in early childhood. He proposed THIS. WARNING: Freud is a freak. Freud is a big influence in psychology for asking psychology questions. He asked the right questions, but came up with a lot of wrong answers based on sex and violence.
Neo-Freudian Carl Jung: Personal Unconscious
Similar to Freud's preconscious and unconscious, which stores all of our memories, hidden instincts, and urges.
Attraction Research
Social psychologists study what factors increase the chance that people will like one another: 1. Similarity: we are drawn to people who are similar to us, those who share our attitudes, backgrounds and interests 2. Proximity: the greater your exposure to another person, the more you will generally come to like that person 3. Reciprocal liking: the more someone likes you, the more you will probably like that person
Integrity vs Despair
Stage Eight of Erik Erikson's stages of psychosocial development Toward the end of life, we look back at our accomplishments and decide if we are satisfied with them or not Erikson thought that if we can see that our lives were meaningful we can "step outside" the stress and pressure of society and offer wisdom and insight. if, however, we feel serious regret over how we lived our lives, we may fall into despair over lost opportunities
Identity vs Role Confusion
Stage Five of Erik Erikson's stages of psychosocial development Age: 12-20 adolescents Answering the question "Who am I?" is the major task In adolescence, Erikson felt our main task is to discover what social identity we are most comfortable with He thought that a person might naturally try out different roles before he or she find the one that best fits his or her internal sense of self
Industry vs Inferiority
Stage Four of Erik Erikson's stages of psychosocial development Age: 6-12 If we feel that we are as good at kickball (or math problems or singing or anything else) as the child in the next desk we feel competent. Children are in school and need positive reinforcement in the classroom, sports field, or artistically or musically If we realize that we are behind or cannot do as well as our peers, we may feel anxious about our performance in that area throughout the rest of the stages
Trust vs Mistrust
Stage One of Erik Erikson's stages of psychosocial development Age: newborn to 1 year old Erikson thought that babies need to learn that they can trust their caregivers and that their requests (crying at first) are effective This sense of trust or mistrust will carry throughout the rest of our lives. Mistrust, which is based on inconsistent, cold, or abuse, prevents close relationships in the future.
Generativity vs Stagnation
Stage Seven of Erik Erikson's stages of psychosocial development Age: Middle adulthood 40-65 Express caring about the next and future generations by guiding or mentoring others Erikson felt that by the time we reach this age, we are starting to look critically at our life path. Are we going in the right direction? We want to make sure that we are creating the type of life that we want for ourselves and our family.
Intimacy vs Isolation
Stage Six of Erik Erikson's stages of psychosocial development Age: Young adults 21-40 Involves deeply caring about others and sharing meaningful experiences with them, especially a life partner. How much time should we spend on ourselves and how much time should we spend with our families? What is the difference between a platonic and a romantic relationship?
Initiative vs Guilt
Stage Three of Erik Erison's stages of psychosocial development Age: 3-5 In this stage, childrens' favorite word changes from "NO" to "Why?" Children in this stage want to understand the world. They take the initiative in problem solving and ask many questions. If this initiative is encouraged, we will feel comfortable about expressing our curiosity through the rest of the stages. If those around us scold us for our curiosity, we might learn to feel guilty about asking questions and avoid doing so in the future.
Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt
Stage Two of Erik Erikson's stages of psychosocial development Age: Toddlers age 2 "terrible twos" Toddlers begin to exert their own will over their own bodies for the first time, like potty training or controlling temper tantrums A toddler's most popular word during this stage might be "NO," demonstrating their attempt to control themselves and others
Zygote, embryo, fetus, neonate
Stages of development Zygote first two weeks following conception Embryo third to eight weeks Fetus 9 weeks to birth Neonate = newborn
Compliance Strategies
Strategies to used to get others to comply Foot-in-the-door Door-in-the-face Norms of reciprocity Low ball technique
Neo-Freudian Car Jung: Archetypes
THESE are in our inherited memories and they are common themes found in all cultures, religions, and literature.
Neo-Freudian Carl Jung: Collective Unconscious
THIS contains universal memories, ideas that we have inherited from our ancestors, and archetypes
False-Consensus Effect
Tendency for people to overestimate the number of people who agree with them For example, if Jamal dislikes horror movies, he is likely to think that most other people share his aversion. Conversely, Sabrina, who loves a good horror flick, overestimates the number of people who share her passion
Groupthink
Tendency for some groups to make bad decisions. THIS occurs when group members suppress their reservations about the ideas supported by the group. As a result, a kind of false unanimity is encouraged and flaws in the groups decisions may be overlooked Someone knows it's a bad decision, but he/she stays quiet Highly cohesive groups involved in making risky decisions seem to be at particular risk for THIS The 1986 Challenger Shuttle explosion was partially blamed on THIS. A member of NASA knew it was a bad idea to launch the shuttle in cold weather, but didn't speak up when a final vote to launch was taken.
Self-Serving Bias
Tendency to take more credit for good outcomes than for bad It is the belief that individuals tend to ascribe success to their own abilities and efforts, but ascribe failure to external factors. Example One: A student who attributes earning a good grade on an exam to their own intelligence and preparation but attributes earning a poor grade to the teacher's poor teaching ability or unfair test questions Example Two: A basketball coach would be more likely to emphasize her or his role in the team's championship win than in their heartbreaking first-round tournament loss
Just-World Bias
The belief in a just world in which misfortunes befall people who deserve them. It can be seen in the tendency to blame victims; a tendency to believe that life is fair "Bad things happen to bad people" Examples: The belief that people are unemployed because they must lazy. OR The belief that a sexual assault victim must have invited the behavior.
Continuity OR Discontinuity
The debate over whether development occurs gradually, without discernible shifts, or through a series of distinct stages Discontinuity (Stages): Erikson and Piaget Continuity (Gradual and no stages): Vygotsky
Neo-Freudian Carl Jung: Individuation
The goal according to Jung is THIS and it is the combining the conscious and the unconscious
Egocentric
The inability to look at the world from anyone's perspective but our own For example, a child might demonstrate THIS when talking to a sibling by saying, "No, Mommy is MY mommy!" THIS prevents the child from being able to realize that his/her mother is "mommy" to all the siblings The OPPOSITE of this is "Theory of Mind" where one can understand another person's perspective PIAGET
Assimilation
The incorporation of experiences into existing schema For example, a child who sees a pony for the first time might try to incorporate it into his/her schema for a dog BUT it can be correct, like seeing a hairless cat and putting it into the cat schema PIAGET
Diffusion of responsibility/bystander effect
The larger the number of people who witness an emergency situation, the less likely anyone will be to intervene. The larger the group of people who witness a problem, the less responsible any one individual feels to help. People tend to assume that someone else will take action so they need not do so.
Mere Exposure Effect
The more one is exposed to something, the more one will come to like it You are more likely to like someone you see all the time You are more likely to like a product you see advertised all the time Example: You are more likely to buy the brand of potato chips you have seen advertised thousands of times than one you have never heard of
Androgyny
The presence of desirable masculine and feminine characteristics in the same person
Gender Typing
The process by which a child becomes aware of their gender and thus behaves accordingly by adopting values and attributes of members of the sex that they identify as their own.
Conformity
The tendency of people to go along with the views or actions of others In general, THIS is most likely to occur when a group's opinion is unanimous
Object Permanence
The understanding that objects continue to exist when we cannot see them Associated with the Piaget's sensorimotor Stage. In this stage babies at first DO NOT have THIS, but then they GAIN THIS PIAGET
Darley and Latane Experiments
The vicious murder of Kitty Genovese in Kew Gardens, NY, committed within view of at least 38 witnesses, none of whom intervened, led this team to research diffusion of responsibility. Tested diffusion of responsibility with a "smoke filled room" experiment and a fake seizure experiment In emergency situations, subjects were less likely to help if they thought others were with them
Group Polarization
Then tendency of a like-minded group's views to get stronger during group discussions, which may lead to more extreme decisions When and why does it happen? Happens when members of the group all think alike.
Behaviorist Theories of Personality
These psychologists, especially BF Skinner, argue behavior is personality and that the way most people think of the term personality is meaningless; according to this view personality is determined by the environment; the reinforcement contingencies to which one is exposed creates one's personality. Therefore, by changing people's environments, behaviorists believe we can alter their personalities (Skinner)
Rosenthal & Jacobsen's "Bloomer Study" ("Pygmalion In The Classroom")
This shows how expectations can become reality (self-fulfilling prophecy) Had kids take a so-called Harvard bloomer test to see which kids would "bloom" academically during the school year Researchers then told teachers which kids would be the "bloomers" By the end of the year, the kid that were labeled the "bloomers" actually did very well, even though the test wasn't real The teachers, unknowingly, had treated those kids better resulting in the "self-fulfilling prophecy"
Zimbardo' Prison Experiment
This social psychologist assigned a group of Stanford students to play either the role of a prison guard or a prisoner. All were dressed in uniform, and the prisoners were assigned numbers. The prisoners were locked up in the basement of the psychology building, and the guards were put in charge of their treatment. The students took to their assigned roles perhaps too well, and the experiment had to be ended early because of the cruel treatment the guards were inflicting on the prisoners. Shows the power of ROLES
Halo Effect
To generalize a favorable impression to unrelated dimensions of someone's personality. The dimensions of appearance, intelligence, leadership, and personal skills are unrelated. However, many people will assume a good looking smart person is also personable and a leader, even though those traits have nothing to do with one another.
Harry Harlow's Attachment Research
Used wire frame and cloth-covered "mothers" to study the impact of nurturing touch, warmth, and food on infant monkey attachment Before his research, it was assumed that attachments are formed in infants because the parent provides food, which turned out to be wrong. Finding 1: The monkeys preferred the warm comforting "mother" Finding 2: Development in isolation can be devastating with long-term effects
Oedipus Crisis
WARNING: Freud is a freak. THIS is what Freud thought boys went through during the phallic stage Boys' sexual desire for their mothers, and the view of their fathers as rivals for their mothers' love is THIS crisis In other words, according to Freud, kids want to have sex with mom and kill dad. This is such a weird belief, I think it's a good time to point out that Freud did way too much cocaine.
Freud Stages
WARNING: Freud is a freak. THIS said that sexual urges were an important determinant of people's personality development. Each stage is named for the part of the body from which people derive sexual pleasure during the stage. He was the first to theorize that we develop in stages. His stages of development: 1 oral 2 anal 3 phallic 4 latency 5 adult genital
Triplett (1898)
Wanted to see why cyclists seemed to ride faster in groups, they rode faster when competing with other kids/in the presence of them Triplett studied the race time of cyclists and found that cyclists had faster race times when in the presence of other cyclists. He theorized that the faster times were because the presence of others made individuals more competitive, and further research led Triplett to theorize that the presence of others increases individuals' performances in other noncompetitive situations as well.
Informational Social Influence
You think the group has better information or better understanding than you do For example, in the Asch experiment, you think somehow that you have misunderstood the directions so you go along with the group because you think that they are smarter than you in this situation.
Zygote to Embryo to Fetus
Zygote first two weeks following conception Embryo third to eight weeks Fetus 9 weeks to birth
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
a personality test that taps four characteristics and classifies people into 1 of 16 personality types
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous pictures and scenes Supposed to show one's achievement motivation, but may not actually be valid or reliable
factor analysis
a statistical technique used to analyze results of personality tests it allows researchers to use correlations between traits in order to see which traits cluster together as factors For example, if a strong correlation is found between punctuality, diligence, and neatness, one could argue that these traits represent a common factor that we could name conscientiousness
Discrimination
acting on a prejudice Prejudice is an attitude, but THIS is an behavior
self-fulfilling prophecy
an expectation that causes you to act in ways that make that expectation come true. Seen in the Rosenthal and Jacobson's 1968 "Pygmalion in the Classroom" bloomer study If Jon is repeatedly told that Chet is really funny, when Jon does finally meet Chet, he may treat Chet in such a way as to elicit the humorous behavior he expected
Personality
an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting
Prejudice
an unjustifiable (and usually negative) attitude toward a group and its members. Prejudice generally involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, and a predisposition to discriminatory action.
Cohort Effect
differences in the experiences of each age groups because of different historical times and technologies
Albert Bandura's Reciprocal Determinism
idea that our thoughts, the person's traits/feelings, behaviors, and environment all interact with each other to determine our actions in a given situation Each of these three factors influence the other two in a constant reciprocal loop (know this triangle picture)
social facilitation
improved performance of tasks in the presence of others; occurs with simple or well-learned tasks but not with tasks that are difficult or not yet mastered In front of an audience, people will yell louder, run faster, and reel in a fishing rod more quickly The opposite of this is social impairment Relates to the Yerkes-Dodson law
Un-involved (neglectful) Parents
parents make few demands, show low responsiveness, and communicate little with their children Cold. Unresponsive. Researched by Diana Baumrind
superordinate goals
shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation Sherif's Robbers Cave
Individualistic Cultures
societies that prize independence, competition, and personal success the importance and uniqueness of the individual is stressed Example: United States
Collectivist cultures
societies that prize social harmony, obedience, and close family over individual achievement A person's link to various groups, such as family or company, is stressed, as in Japanese culture
In-group bias
tendency to favor individuals within our group (in-group) over those from outside our group (out-group) In-groups are groups in which we are members Out-groups are groups in which we are not members
frustration-aggression hypothesis
the extent to which people feel frustrated predicts the likelihood that they will act aggressively, which would be hostile aggression Example of this hypothesis: someone who is frustrated because his or her car broke down is more likely to yell at a bus driver for running over a curb HOSTILE AGGRESSION: Results when a person feels pain, anger, or frustration. Road rage is an example of this.
Rorschach inkblot test
the most widely used projective test, a set of 10 inkblots, seeks to identify people's inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of ambiguous inkblots May not actually be valid or reliable
social impairment
the tendency for the presence of other people to have a negative impact on the performance of a difficult task Being watched by others hurts performance if you are not very good at the task yet Opposite of this is social facilitation Relates to the Yerkes-Dodson law
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)
this is the most popular and widely used personality test. Well-researched, self-report inventory. The MMPI-2 has 567 true/false questions and it takes 90 minutes
Biological Theories of Personality
view genes, chemicals, and body types as the central determinants of who a person is; a growing body of evidence supports the idea that human personality is shaped in part by genetics
Humanistic Theories of Personality
view people as innately good and able to determine their own destinies through the exercise of free will stresses the importance of people's subject experience and feelings Focuses on the importance of a person's self-concept and self-esteem Maslow and Rogers
Stereotypes
widely held beliefs that people have certain characteristics because of their membership in a particular group these lead to prejudice - the expectations influence the way we interact with members of these groups may be negative or positive and can be applied to virtually any group of people (for example racial, ethnic, geographic)
