URI PSY 232 Exam 1

The Periods of Prenatal Development

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Sensorimotor Substages

1. Exercising Reflective Schemas- in this substage you essentially go about life normally and use your reflexes as they are without assimilating or accommodating anything into them. 2. Primary Circular Reactions- used to describe the infants tendency to repeat pleasurable actions for their own sake (accommodation appears here!). 3. Secondary Circular Reactions- awareness of the effects of actions on the outside environment (when a baby coos or gurgles and a human responds). 4. Coordination of Secondary Circular Reactions- combines schemas to achieve a desired effect, earliest form of intentionality and problem solving (dropping a tin can into a basket combines a sound schema with a dropping schema, p. 179). 5. Tertiary Circular Reactions- experimentation to see consequences of actions (dropping a cup again and again to watch it fall and then observe its other motions). 6. Beginning of Symbolic Representation- actions are now based on representations of experience (a baby trying to give a doll a drink).

Preformationism

Adultlike capacities, desires, and interests are present in early childhood.

Critical Periods

Period during which specific biological or environmental events are required for normal development to occur (Lorenz and the imprinting geese).

Periods of Development between Conception and Adulthood

Prenatal, Infancy, Early Childhood, Middle Childhood, Adolescence

Nature

Refers to inherited predispositions.

Family Studies

Relatives who live together in a household are compared with one another to determine how similar they are on any given trait.

Prescription Drugs

Since the disastrous effects of thalidomide were discovered, other prescription drugs have been found to cause abnormalities in the developing organism including Streptomycin and Tetracycline (antibiotics), anticonvulsants, anticoagulants, most artificial hormones, Thorazine (used for schizophrenia), Valium (tranquilizer), and Accutane (used to treat difficult cases of acne).

Domain areas of development

Social, Emotional, Cognitive, and Physical

Maternal Stress

Studies have shown that a mother who is under stress or becomes emotionally upset secretes hormones, such as adrenaline and cortisol, that pass through the placenta and can have measurable effects on the fetus's motor activity.

Phonemes

The basic sounds of language

Sensitive Periods

Time in an organisms development when a particular experience has an especially profound effect

Twin Studies

Twins are compared with each other and with other family members for similarity on any given trait.

Developmental Science

a field of study that focuses on the range of children's physical, intellectual, social, and emotional developments through adulthood.

Rubella

a. 3 day measles, with symptoms that include rash, swollen lymph glands, and low fever. b. If contracted while the mother is in early pregnancy the consequences can be devastating for the baby. c. Half of all children born to women who had the disease during the first 16 weeks of pregnancy exhibit a syndrome of congenital heart disease, cataracts, deafness, and mental retardation. While mothers that contracted Rubella after the first 16 weeks gave birth to children less likely to experience these effects.

Object Permanence

a. According to Piaget, object permanence is a clear indicator that the development of mental representation and conceptual thinking is underway. b. Babies demonstrate object permanence only when they begin to search actively for an absent object. c. If a child has successfully located the missing object in place A they will look in place A again and again even if they have seen the object get placed in location B (A-not-B Error). d. Other studies document a relationship between the delay of reaching and successful searching further suggests that the A-not-B task may impose significant demands on infants' memory system, masking their representational abilities. e. Baillargeon et al. devised an object permanence test that exploits the well-known tendency of infants to stare at events that violate their expectations. f. This violation of expectations method involves a bit of trickery. Basically, a baby becomes habituated to a particular event and is then presented with two variations, one that is possible, and one that is not (the carrot and the window). g. According to the dynamic systems perspective, it is unnecessary to invoke the idea of performance limitations to explain infants failures on the A-not-B task, or to invoke the idea of mental concepts such as object permanence to account for their ultimate success. h. In line with the dynamic systems approach, the researchers focused on the process through which infants build mental representations rather than on whether, and at what age infants reliably demonstrate the capacity to represent objects mentally. i. Babies seem to match numbers across different modalities. For example, when a 7-month baby hears a recording of 3 distinct voices they will look longer at the picture that has three voices instead of one with two because infants are capable of making simple arithmetic calculations.

Systems Theories: Dynamic Systems Theory

a. Addresses how new complex parts of behavior develop from the interaction of less complex parts. b. Most effectively observed in the development of 'coordinated actions'.

Modern Theories: Evolutionary Theory- Darwin

a. Attempt to explain human behavior in terms of how it contributes to the survival of a species, and looks at how our evolutionary past influences individual development. b. Recently emerged as a dominate perspective in developmental science, even though it has been around since the "beginning". c. Naturalistic observation is a major research method used in ethology. d. In this approach, ethology focuses on how behaviors of various species are adapted to the environment in ways that increase the likelihood of reproduction and survival. e. Imprinting fits in here as well.

Opiates

a. Babies of mothers who are addicted to the opium derivatives heroin or methadone are born addicted themselves and must be given these substances shortly after birth to avoid the life threatening ordeal of withdrawal. b. These babies are at risk of being born premature, underweight, and vulnerable to respiratory illnesses. c. While being weaned, these babies are irritable, experience tremors, have abnormal cries, disturbed sleep patterns, and diminished motor control. These effects can last longer than a year depending upon how addicted the baby is born. d. It is still questionable of these problems are solely attributed to the mother's usage, much like marijuana and cocaine.

1. The Germinal Period

a. Begins at conception and lasts until the developing organism becomes attached (implanted) to the wall of the uterus, about 8-10 days after conception.

3. The Fetal Period

a. Begins at the 9th week after conception with the first signs of the hardening of the bones, and continuing through birth. b. During this period, the primitive organ systems develop to the point where the baby can survive outside of the womb without medical support. c. By the 12th week after conception, external sex characteristics have developed (which is why sonograms that determine the sex of a child occur at the end of the 1st trimester). d. By the end of the 7th month the fetus has entered the age of viability, and is now able to survive outside of the fetus. e. The fetal period marks a critical stage during which the baby to be becomes responsive to its environment and is developmentally influenced by factors both inside and outside of the womb. f. A fetus is capable of seeing approx. 26 weeks after conception, sensing motion about 5 months after conception, and hearing approx. 5-6 months after conception. g. At just 15 weeks of age the fetus is capable of all of the movements observable in newborn infants, such as head turning and stretching

"Consequences" of Prematurity and LBW

a. Both can put babies at risk for later developmental problems, including delays and disorders in intellectual and language development, attention, and neurological functioning. b. LBW babies are at an increased risk for developmental difficulty even if they are carried full term. c. LBW accounts for approx. two-thirds of the deaths that occur in the period immediately following birth. d. The smaller the baby, the greater the risk

Grand Theories: Constructivism- Piaget

a. Children construct successively higher levels of knowledge by actively striving to master their environments. b. Piaget's theory of Cognitive Development (Sensorimotor, Preoperational, Concrete Operational, Formal Operational). c. Please know Schemas, Assimilation, and Accommodation.

Inheriting Culture

a. Children inherit culture through several social processes, the most basic being social enhancements, in which children use these cultural resources because they are available. b. Culture is inherited by imitation and explicit instruction, which uses symbolic communication to teach children about things that are not immediately available in their environment (like learning all about snow in South Florida).

Learning Theories

a. Classical Conditioning (learning in which previously existing behaviors come to be elicited by new stimuli). Pavlov. UCS, CS, UCR, CR, NS. b. Operant Conditioning (learning in which changes in behavior are shaped by the consequences of that behavior, giving rise to new and more complete behaviors). Skinner. Baby and mobile.

Cocaine

a. Cocaine may result in numerous medical complications for the mother to be, including heart attacks, strokes, rupture of the aorta, and seizures. b. Babies of cocaine addicted mothers are at elevated risk for a variety of problems, including premature or stillbirth, low birthweight, strokes, and other birth defects. c. These babies are also described as irritable, excessively reactive to environmental stimulation, uncoordinated, and slow learners. d. Residual effects may last for several years. e. These links are not considered ironclad because mothers that use cocaine are more likely to also drink alcohol, be of a lower SES, and live in stressful circumstances. So these "effects" could be due to a number of intertwined factors, much like with marijuana.

Research Designs: Longitudal Design

a. Collects information about a group of people as they grow older. Same group of people are "tested" sporadically during development. b. Excellent for studying development across the spectrum from birth to adulthood, but this design has several drawbacks.

Adoption Studies

a. Compare siblings who have been reared apart from one other and their biological parents. b. Some adoption studies are also twin studies. c. Used in determining if a child is more similar to its biological parents (genes) or its adoptive parents (environment).

Modern Theories: Information Processing Theory

a. Distinguishes between the "hardware" and the "software" of intellectual functioning. b. Looks at cognitive development in terms of how children come to process, store, organize, retrieve, and manipulate information in increasingly efficient ways

Physical Growth

a. During the first three months the infant's physical growth progresses at an astonishing pace. b. Changes in the circumference of the skull are related to the development of the brain

2. The Embryonic Period

a. Extends from the time the organism becomes attached to the uterus until the end of the 8th week, when all major organs have taken their primitive shape. b. During this period the amnion surrounds the embryo, and the amniotic fluid cushions the organism. c. The placenta and the umbilical cord develop in this period. d. The umbilical cord itself develops in the 5th week after conception. e. Sexual differentiation occurs in the 7th week.

Infant Motor Development

a. Fine motor skills- development and coordination of small muscles, such as those that move the fingers and the eyes. b. Some early fine motor skills include reaching and grasping. By the time the infant is 9 months old most babies can guide their reaching and grasping movements with a single glance and can execute them in an automatic manner. At this point, "baby-proofing" is a must. c. Gross motor skills- involve the development and coordination of the large muscles of the body and make locomotion possible. d. Some of the first gross motor movements can be seen through the processes of creeping and crawling. e. As infants begin to approach their first birthday, many are able to stand up and walk, which frees their hands for carrying, exploring, and manipulating objects. f. As dynamic systems theorists would point out, walking becomes possible only when all the component motor skills have been developed sufficiently and when the child has been able to practice combining them. g. Observations of babies from other cultural settings provide evidence that practice can affect the age at which babies reach motor milestones, but skills that are not practiced seem to develop at the same time cross-culturally. h. The "Back to Sleep" campaign is an instance where certain daily activities can disrupt/delay "normal" motor development. Babies who sleep on their backs develop the skills for crawling about a month later than babies that sleep on their stomachs do.

Research Designs: Microgenetic Design

a. Focuses on childhood development over relatively short periods of time, ranging from hours to days instead of months to years like the aforementioned designs generally do. b. Useful in studying the continuum of development instead of just snapshots

Systems Theories: Ecological Systems Theory

a. Focuses on the organization of multiple environmental contexts within which the child develops. b. Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems Model: Microsystem, Mesosystem, Exosystem, Macrosystem. c. Microsystem- innermost part of the 'sphere'. Includes the settings that a child inhabits on a daily basis and the "face to face" setting of the home, school, and peer groups. d. Mesosystem- Links the face to face settings to one another, such as a parent being involved in their child's school. e. Exosystem- settings that affect but do not generally include the child (schoolboard or parental work place). f. Macrosystem- Resources of the larger culture that shape what happens in the inner systems. Beliefs and Ideologies.

Nutritional Influences

a. Folic acid is essential to the normal development of the fetus's neural tube, which develops into the brain and spinal cord. b. Neural tube development takes place between 3-4 weeks after conception, which is before most women are aware that they are in fact pregnant. c. The absence of enough folic acid can result in defects in the neural tube, including spina bifida and anencephaly. d. Pregnant women with deficient diets often suffer from undernourishment or malnutrition. The effects of both of these dietary deficiencies on prenatal development can be profound. e. Severe nutritional deprivation during the first three months of pregnancy is most likely to result in abnormalities of the CNS, premature birth, and in some cases, death. f. Severe nutritional deprivation in the final three months of pregnancy is most likely to result in retardations to fetal growth, and result in low birth weight. g. There are also "side effects" for babies when their mothers are overnourished during pregnancy, including the possibility to develop diabetes and obesity. These babies are also born large for gestational age, placing them above the 90th percentile for weight of same sex babies that are the same gestational age

Infant Physical Growth

a. Genetic factors, diet, socioeconomic status, and maternal health are factors that can sometimes lead to significantly slower rates of birth, known as infant growth restriction. b. Infant Growth Restriction is associated with a number of serious problems including SIDS, developmental delays, infections, and poor psychological health. c. Although boys are generally larger than girls are physically, females develop and mature faster than boys do.

Marijuana

a. Marijuana has not been definitively found to cause birth defects, but it is associated with low birthweight, as well as certain neurological differences that may persist throughout childhood. b. Some researchers have found a link between women who use more than once a week and premature birth, however, this could also be caused by outside factors. c. Research has shown that approx. 1/3rd of the psychoactive compound present in the mother's bloodstream crosses the placenta to the fetus. This leads to concern for possible short term and long term effects on development

Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)

a. Most common cause of infant death in the United States. b. SIDS sparked a "Back to Sleep" campaign after a link was found between the syndrome and infants who slept on their stomach. c. The campaign urges parents and caregivers to put their child to sleep on its back instead of its stomach so that the lungs can fully function. d. There are a number of other prenatal and postnatal risk factors associated with SIDS, including maternal malnutrition, smoking and other teratogens, postnatal exposure to secondhand smoke (the greater the exposure, the greater the risk), and formula-feeding opposed to breast-feeding.

Caffeine

a. Most commonly used "drug" during pregnancy. b. No direct link between caffeine and teratogenic effects, but some studies have found that caffeine in large doses is associated with low birth weight and impaired growth. c. It is advised that women limit their caffeine intake during pregnancy to prevent these.

Brain Development

a. Neurons accomplish communication tasks in two ways: (1) by sending information via small electrical impulses along its axon, a branch that reaches out to connect with other brain cells, and (2) by receiving information from the axons of other cells through dendrites. b. Some of the growth in the brain is due to an increase in the size and complexity of gray matter (information receiving dendrites, which develop new branches, and the information-transmitting axons, which become longer). c. The CNS is divided into three main sections: the spinal cord, the brain stem, and the cerebral cortex. d. At birth, the circuitry of the cerebral cortex is less mature than that of the spinal cord and brain stem.

Low Birth Weight

a. Newborns weighing less than 5lbs, 8oz are said to have low birth weight. b. These babies are often born preterm, and may be considered small for gestational age, falling into the lowest 10% for their age. c. Some of these infants experience intrauterine growth restrictions. d. Multiple total births, intrauterine infections, chromosomal abnormalities, maternal smoking or use of narcotics, maternal malnutrition, and abnormalities of the placenta or umbilical cord have all been identified as probable causes for intrauterine growth restriction. e. LBW can also be affected by social factors such as maternal education and family environment

Prematurity

a. Prematurity is measured in terms of gestational age, with the normal gestational age ranging from 37-43 weeks. b. Babies born before the 37th week are considered preterm. c. Some preterm babies are born with immature lungs, digestive, and immune systems, which can lead to death in some cases. d. There are numerous factors that can lead to a child being delivered preterm, including cases of multiple births at once (twins, triplets, quadruplets, quintuplets...), low socioeconomic status, the age of the mother (most commonly under 20 and over 40), or multiple pregnancies close together

Grand Theories: Behaviorism- Watson and Skinner (Baby Albert and Skinner Box).

a. Promotes the basic idea that personality and behavior are shaped by the individuals learning experiences. b. Law of Effect- Thorndike- the notion that behaviors that produce a satisfying effect in a given situation are likely to be repeated in the same or similar situation, whereas behaviors that produce an uncomfortable effect are less likely to be repeated. c. Conditioning stems from behaviorism.

Modern Theories: Social Learning Theory- Bandura

a. Rooted in behaviorism. b. Explain development in terms of the associations that children make between behaviors and their consequences. c. Unlike behaviorism, SLT emphasizes the behavior-consequence interaction that children learn by observing and interacting with others in social situations. d. Bobo Doll Study- Modeling and imitation. e. Self-efficacy- beliefs about individual abilities to effectively meet standards and achieve goals. f. Behavior Modification- Technique used in breaking associations between behaviors and environmental consequences. Can be linked to operant conditioning.

Research Designs: Cohort Sequential

a. Takes the good parts from both longitudinal and cross sectional research designs. b. Measures development (in this case) by testing the same groups of individuals over time. Uses groups (cohorts) instead of individuals that are all of a different age. c. Can be useful studying development across cultures

Teratogens

a. Teratogens are environmental agents, such as toxins, disease, drugs and alcohol that increase the risk of deviations in normal development and can lead to serious abnormalities or death. b. Most pregnant women in the US take some medication during pregnancy

The Stages of Labor

a. The First stage of labor begins when uterine contractions of sufficient frequency, intensity, and duration begin to cause the cervix to dilate. b. This stage continues until the opening of the uterus into the vagina is fully dilated and the connections between the bones of the pelvis become more flexible. c. The length of this stage varies, and it may last anywhere from less than an hour to several days. The norm for first births is about 14 hours. d. The Second stage of labor begins as the baby is passed through the cervix into the vagina. e. By now, contractions are less than a minute apart and last about a minute in length. f. The baby should be in headfirst position by this stage, but occasionally babies are born in breech, which puts the mother and the baby at risk for serious complications with delivery and/or death. g. The Third stage of labor occurs when the baby has emerged from the vagina and the contractions cause the placenta to separate from the uterine wall, and deliver during afterbirth.

Grand Theories: Sociocultural Theory-Vygotsky

a. The big differentiation between this and the other grand theories is the emphasis and addition of culture into the mix. So now we have a blend of biological, social, and cultural factors influencing development according to Lev Vygotsky. b. Zone of Proximal Development- the gap between what children can accomplish individually and what they can accomplish with the help of others more skilled/experienced.

Infant Brain Development

a. The prefrontal area of the cerebral cortex plays a particularly important role in the development of voluntary behavior. b. The development of the prefrontal area is also linked to an increase in infant's ability to regulate themselves. c. The frontal and temporal lobes, which are the language-related areas of the brain, undergo significant myelination before a characteristic spurt occurs in toddler vocabulary.

Infant Memory and Attention

a. The process of attention appears to involve four distinct phases that can be distinguished by changes in infant heart rates. b. These phases are 1. Stimulus Detection Reflex; 2. Stimulus Orienting; 3. Stimulus Orienting; 4. Attention Termination. c. Stimulus-Detection is characterized by a brief slowing of the heart. Stimulus Orienting is where the heart rate slows considerably. Sustained Attention has the heart-rate stabilized; at this point the infant is truly paying attention. Attention Termination is where the heart rate returns to the pre-stimulus level. d. The object permanence task with the baby and the mobile is also an example of developing memory. e. Young infants move from relying on implicit memory, which allows them to recognize what they have experienced before, to acquiring the ability to use explicit memory, which allows them to recall absent objects and events without any clear reminder. f. Explicit memory is considered an especially important cognitive achievement because it seems to require the conscious generation of a mental representation for something that is not present to the senses.

Methanphetamine

a. The rate of hospitalizations for expectant mothers due to methamphetamine usage has tripled between 1994 and 2006. b. Babies of mothers who used during pregnancy were found to be significantly smaller than were those of nonusers. c. The link between the two is unclear, but one possibility is that because the drug restricts the mother's blood flow, it consequently restricting the nutrients that reach the fetus.

HIV and AIDS

a. This virus may be transmitted through the placental barrier, by exposure to the mother's blood during delivery, and through breastfeeding. b. About half of the children born infected will die before their second birthday. c. Transmission increases proportionally with the length of time the mother has been infected.

Tobacco

a. Though smoking tobacco is not known to produce birth defects, it has been found to harm the fetus in a variety of ways. b. Smoking is related to an increase in the rate of spontaneous abortion, stillbirth, and neonatal death. c. Nicotine causes abnormal growth of the placenta, resulting in a reduction of the transfer of nutrients to the fetus. d. Nicotine also reduces the oxygen and increases the carbon monoxide in the bloodstreams of both the mother and the fetus. e. Usually linked to lower birthweight, with a correlation between the dosage and birthweight. The more the mother smokes, the less the baby weighs. f. Also associated with sleep problems throughout the first 12 years of life.

Childbirth pain, Interventions, and Medication

a. Three types of drugs are primarily used to lessen the pain of childbirth: anesthetics (dull the feelings), analgesics (reduce the perception of the pain), and sedatives (reduce anxiety). b. Sometimes medical professionals may intervene to safeguard the mother and the child. c. If the child is significantly overdue, or the mother is confronted with a life threatening situation, physicians may choose to induce labor. d. When complications occur during delivery, the physician may also decide to deliver the baby through cesarean section

Kinship Studies

a. Used to determine the extent to which relatives of varying degrees of genetic "closeness" are similar on a specific trait in question. b. Three main types of kinship studies are Family, Twin, and Adoption

Research Designs: Cross Sectional

a. Widely used method for studying development. b. Samples individuals once but has a group of participants that have a wide age range. So one participant who is 5, another who is 10, 15, and so on... c. More effective means of collecting data, since you are only tested once

Alcohol

a. Women that drink substantial amounts of alcohol while pregnant, especially in the first trimester, are in danger of having a baby with serious birth defects. b. Many of these babies suffer from Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS), a set of symptoms that include an abnormally small head and underdeveloped brain, eye abnormalities, congenital heart disease, joint anomalies, and malformations of the face. c. Both physical growth and mental development are likely to be retarded. d. Binge drinking in early pregnancy is also associated with a subtle impairment in learning and behavior in adolescence. e. However, studies have also shown that one to two glasses of wine, either nightly or occasionally, have not been linked to fetal harm

Grand Theories: Psychodynamic/Psychosocial- Freud and Erikson.

b. Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latent, Genital (Freud) c. Trust v. Mistrust; Autonomy v. Shame and Doubt, and Identity v. Role Confusion (These will be the main three for this exam, knowing the others will make it easier later on throughout the class, but for now, just worry about these three). d. Freud: Id, Ego, and Superego. Be able to differentiate the ego from the superego. They are similar, but have distinct differences.

Cultural tools

c. All cultural tools include two main features: material and symbolic. d. Developmentalists refer to material tools when they are focusing on the physical objects or on observable patterns of behavior. e. Developmentalists refer to symbolic tools when they want to explore how abstract knowledge, beliefs, and values affect development

The Moro Relfex

characterized by the infant throwing its arms back, arcing its back, and then curling inward in response to a dropping sensation or a lout stimulus.

Temperament

consistent across situations and appear stable over time. b. Easy babies- playful, regular biological functions, adapt to new circumstances readily. c. Difficult babies- irregular in biological function's, irritable, and often respond intensely and negatively to new situations or try to withdraw from them. d. Slow-to-warm babies- low in activity level, responses are typically mild. Withdraw from new situations in a calm way. These babies require more time to adapt to change than easy babies do. e. Some evidence supports the idea that temperamental traits are stable time and that certain traits may contribute to adjustment problems later in childhood and adolescence. However, temperament can change overtime and can be influenced by a variety of factors.

Newborns Hearing

d. Newborns can distinguish the sound of a human voice from other sounds. e. Newborns are particularly interested in speech that is directed to them in high pitch with slow or exaggerated pronunciation (baby-talk). f. By the time babies are two days old they have a clear preference for the language that has been most spoken around them.

Reflex ---> Coordinated Action

e. A reflex becomes a coordinated action when it shifts from being involuntary (reflexive) to voluntary (action). This is apparent in nursing when touching the cheek of a baby is no longer needed to get the child ready to be fed and when sucking becomes something it does whenever something is placed in the mouth. f. Coordinated actions are something that a baby has control of to some extent, whereas reflexes are involuntary.

Mediation

f. Mediation is the process through which tools organize people's activities and ways of relating to their environment. g. The idea that material and symbolic tools mediate child behavior that can affect their development is at the heart of the "great debate" on violent video games and their relation to elevation in aggression levels. Also observable on how Barbie Dolls can promote poor body image.

Newborns Seeing

g. The basic components of the visual system are present at birth, but not fully developed. h. Immaturity of the lens and retina can limit visual sharpness, and the movements of the eyes aren't coordinated well enough to align the images on the two retinas, resulting in the vision being blurred after birth. Because of this, babies are considered to be nearsighted post-birth. i. Between 2 and 3 months the infant can coordinate the vision of both of their eyes, and by 7-8 months infant visual acuity is close to the adult level. j. By two months of age, infant ability to perceive different colors appears to approach adult levels. k. Infants have a small preference for symmetrical and "normal" faces, opposed to jumbled up odd ones. Infants also show preference for patterned objects opposed to plain ones. Preference at this stage is measured in minutes of fixation on the stimulus. Both of these findings come from Fantz.

Genes

h. Genes are the basic units of heredity, which make evolution possible. i. Genotype- exact genetic makeup j. Phenotype- represents observable physical, behavioral, and psychological traits that an individual develops. k. Phenotypes are influenced by environment*** l. Natural selection requires phenotypic variation. m. The ovum (egg) and sperm fuse to form a zygote. n. Don't spend much time worrying about mitosis and meiosis. o. Monozygotic Twins come from a single fertilized egg that splits into two separate individuals. p. Dizygotic twins "fraternal twins" come from two ova (eggs) being fertilized at the same time. q. Codominance- outcome in which a trait is determined by two alleles is different from the trait produced by either of the contributing alleles alone (AB blood-type). r. Be able to differentiate the characteristics of recessive disorders and chromosomal disorders.(Recessive is caused by inheritance of genetic material, Chromosomal is a disruption of genetic transmission, which may lead to the child having more chromosomal copies that is "normal".

Experience-Expectant

processes of brain development are those that seem to anticipate experiences that are universal in all normally developing members of our species. For example, the evolution of the visual cortex prepares the baby for certain types of visual experiences (such as seeing patterns and borders between light and dark).

Experience-Dependent

processes of brain development produce synapses in response to specific experiences as they are happening in the organism. For an example, refer to page 130 in your textbook.

Nurture

refers to the social and cultural influences of the environment.

Intermodal Perception

the ability to perceive an object or event by more than one sensory stimulus simultaneously (the facial preference linked to talking to the child study, page 139).

The Rooting Reflex

the baby turns its head in the direction in which it was touched and opens the mouth in response to the stroke or touch on a cheek (associated with nursing).

Plasticity

the degree to which, and the conditions under which, development is open to change and interventions

The Babinski Reflex

the fanning and curling of the toes in response to stimulation of the foot (most basically, touching the foot).

Habituation

the process in which attention to novelty decreases with repeated exposure.

The Eyeblink Reflex

the rapid opening and closing of the eyelids in response to bright lights or foreign objects. The only reflex present at birth that remains purely reflexive and does not develop into a coordinated action.

Dishabituation

the term used to describe the process in which an infant's interest is renewed after a change in the habituated object (changing tone or color...)