Versace Versace

Party Identification

- A citizen's personal affinity for a political party, usually expressed by a tendency to vote for the candidates of that party. -Political socialization: parents, family, neighborhood, friends Party ID almost as stable as religion. Few change party after age 25-30. Political events when first voting can leave imprint Age 18-25 as period of greatest change in partisanship "Political generations" -The political attitude that shapes opinions and organizes other attitudes most consistently is a person's attitude toward the political parties. 80-95% of Americans identify with one party

Supremacy Clause

-Article 6, Section 1, Clause 2 -Article VI of the Constitution, which makes the Constitution, national laws, and treaties supreme over state laws when the national government is acting within its constitutional limits. -Supremacy Clause: Constitution and national laws are "supreme Law of the land; and the Judges in every State shall be bound thereby, any Thing in the Constitution or Laws of any State to the Contrary notwithstanding.

Commander-in-Chief

-Constitutional power of the president - "supreme commander" of the nation's armed forces. Important to keep military under civilian control, leads to conflict with Congress over war power (War Powers Act) -The role of the president as supreme commander of the military forces of the United States and of the state National Guard units when they are called into federal service; during the 20th century this has allowed Presidents to circumvent (get around) Congress' refusal to declare war. -Role as president. Framers created it this way, because they didn't want a military take over, so they made a civilian the commander. -The Constitution: president is commander in chief of the nation's armed forces. -The Constitution declares the president to be commander in chief of the nation's armed forces. The president is also the head of state, which is the highest ranking constitutional position and is vested with powers to act as the chief representative of the state.

Forecasting Presidential Elections

-Economy (Real disposable income change; GDP growth; Consumer sentiment) and the incumbent party president's approval rating are more reliable forecasting tool; assumes both sides are equally professional/strategic -, 1) early forecasters take economy (real disposable income change, GDP growth; consumer sentiment) and incumbent party president's approval rating into account = these two variables do better than early polls in forecasting november outcome. 2) forecasting models assume both sides are equally professional/ strategic. -Exit polls. Stability: Interview same people in 1965 and after 1880 election:

Horserace Coverage

-Focuses on polls and who is "leading", Less on issues, campaigns, or candidate speeches. -Campaigns focus on the race and not the policy stands (i.e. they focus on strategy and likelihood it will pass and not substance)

Holds

-Holds in Senate: things like filibusters that prevent a bill from passing or getting to the floor. - An informal practice by which a senator informs his or her floor leader that he or she does not wish a particular bill or other measure to reach the floor for consideration. The majority leader need not follow the senator's wishes, but is on notice that the opposing senator may filibuster any motion to proceed to consider the measure.

Judicial Review

-Marbury v. Madison -An idea not explicitly stated in the Constitution which established that laws and actions of Congress and the executive be subject to review by the Courts to determine their consistency with the Constitution. -The power of the federal courts to annul the acts of the federal or state executives o the legislatures where they find them incompatible with a higher norm or law - most cases concern federal law and federal agency regulations, only about a 5th deal with the Constitution. -Court slowly built on Marbury precedent Declared just 2 national laws unconstitutional, 1789-1860. Overturned 20 from 1860-1900. Accelerated in 20th century: 28 declared unconstitutional from 1920-39, including much of the First New Deal in 1934-36. Declared 36 national laws unconstitutional in 1990-2005. Built off of Maubery v. Madison, that courts have the right to declare that somethings unconstitutional

Strategic Politicians

-Office-seekers who base the decision to run on a rational calculation that they will be successful -Politicians are goal-oriented actors who generally behave strategically in order to get re-elected, bargain and compromise with other strategic politicians, subordinate own preferences to improve chances of success -Politicians act primarily to get elected, so they must act based on the opinion of voters, and compromise with other views. Goal oriented actors behave strategically in pursuit of their goals

Sample vs. Population

-Population: entire group of people about which information is wanted (e.g. American adults). -Population refers to a large group of all scores that would be obtained if the behavior of every individual of interest in a particular situation could be measured. Sample refers to a relatively small subset of the population that is selected to represent the population in inferential statistics, as it would be impossible to study the entire population. It is important that the sample is representative of the population being studied. -Population: entire group of people about which information is wanted (e.g. American adults). Sample: a part or subset of the population that is used to gain information about the whole population.

Reasons to be wary of Poll Results

-Sampling problems, Social Desirability Bias, question wording, Political Ignorance Challenge, Explanatory Challenge - how do we explain these answers and what do we do with the polling, Selective Perception Ignorance challenge, measurement challenge. - classist slides.

Plurality Rule Election

-Single winner voting system often used to elect members of a legislative assembly which is based on single-member constituencies -Conducive to prisoner's dilemma since 3rd parties don't stand a chance.

Class Voting

-Tendency of a given social class to vote for a party that promotes its economic interest -When the more affluent tend to vote for tax breaks for the wealthy, and in general more conservatively (unless post graduate education see Wilson reading). When the less educated, and poorer people tend to vote more liberally. However religion/ethnicity may be more of a factor. -You vote in relation to you're own economic interest. Not as prevalent in US as in European countries. Dem like progressive taxes, Rep favor tax cuts for wealthy people. -Class bias (elitism), "The flaw in the pluralist heaven is that the heavenly chorus sings with an upper class accent." --E.E. Schattschneider-- Vote in relation to your own economic interest, not as prevalent in USA as other Europeans.

Social Desirability effect

-Tendency of research subjects to respond in a socially acceptable manner; an effect which occurs when some people try to present themselves in a favourable light. -Some research on stereotyping and prejudice indicates a decrease in the frequency of such behaviors, it is difficult to know if this is truly the case, or whether it is simply "politically incorrect" to make such statements. -When answering questions, people will want to come up with a socially desirable response (e.g. they wouldn't want to be considered racist)

Take Care Clause

-The constitutional requirement (in Article II, Section 3) that presidents take care that the laws are faithfully executed, even if they disagree with the purpose of those laws. -President has the power to faithfully take care and execute laws how they were originally intended. -The president has to take care that laws are faithfully execute it. Significance: the president now has a lot more power. Allows president to undertake whatever actions the nation's well-being requires and is not expressly forbidden by the Constitution or public law.

Standing Committee

-The predominate committees, they specialize in a particular area of legislation. They complete the day-to-day work, have subcommittees, and party representation is proportional to the full Senate or House. -"Standing Committees" Fixed jurisdiction over set of policies Division of labor and specialization Provide information for House and Senate

Opinion Leadership

-The process by which one person (the "opinion leader") informally influences the consumption actions or attitudes of others who may be "opinion seekers" or "opinion recipients" -In his article "The Two Step Flow of Communication" by Elihu Katz, he found opinion leaders to have more influence on people's opinions, actions, and behaviors than the media. Opinion leaders are seen to have more influence than the media for a number of reasons. Opinion leaders are seen as trustworthy and non-purposive. People do not feel they are being tricked into thinking a certain way about something from someone they know. However, the media can be seen as -Basically a powerful public figures who can shift public opinion about politics. Can be Oprah - doesn't have to be a politician. It can be local leaders -Issue public: individuals who follow particular issue closely (due to their job or personal interest in topic). Less informed people rely on cues from opinion leaders

Unilateral Action

-any policy decision made and acted upon by the president and his staff without the explicit approval or consent of congress -Any action or policy decision made by the president or his staff without the approval from congress; Basically when the President acts alone; Ex: The use of executive privilege, the use of certain executive orders; -Actions taken by Presidents with Executive orders such as gag rule.

Leadership as bargaining

-trading support on two or more policies or providing specific benefits for representatives/senators. neustadt: bargaining is key to presidential power -Congress and Presidency communicating, compromising, and bargaining to accomplish a goal

Stare Decisis

-"Let the decision stand"; the principle that cases should be decided in ways consistent with similar prior cases. Promotes consistency & fairness. -"The decision stands". A rule in deciding cases where judges follow precedent (how similar cases were decided in the past). Helps promote consistency and fairness in the legal process. Lower courts must follow precedent set by higher courts. Supreme Court can reject precedent if absolutely necessary (Example: Brown rejects precedent of Plessy). -The rule of precedent, whereby a rule or law contained in a judicial decision is commonly viewed as binding on judges whenever the same question is presented. -A doctrine or policy of following rules or principles laid down in previous judicial decisions unless they contravene the ordinary principles of justice.

Spoils System

-"rotation in office;" Jackson felt that one should spend a single term in office and return to private citizenship, those who held power too long would become corrupt and political appointments made by new officials was essential for democracy -Policy of rewarding political supporters with public office, first widely employed at the federal level by Andrew Jackson. The practice was widely abused by unscrupulous office seekers, but it also helped cement party loyalty in the emerging two-party system. This system gave people jobs in government that did not deserve it. -1820-80s Andrew Jackson: Rotation-in-office=staff gov't with party workers, contrary to democracy for narrow elite rule. Fit his party-building goals: use gov't offices as patronage. The system has a division of labor, formal hierarchy, consistent set of rules, and impersonality.

Roe v. Wade

-1973, the Court forbade any state control of abortions during the first trimester; permitted states to regulate abortions to protect the mother's health in the second trimester; and allowed states to ban abortion during the third trimester, except when the mother's life or health was in danger -Jan 27, 1973 "right to privacy" -established national abortion guidelines; trimester guidelines; no state interference in 1st; state may regulate to protect health of mother in 2nd; state may regulate to protect health or unborn child in 3rd. inferred from right of privacy established in griswald v. Connecticut -Part of shift in Court's role after 1937: emphasis on civil rights and civil liberties Free speech, rights of accused, right to privacy -After 1937, as the court began to emphasize civil rights and liberties. Decision relied heavily on the rights of free speech, privacy, and the rights of accused established by Griswold v. Connecticut, 1967 In 1973, Roe v. Wade overturned state laws making abortions illegal.

Minimal Effects Thesis

-1. media has little impact on public opinion 2. people ignore information with which they disagree. 3. people absorb info with which they agree. 4. initial finding of research on media shows that it has only subtle effect. people have attitudes/ predispositions that are hard to move, so media has little effect in changing a voters view or stance on issues -Difficult to move direction of public opinion - "minimal effects" thesis Need to get people to hear the message (exposure) People have attitudes / predispositions that are hard to move Zaller: What Monica Lewinsky did for Political Science (and Jon Stewart). Media has little effects, because people already are set in their ideals. Presidential candidates no longer take public funding, so PA, FL in 2008 Obama outspent his opponent making the minimal effects thesis not true. Even without PACS, and the thesis true, the media can still set the agenda by reminding people to remind them selves to take a position on EX: Bill Clinton during the scandal. -Difficult to move direction of public opinion: -Need to get people to hear the message (exposure) -People have attitudes / predispositions that are hard to move People are set in their ideas, so media doesn't really have an effect and cannot really influence voters. Even without super Pacs, even with this thesis true, the media can still set the agenda and make certain issues more salient. - its not convincing me if its good or bad, but just reminds me to make up my mind about it.

Marbury v. Madison

-1803, Adams appointed Marbury as one of these midnight judges. Sec of State Madison didn't deliver the appointment. Marbury demanded writ to compel the delivery of the appointmentMarshall ruled that while Madison should have delivered, he didn't have to because the writ was unconstitutional (thus voiding an act of congress).arguably the most important case in Supreme Court history, was the first U.S. Supreme Court case to apply the principle of "judicial review" -- the power of federal courts to void acts of Congress in conflict with the Constitution While Jeff agreed with the principle of judicial review, he thought this was another example of Federalist partisanship. -Established concept of judicial review, first time supreme court declared something 'unconstitutional' -The 1803 case in which Chief Justice John Marshall and his associates first asserted the right of the Supreme Court to determine the meaning of the U.S. Constitution. The decision established the Court's power of judicial review over acts of Congress, (the Judiciary Act of 1789). -Adams' "Midnight appointee" Marbury requested court order (writ of mandamus) for Madison to hand over his commission as Justice of Peace What if Court ordered Madison to hand over the Commission? Instead, claimed lack of jurisdiction - declared section of Judiciary Act of 1789 unconstitutional -Required no one to do anything -Established the court's "coequal" status among the branches of the American government. Marbury asked the court to issue a write of mandamus to James Madison ordering him to deliver commissions. Court decided Marbury did have right to the commission, the laws of the U.S. did afford him a remedy, but that the Supreme Court did NOT have jurisdiction.

Stuart v. Laird

-1803, Upheld an act of Congress passed the year before which had done away with the new circuit courts created by the Federalists and had placed the Supreme Court Justices back on riding the circuit. -The repeal of the 1801 Judiciary Act was constitutional because of the Madisonian compromise regarding inferior federal courts. Lower courts may enforce each other's decisions. -Upheld an act of Congress passed the year before which had done away with the new circuit courts created by the Federalists and had placed the Supreme Court Justices back on riding the circuit., 1803- Upheld an act of Congress passed the year before which had done away with the new circuit courts created by the Federalists and had placed the Supreme Court Justices back on riding the circuit = Court rules that Congress did have the authority to reorganize the judiciary -Federalists created lower courts as leaving power (Judiciary Act of 1801). Jeffersonian passed act repealing judiciary act and eliminating these lower courts. Does this violate life tenure of judges under Constitution?

Pendleton Act

-1883 law that created a Civil Service Commission and stated that federal employees could not be required to contribute to campaign funds nor be fired for political reasons -(1883) After the assassination of Pres. Garfield by a deranged office-seeker, Congress initiated political reform to remove the spoils system. The legislation prohibited campaign contribution from federal employees and created the Civil Service Commission. The Pendleton Act did not eliminate corruption, but it was a start. One of the major drawbacks was that it forced politicians to get funds from corporations. -It made compulsory campaign contributions from federal employees illegal, and established the Civil Service Commission to make appointments to federal jobs on the basis of examination rather than cronyism --Created merit system (competitive exams, job security) -Covered 10% of federal workers but President authorized to expand it -By 1933, covered 80% of federal workers

Court-Packing fight

-1937, Roosevelt proposed an plan to appoint another judge for every judge older than seventy so he could implement his New Deal and actively manage the economy. Public opinion was bad, his Court-Packing Plan died in Congress, but the court DID start upholding the same economic legislation it had been blocking for 2 years. (Justice Owen Roberts was the switch in time that saved nine) -(called Judicial Procedures Reform Bill); President Roosevelt proposed a plan to revamp the judiciary; allowed the president to appoint an additional Supreme Court justice for every sitting justice over the age of seventy (most consequential and controversial provision); this would alleviate the backlog of cases on the Court's docket by giving opportunity to name as may as six new justices to the high bench --> real purpose was to give Roosevelt a Court majority sympathetic to his New Deal programs; public reaction was generally negative and ultimately failed -Roosevelt proposed a plan to appoint another judge for every judge older than seventy so he could implement his New Deal and actively manage the economy. Public opinion was bad, his Court-Packing Plan died in Congress = but the court did start upholding the same economic legislation it had been blocking for 2 years. (Justice Owen Roberts was the switch in time that saved nine)

Committee Gatekeeping

-A committee is delegated the power to choose whether or not to take action on specific proposals, committee can filter on important issues -Power of Congress to control and have access to goods services or information. Those in committees get to decide what gets onto the agenda. "Discharge rule" allows house to bring a bill to the floor that has not been reported from a committee. -A committee is delegated the power to choose whether or not to take action on specific proposals=committee can filter on important issues -Open or close the gates to put something on the agenda. Agenda setting power. Another veto point, potential bill can be stopped.

Political Action Committees

-A committee set up by a corporation, labor union, or interest group that raises and spends campaign money from voluntary donations -The name commonly given to a private group, regardless of size, organized to elect political candidates. An organization becomes one by receiving contributions or making expenditures in excess of $1,000 for the purpose of influencing a federal election. -A federally registered fundraising group that pools money from individuals to give to political candidates and parties. -Political Action Committees usually billed by interest groups to support a candidate can give up to 4 digits. Some believe they are just buying off politicians, but that doesn't actually happen. You can't convince politicians to change their mind. So if you are anti-abortion, you give to members who are anti abortion. You can send in lobbyist to have meetings with members to prioritize issues, because you bought their time. Hall and Wayman: all about how lobbying is directed at your allies by helping members prioritize their issues. Lobbyists do have influence over politics. Super PACS do not have to disclose their donors, and they can give as much as they want as long as they "don't coordinate." Thousands of dollars in donation don't change their minds, but billions might. -Large groups that can raise lots of money for campaigns. There is a limit to how much money they can donate directly to a candidate, but no limit on how much money they can spend individually trying to get that candidate elected. PACs can give up to a certain number of money, they provide campaign contributions, . Usually built by interest group to support candidates. Can't use campaign contributions to change their views. You give to people who already believe in what you believe in. (Hall and Wayman) Similar to lobbying can buy access and time by meeting with these politicians. Can have them prioritise certain things and set agenda. Limits, don't worry about influence of money in politics but when there is not limit. Super PACS, don't have to disclose their donors, unlimited money, as long as they don't coordinate.

Ideology

-A comprehensive set of beliefs about the nature of people and about the role of an institution or government. -A coherent vision of human nature, human society and the larger world that proposes some particular form of political and social organization as ideal. It is an attempt to design a political and social order appropriate for their communities. -A system of interdependent (web) ideas *explain and justify particular political, economic, moral, and social conditions and interests, making them making them seem * right and natural. -Elaborate set of organized, internally consistent attitudes that allow one to understand, evaluate, and respond to political phenomena. (e.g. liberal, conservative, libertarian) -Ideology: Elaborate set of organized, internally consistent attitudes that allow one to understand, evaluate, and respond to political phenomena. Liberal, conservative, libertarian About 1/5 of Americans use these terms spontaneously Most people express policy views that do not fit neatly into an ideological category

Executive Order

-A directive, order, or regulation issued by the president. These are based on constitutional or statutory authority and have the force of law. - "The president has authority to direct the actions of federal executive agencies, so long as the President's directives are not inconsistent with an act of Congress. -Order by the president to immediately do something. It is a signing statement. EX: Obama sending immigrants back, Lincoln starting the civil war -Formal Instructions issued by the president, which has the force of law until the president or a successor retracts it, Congress nullifies it, or a federal court rules it unconstitutional. e.g. After Sandy Hook School's shooting, Obama issued 19 executive orders designed to tighten administration of current laws, train first responders, and examine new gun control measures.

Bradley Effect

-A discrepancy in polls and actual voting that overestimates the white vote for black candidates because some white voters might falsely report that they intend to vote for an African American candidate. Named after the 1982 California gubernatorial candidate Tom Bradley. -Subset of the Social Desirability Effect where white voters tend to tell pollsters they are either undecided or likely to vote for a black candidate. - is a theory proposed to explain observed discrepancies between voter opinion polls and election outcomes in some US government elections where a white candidate and a non-white candidate run against each other. -If another person asks you about something about what you think, you may feel pressured to say that we like America, because it's a norm. Social desirability v. Bradley. Named after Tom Bradley hypothesis effect that: they did public opinion polls if they liked if or not=more people said they would vote for him and they like him. Same with Obama case, but that did not appear to happen. It is a historical example of social desirability.

Prisoners Dilemma

-A game in which the players are prevented from cooperating and in which each has a dominant strategy that leaves them both worse off than if they could cooperate -A paradox in decision analysis in which two individuals acting in their own best interest, pursue a course of action that does not result in the ideal outcome. -In the problem of the prisoner's dilemma, two prisoners are interrogated in separate rooms. Each prisoner is given the choice of cooperating with their partner in crime (saying that they are innocent), or defecting (implicating their partner in crime). It is assumed that the base prison sentence that each will receive is five years, and that the payoff that each receives (time off from their prison sentence) is dependent on what decision they make, and what decision their partner makes. The classic payoffs are:If they both cooperate, the lack of testimony from the two prisoners weakens the case. There is still enough circumstantial evidence, however, to keep them in prison for two years each (payoff of 3 years off from the base sentence of five). (reward)If they both defect, the testimony that each provides against the other is quite damning. But their slightly conflicting stories allows the judge to imprison them for only four years each (payoff of 1 year off from the base sentence of five). (punishment)If one player defects and the other cooperates then there is no case against the defector, but a very strong one against the cooperator. The defector gets immunity and receives no prison sentence (payoff of 5 years off from the base sentence of five), while the judge throws the book at the cooperator who gets the full five year sentence (payoff of 0 years off from the base sentence of five). (sucker's payoff) -This arises whenever individuals, who ultimately would benefit from cooperating with each other, also have a powerful and irresistible incentive to break the agreement and exploit the other side for their own selfish interest.

Issue Public

-A group of people particularly affected by, or concerned with, a specific issue (due to job or special interest) -Individuals who follow particular issue closely (due to their job or personal interest in topic). Less informed people rely on cues from opinion leaders -Groups of citizens who are more attentive to particular areas of public policy than average citizens because such groups have some special stake in the issues -Segments of the population who are intensely interested in a particular issue, known as this, often have a profound effect on political outcomes

Judicialization of Politics

-A growing trend in which political debates are more and more often settled in courtrooms rather than legislatures. Policy-makers increasingly legislate in the shadow of the courts. -Decisions such as Roe v. Wade have proven the court to be a major venue of politics by turning political issues into legal ones and shaping the debate; corrected by abolishing judicial review -1. expansion of the province of the courts or judges at the expense of the politicians. 2. the spread of judicial decision making methods outside judicial -Increasing trend that the court is more involved in politics. They didn't assert judicial review until Maubary v. Madison. They were originally bestowed with that power. All major court cases includes this EX: Brown v. Board, Roe v. Wade. Courts not just an empire, they're actually creating policies, because they are radically changing life as activist judges. -Decisions such as Brown v. Board, Roe v. Wade have proven the court to be a major venue of politics by turning political issues into legal ones and shaping the debate. Increasing trend in politics, more involvement now compared to the time of founding. They acquired the power of judicial review, they now assert it more often.

Iron Triangles

-A mutually dependent relationship between bureaucratic agencies, interest groups, and congressional committees or subcommittees. They dominate some areas of domestic policy making. -Bureaucratic lobbying. A term used to refer to the interdependent relationship among the bureaucracy, special interest groups, and congress. congress gives funding to bureaucrats, bureaucrats give favorable regulations to special interest groups, and special interest groups give electoral support to congress. -Policy-making relationship among the congressional committees, the bureaucracy and interest groups. Conditions: agency deals w/single interest group, not a partisan/ideological issue, rooted in collective action logic: concentrated benefits diffuse costs, cooperative ties develop between agency, congress, committee and supportive interest groups -When an agency deals with single interest group, not a partisan/ideological issue. Because of concentrated benefits, diffuse costs, a narrow interest group ismore likely to lobby for agency than the general public and cooperative ties develop between agency, congressional committee, and supportive interest group thus "capturing" the Agency.

Voter Mobilization

-A party's effort to inform potential voters about issues and candidates and to persuade them to vote. it can take the form of making phone calls, knocking on doors, or even supplying rides to the polls. mostly media and reaches a large amount of people but isn't as important because attack ads do not help campaigns. -Mobilization Direct contact asking you to vote Decline in mobilization in 1960s-90s decline in turnout Rooted in decline in party organization, unions Door-to-door canvassing works best (experimental studies) Revival in direct contact recently -Mobilization (directly asking people to vote) *Declined in 1960s-1990s led to decline in turnout

Filibuster

-A procedural practice in the Senate whereby a senator refuses to relinquish the floor and thereby delays proceedings and prevents a vote on a controversial issue. -A strategy unique to the Senate whereby opponents of a piece of legislation try to talk it to death, based on the tradition of unlimited debate. Today, 60 members present and voting can halt a filibuster. -Right of unlimited debate/ individual right to the floor. A cloture rule takes 60 votes to end a filibuster. Severe time constraints make this very effective. They keep the filibuster, because it makes a senator more powerful as an individual.

Cloture Rule

-A rule used by the Senate to end or limit debate. -Rule 22 of the Senate, providing for the end of debate on a bill if 3/5 of the members agree. A cloture motion is brought to the floor if 16 senators sign a petition. The purpose is typically to terminate a filibuster and to force a vote on a bill. -The only procedure by which the Senate can vote to place a time limit on consideration of a bill or other matter, and thereby overcome a filibuster. Under this rule, the Senate may limit consideration of a pending matter to 30 additional hours, but only by vote of 3/5s of the full Senate - 60 votes.

Random Sample

-A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion -Random sample (as opposed to "convenience sample") Each member of population has equal chance of being part of the sample Most common: random digit dialing With a sample of about 1200, margin of error is usually about 3 percentage points "95% confidence interval"

Seniority System

-A simple rule for picking committee chairs, in effect until the 1970s. The member who had served on the committee the longest and whose party controlled Congress became chair, regardless of party loyalty, mental state, or competence. -Originally (up until the 70s) members with seniority got the better seats on committees controlling what went to the floor. The reason the civil rights bill never made it to the floor before the 60's was because southern democrats controlled the south and were on almost all committees never letting it get to the floor. -Reduced transaction and conformity costs, this rule avoided two unwelcome alternatives: election, which would have led to intraparty squabbles, and appointment by party leaders, which would have given the leaders more power than senators thought desirable or necessary.

Heuristics

-A simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgment and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier, but more error-prone than algorithms -Cognitive strategies or "rules of thumb" used as shortcuts to solve complex mental tasks. Unlike algorithms, heuristics do not guarantee a correct solution -Partisanship Retrospective performance evaluation Candidate traits / evaluations Character, trust, personality, party identification Short cuts for people. Voters are capable of participating.

Merit System

-A system of public employment in which selection and promotion depend on demonstrated performance rather than political patronage. -Allocated government jobs on the basis of competence rather than affiliation with a party. -Created a system where jobs were offered based on qualifications, exams, and experience. Created a much more stable work force while simultaneously altering the political process because workers no longer had to home desperately that their party would stay in power so they could keep their jobs.

Faction

-A term the founders used to refer to political parties and special interests or interest groups. -Faction: "a number of citizens ... united and actuated by some common impulse of passion, or of interest, adverse to the rights of other citizens, or to the permanent and aggregate interests of the community." --James Madison, Federalist #10 Cure minority faction via free elections Limit chance of majority faction through extended republic (and checks and balances, separation of powers, federalism). -"a number of citizens ... united and actuated by some common impulse of passion, or of interest, adverse to the rights of other citizens, or to the permanent and aggregate interests of the community."

Casework

-Activities of members of Congress that help constituents as individuals; cutting through bureaucratic red tape to get people what they think they have a right to get. -An effort by members of Congress to gain the trust and support of constituents by providing them with personal service. One important type of casework consists of helping constituents obtain favorable treatment from federal bureaucracy. -The thousands of favors congressional offices perform for supplicants in ways that normally do not require legislative action -Requests from constituents for information and help in dealing with government agencies. Good way for Congressmen to show they are still in touch with their constituents.

Pluralism

-A theory of government that holds that open, multiple, and competing groups can check the asserted power by any one group. -A theory of American democracy emphasizing that the policymaking process is very open to the participation of all groups with shared interests, with no single group usually dominating. Pluralists tend to believe that as a result, public interest generally prevails. -"the coexistence within the one political community of groups who hold divergent and incompatible views with regard to religious questions. . . . it therefore implies disagreement and dissension within a community." -The doctrine that reality consists of several basic substances or elements, the theory that all interests are and should be free to compete for influence in the government. The outcome of this competition is compromise and moderation. Challenges: Elitism; If you look at the more powerful groups, with the most access to politicians, are usually big money groups. They represent well educated and wealthy. There is a social certification among interest groups. -1) "The flaw in the pluralist heaven is that the heavenly chorus sings with an upper class accent." (Elitism theory; E.E. Schattschneider) 2) Pluralist inconsistency: emphasize self-interest of group, but what about self-interest calculation of potential members? Free rider problem (Olson) -Economic divisions are crosscut by religious, racial / ethnic, geographic divisions. Overlapping memberships limit scope of each group's demands. Fails to take Free Rider and Class Bias into account

Retrospective Voting

-A theory of voting in which voters essentially ask this simple question: "What have you done for me lately?" -Basing voting decisions on reactions to past performance; approving the status quo or signaling a desire for change. -Give the term for voting on the basis of how things have gone in the recent past and then voting for the party that controls the White House, if the voter approves of the current administrations performance, or voting against that party if the voter disapproves -"Blind retrospection" (Bartels) Penalize incumbent President for conditions beyond his control (e.g. droughts) Economic performance in the year before the election counts more with voters than overall performance over four-year period (short memory). Retrospective voting is when you vote based on what they did in the past.

Party Polarization

-A vote in which a majority of Democratic legislators oppose a majority of Republican legislators -Parties have become more significant in Congress because of the process of party polarization. There is growing ideological differences between the two major parties and increased ideological agreement within the parties. (Most democrats are liberals and most republicans are conservatives). -When the two major parties go against each other and split at extreme issues, i.e., abortion, gay marriage, stem cell research.

Acess

-Access, also known as a politicians ear, can be bought for a certain amount of money. Essentially, campaign money buys access to the politician.

Credit Claiming

-According to David Mayhew, one of three primary activities undertaken by members of Congress to increase the probability of their reelection. It involves personal and district service. -Tactic used by incumbents to gain support and votes; they stress their policymaking record, emphasize their stand on new policy issues, and demonstrate how they have helped their constituents. -Act of congressman to make his constituents believe that he is directly responsible for a piece of legislation that directly benefits them. Significance: helps them with reelection. Mayhew's Theory. -It is difficult to claim credit on broad policies/ issues thus forcing politicians to work specifically toward their constituents needs. They will work for pork and casework to be able to claim credit. -Congressman claim credit for particular legislation (even though they are only one member of the vast Congress). Also casework and earmarks.

Position Taking

-According to David Mayhew, one of three primary activities undertaken by members of Congress to increase the probability of their reelection. It involves taking a stand on issues and responding to constituents about these positions. -Any public statement-such as a roll call vote, speech, editorial, or position paper-about a topic of interest to constituents or interest groups. Likely to alienate some portion of audience no matter what position taken. -Many roll call votes are about "position taking" David Mayhew. Using speeches, roll call, (what votes you show up for) to take your position, w/o having to outwardly state a position to stake out a popular opinion rather than to change policies.

Lobbying

-According to Lester Milbrath, a "communication, by someone other than a citizen acting on his own behalf, directed to a governmental decision maker with the hope of influencing his decision." -A strategy by which organized interests seek to influence the passage of legislation by exerting direct pressure on members of the legislature. -Direct contact made by an interest group's representative in order to persuade government officials to support the policies their interest group favors -Effort by an organized group or individual to influence the decisions of government. *Three main resources for lobbyists: 1) Information (insider strategy) 2) Votes (outsider strategy) 3) Money they don't convince members to switch things

Going Public

-Action taken by a president to communicate directly with the people, usually through a press conference, radio broadcast, or televised speech, in order to influence public opinion and put pressure on Congress -Appealing directly to the people to gather support for presidential initiatives (first seen with FDR's fireside chats)-- connecting to the people makes for a favorable president -A tactic presidents use to exert pressure on legislative opponents in which the president engages in intensive public relations to promote his preferred policies to the voters, thereby inducing cooperation on the part of his opponents. -Because public opinion ultimately makes its way to policymakers, interest groups carefully cultivate their public image and use public opinion to their advantage when they can. Interest groups always want to appeal to the public in order to gain support. Groups have recently begun advertising much more in order to spread their message. -(Kernell) Engaging in intensive public relations to promote the president' policies to the voters and thereby induce cooperation from other elected officeholders in Washington. The nationally televised State of the Union address is the most prominent strategy of going public. (e.g. Reagan Budget, Bush War Resolution, Obama Health Care)

President as "Clerk"

-Part of the 19th century presidency, the Presidency was essentially a glorified clerk job as he gave out jobs in the federal bureaucracy. Presidents usually gave these jobs to members of their party as an incentive to keep voting for them. The Pendleton Act passed after the assassination of President Garfield ended this role for the President -Neustadt refers to the president as a "clerk" during the Era of Cabinet government -Gave out many patronage jobs Cabinet government Wartime leadership - e.g. Lincoln in Civil War.

Issues Network

-An alliance of various interest groups and individuals who unite in order to promote a single issue in government policy. The various parties within an issue network include "political executives, career bureaucrats, management and policy consultants, academic researchers, journalists, foundation officers, and White House aides." -An issue network is an alliance of various interest groups and individuals who unite in order to promote a single issue in gov *policy. Conditions: multiple, competing interest groups, partisan ideological conflict over issue. Instead of stable, dominant coalition, ongoing conflict among competing groups/experts When combine w/"separate institutions sharing power," issue networks often lead to agencies designed for failure -Separation of powers / checks and balances generate: compromise as opponents "help" design agency Supporters try to protect from "political uncertainty": (e.g. hostile President. Lock-in bias.) Results in lots of rules, restrictions, and court appeals. (Terry Moe.) Want to design agency to insulate it from future political challenges. But theres a problem that there is always conflict in Congress - agency becomes convoluted

Sophomore Surge

-An increase in the votes congressional candidates usually get when they first run for reelection -A phenomenon in which a candidate in the House of Representatives develops a following during his or her first term and then receives 8 to 10 percent more votes when running for re-election, even if he or she does not receive party support -High reelection rate one sign "Sophomore surge" Member A: first elected with 52% of vote Member A: wins reelection two years later with 60% of vote --"sophomore surge" of 8 points

Countermajoritarian Difficulty

-An inherent tension between judicial review and democratic government, a perceived problem with judicial review of legislative or popularly created laws, some oppose or see a problem with the judicial branch's ability to invalidate, overrule or countermand laws that reflect the will of the majority -Problem for judges (who're unelected) when deciding whether to overrule the ELECTED branches of the government (runs through Scalia-Breyer debate) -Alexander Bickel's phrase for the tension that exists for representative government when unelected judges have the power to strike laws passed by elected representatives. -The argument that judicial review is illegitimate because it allows unelected judges to overrule the lawmaking of elected representatives, thus undermining the will of the majority. -Problematic for unelected judges to overturn will of majority. Scalia: Textualism focus on meaning of words in constitution. Breyer: Purposive Theory ask what are the purposes of the expressed statute or constitution? **Problem is the idea that the court specifically can do something against what the majority wants. It is possible that during the Brown decision, that the majority in the places effected disagreed with it. EX: Citizen's United or Brown v. Board is, because in the sense that the majority in the nation and in places effected disagreed with it. It's a difficulty, because the fact that we have institutions that can do the opposite of the majority, because it's a democratic principle. Does the constitution reflect majority opinion? Connects to Delegate v. Trustee, because if you do something against the majority you aren't acting as a delegate. How do you protect minorities during this? In order to pass a policy like this you're acting as a trustee. -Countermajoritarian difficulty: Problematic for unelected judges to overturn will of majority (runs through Scalia-Breyer debate) Idea that the court specifically, can do something that is against what the majority public want even though they are not elected. Brown v. Board - South were not happy. If the Constitution reflects democratic principles, they should countermajority rulings be allowed? - trustee model of representation

Speaker of the House

-An office mandated by the Constitution. The Speaker is chosen in practice by the majority party, has both formal and informal powers, and is second in line to succeed to the presidency should that office become vacant. -In addition to being chief spokesman for the majority party, the Speaker runs the proceedings of House debate and voting, appoints committee members, refers bills to committees for research and development, and has an influential voice in all stages of a bill's consideration. One of the most visible and influential officials of the federal government, the Speaker is second in line, after the vice president, in succession to the presidency. -John Boehner -Speaker of the House Created by Constitution Officially elected by full House In practice, elected by Majority Party "caucus" Speaker appoints Rules Committee (since 1974) Speaker and other party leaders (e.g. majority leader) control committee assignments

Culture War Thesis

-Argued that the culture war cuts across religious traditions and divides society into orthodox forces with unyielding principles and progressive supporters with shifting standards. Thomas Frank and David Brooks -Americans are much more politically divided than in past -Divisions are centered on "social" or "cultural" issues rather than economics -Working-class white voters vote Republican; educated white-collar voters lean Democratic -This explains the sharp geographic divide in the electoral map The argument that as a national that we are divided by red states and blue states. Religious vs secular, this relates to social issues. The implication of this: might explain why white working class consistently vote against economic interest. - they tend to vote republic because of social issues not economic interest. Explain political polarization, social issues. Majority of political scientists don't believe. -This is the argument that as a nation we're divided into a red v. blue states. Religious v. secular that relates to abortion, gay rights, guns, prayer in schools, etc. It might help to explain why the white working class consistently vote against their working class, this could be why they vote against dems. Also it may explain why compromises happen economically, but not in social issues which equals political polarization. The answer to why they vote against is, because they vote on social issues and personal beliefs. Political scientists don't believe this is (Morrise v. Irena) why polarization happens and its not a real thing.

Proximity Voting

-Argues that all other things being equal, the voter will choose the candidate who is least distant from them. -Choosing a candidate based on how close the candidate's views are to one's own views across a range of relevant issues -Think of political on scale of liberal to conservative, the voter will vote for whichever candidates who are closest to them. Vote for candidate closest to you ideologically, but turns out that doesn't happen. You are socialize into parties, effects your vote. -Argues that all other things being equal, the voter will choose the candidate who is least distant from them. Used as a foil, we don't think voters vote in this sense. Liberal to conservative in one line. Voter is going to vote for whichever candidate is closest ideologically on this scale. But voters are not that sophisticated. --> socialized into the parties, its really hard to look at all the issues and then decide which party the person likes.

Selective Incentive

-Benefits that can motivate participation in a group effort because they are available only to those who participate, such as member services offered by interest groups. -Method used to overcome the free-rider effect by offering benefits that are available only to interest group members as an inducement to get them to join -Private goods or benefits that induce rational actors to participate in a collective effort to provide a collective good

Core Values

-Brand values: Beliefs or qualities that a brand stands for and is built around. -Are the fundamental, passionate, and enduring principles of an organization that guide its conduct over time. -Moral beliefs held by citizens that underlie their attitudes toward politics and other issues. As integral parts of an individual's identity, these beliefs are stable and resistant to change. -General beliefs about desirable outcomes or behaviors. A type of attitude -- but broad, abstract Examples: Individualism, Egalitarianism, Moral traditionalism, "Hawk," "Dove." -General beliefs about desirable outcomes or behaviors. (Broad, Abstract Attitude)

Political Socialization

-Complex process by which people get their sense of political identity, beliefs, and values (family, school, media, religion, national events-all help to socialize) -According to Richard Dawson "the process through which an individual acquires his or her particular political orientations- his or her knowledge, feelings, and evaluations regarding his or her political world." -Complex process by which people get their sense of political identity, beliefs, and values (family, school, media, religion, national events-all help to socialize) -This Party ID is almost as stable as religion.

Permanent Campaign

-Condition that prevails in the new American democracy when the next election campaign begins as soon as the last has ended and the line between electioneering and governing has disappeared -The actions officeholders take throughout the election cycle to build support for their reelection., description of presidential politics in which all presidential actions are taken with reelection in mind -Polling and media has forced elected officials to govern with public approval so much that it requires a continuing political campaign.

Delegation Dilemma for Congress

-Congress creates new laws and policies that need to be implemented. The dilemma is that the President may not agree with them. The bureaucrats, instead of being the agents of Congress, are the agents of the President. -pros: expertise, blame avoidance, swift responsibility, specialization. cons: bureaucratic drift, president does something different than congress wants, congress gets blame -Dilemma is if the President tries to enact more power over an agency than Congress. President's goals may contradict the laws passed by Congress, he has more incentive to gain control because he is responsible for the failures of an agency. Delegates do not know which principal to listen to, whether they should implement laws passed by Congress or listen to the goals of the President. Can cause disagreement and confusion among agencies, Congress and President. -Congress creates agencies its delegated to, the president staffs them, the senate confirms them. Why create environmental agency rather than creating specific laws; WHY? Hopeful story: agencies can be experts and specialize in certain fields, Cynical Story: Congress does not want to take the blame for issues and use the agencies for blame when interest groups or voters are mad. Ideas of whether or not Congress or the President really has control over the agencies? Congress can pass laws to punish the agency. Agencies don't have all veto points or collective action problems that congress has, so they can effectively get stuff done if they are aggressive. -If delegate discretion to agency, it can energetically and efficiently implement the laws passed by Congress. Problem: President has incentive to try to gain more control (since he is held responsible for failures) Congress creates agency, presidency staffs agency with directors. Why do Congress delegate to agency? Positive: specialize, more information. Negative: Shift blame.

Power to Declare War

-Congress has the power to declare war with 2/3 vote from Congress. -The Framers were worried about putting the military under the control of a single individual and limited the president's power as Command-in-Chief: only Congress can declare war (enumerated power). -Article 1: Section 8

Indexing Hypothesis

-Criticism that because of close, cooperative relations between DC reporters and Washington leaders the media relies too heavily on political elites to decide what constitutes "news" -Idea that the news media relies on washing elites to define the news. news media isn't necessarily biased, but rather only listens to what washington elites think and seeing reality through that view point. idea that if both parties are ignoring it or have the same view, washington elites don't care about it. the early of the vietnam war is an example (both republicans and democrats supported the war) -Criticism that because of close, cooperative relations between DC reporters and Washington leaders, that the media relies too heavily on political elites to decide what constitutes "news" -Media coverage is determined by elite debate. Media is going to cover what elites are debating. They may cover stuff when people agree, but not really, they cover the arguments. -Criticism that because of close, cooperative relations between DC reporters and Washington leaders the media relies too heavily on political elites to decide what constitutes "news" Media coverage is determined by elite debate. They like to cover debates and disagreement.

Factors Determining Voter Turnout

-Demographic characteristics, social involvement, psychological characteristics, evaluation of parties and candidates, mobilization by parties and campaigns, legal organization of election -Benefits of voting must outweigh the costs of voting and therefore availability of resources to pay the costs of voting (also can take not account income, education, age with this)....up to the campaign and party to get those people out there to vote. -Costs (Register, Convenience, Time, Deciding), Benefits (Free Rider Issue, Personal Affect, Expressive, Civic Responsibility) -Resources to pay "costs" of voting Time Getting registered Getting informed Education Income Residential Mobility Correlates (Age, Race)

Particularized Benefits Earmarks

-Directs funds that are spent on a specific district. apart of a congressmen's appearance to do what they want -Earmark: Money set aside by congress in federal budget to pay for projects in the home district of a member of Congress. -Congressmen have a goal to use committee funds and resources to allocate to their constituents. -Under the heading of casework, a particularized benefit is a favor or act given out to a personal constituency of a Congressman

Disturbance Models

-Organized group forms when shared interest is threatened by a disturbance; Organized groups do not abuse latent (unorganized) interests too much - due to fear they'll get organized in response. Truman praises this system: It takes intense preferences into account; Public interest emerges from interest group competition. -David Truman: Organized group forms when shared interest is threatened by a "disturbance" Organized groups do not abuse "latent" (unorganized) interests too much - due to fear they'll get organized in response Truman praises this system: It takes intense preferences into account Public interest emerges from interest group competition.

Cross-Cutting Cleavages

-Divisions within society that cut across demographic categories to produce groups that are more heterogeneous or different. -Occur when the various factors that make up an individual's social identity tend to pull that person in different political directions; same groups of people find themselves on an opposite side of a different issue; if groups share a common interest on one issue are likely to be on opposite sides of a different issue -*Key to the pluralist theory* Economic divisions are crosscut by religious, racial / ethnic, geographic divisions. Implications: Overlapping memberships limit scope of each group's demands; Shifting coalitions: your enemy today may be your ally tomorrow. No permanent winners or losers -Economic divisions are crosscut by religious, racial / ethnic, geographic divisions. Implications: Overlapping memberships limit scope of each group's demands Shifting coalitions: your enemy today may be your ally tomorrow No permanent winners or losers. Everyone has stake in the system

Presidents Professional Reputation

-EX: Clinton 1995/96 budget showdown vs. Newt Gingrich Obama and the Debt Ceiling in 2011 and 2013. Delivers commitments: he does what he promises? It is the necessity for the president to make a reputation. -(Neustadt. 1960) This concerns how the Washingtonians (governors, military leaders, leading politicians, foreign ambassadors, Congress) view the president. Presidents must show skill, toughness, and power in order to remain effective. (Clinton: 1993 Budget = BAD, 1995/96 = GOOD). Have credibility

Social Issues vs. Economic Issues

-Economic divisions are crosscut by religious, racial/ethnic, geographic divisions. overlapping memberships limit scope of each groups demands. shifting coalitions: your enemy today may be your ally tomorrow, no permanent winners or losers (everyone has stake in the system). poorer citizens vote more deem, but rural poor states have more socially conservative (geographic divid). differences in policy preferences between residents of red and blue states are modest --Fiorna ---Poorer citizens vote more Democratic than wealthier citizens in each state. -But poorer / rural states tend to have more socially conservative voters (geographic divide on social issues more than economic issues) -Social issues mattered more to voters as party elites polarized on these issues (leads to bigger geographic divide in voting) Poor people are more likely to vote for democrat. Poorer states at a whole tend to be red states. People still vote more on economic issues rather than social issues. -Cultural thesis that people vote based on social issues, instead of their economic position. In reality that isn't found to be true.

Party Tides (In Congressional Elections)

-Economy: blame President's party if bad economy (and reward for good economy), presidential approval, Midterm loss (1998, 2002 exceptions), limited evidence that congressional performance matters (scandals an exception) -When voters express their dissatisfaction with the incumbent president, either because of the state of the economy, scandal, war, or tax hike, during the midterm elections by voting out members of Congress that are affiliated with the president through partisan politics. -Basically in a general overall sense, the nation seems to favor one party over the other in an alternating fashion. So in 2008 there was a democratic tide, yet in a short two years, the tide changes again. -Party tide: When one party has big net seat gain in House / Senate. What explains tides? Economy: blame President's party if bad economy (and reward for good economy) Presidential approval Midterm loss (1998, 2002 exceptions) Limited evidence that congressional performance matters (scandals an exception)

Dual Principals Problem

-Elected officials are the "principal"; and bureau is the "agent." In U.S. there are two principals "bosses" President and Congress jointly control design, staffing, funding of bureaucracy = collective action problems, not necessarily responsive to American people -Principal wants agent to act how they would act, checking on agents doing their jobs happens of term, principal may have to balance extreme views of the agent, principals have control over agents through budgets firing appts investigative action, agent must sometimes compromise with principal....all these problems then multiply, slow, frustrate, and hurt the agent when divided government adds more principals -Elected officials are the "principal"; bureaucracy is the "agent", In US there are two principal "bosses"=pres. and congress jointly control design, staffing, funding of bureaucracy. Why does Congress delegate=consider troubled asset relief program -Elected officials are the "principal"; bureau is the "agent." Delegation in U.S. is complicated because two principals (two "bosses" for agent) President and Congress jointly control design, staffing, funding of bureaucracy

Single Member District

-Elections in the House of Representatives are decided by, A form of representation in which only a single candidate is elected to a particular office by the voters of that district. This system favors major parties because only candidates who can gain a large proportion of votes in an election district have a realistic chance of winning. -Many of our political questions can be answered by "single member districts." Why do we have a 2 party system? Single member districts. What prevents 3rd parties from gaining legislative seats? Single member districts. What makes redistricting so difficult? Single member districts. Single member districts mean that each Congressional district is held by one elected official. That official need not win a majority but a plurality of votes. It is a winner take all system. Single member districts affect how we participate and who we get to vote for. There is no shortage of criticism of single member districts. But there is a shortage of ideas to replace them. -Duverger's Law: principle asserting that plurality plurality rule elections structured w/in single-member districts tend to favor a 2 party system.

Party Press

-Newspapers created, sponsored, and controlled by political parties to further their interests. This form of press existed in the early years of the American republic. Circulation was chiefly among political and commercial elites. Today, think FOX vs MSNBC, -The media-government relationship during the American Revolution, when newspapers were the organs of competing political factions --Little objective reporting -Newspapers were tools of the parties -Gave way in 1900s-20s as journalists became professionalized We are currently returning to a Party Press. -19th century, when newspapers were explicably partisan (newspaper specifically put out by democratic power, not even pretending to do objective reporting) get message of party out, ran by political parties. late 1800s early 1900s larger independent publishing chains (like newspapers today) -Strain of journalism. Dominated till the start of the Penny Press. Most publications were heavily partisan and a lot of journalists had direct ties to politicians or parties. Little distinction between news and opinion.

Impact of Campaign Donations Made to Members of Congress

-Ex NRA gives a member of congress $$, the member then votes for NRA backed bill, members of congress do not want to take highly visible actions that show voters they were "bought". instead, money buys member participation, work for bill in committee, draft amendments etc (hall and wymann study). more likely to make a difference for issues that are less visible/ salient to regular voters - Can gain access (access=politicians ear, can be bought for a certain amount of money; campaign money buys access to the politician -Members of congress don't want to take highly visible donations form open interest groups....instead the money buys the interest group participation of that member of congress in working on the bill, drafting amendments,etc. bigger difference for issues that are smaller because you can go behind. in the grand scheme of things incumbency is most pertinent to congress success in campaigns, or new congress people. -Limited time and gatekeeping power allows for congressmen to influence agendas by not actively pursuing an issue. -members then vote how the donor wants, but members don't want to appear to be bought off, SO.. -$ buys member participation (work for bill in committee- Hall and Wayman study) -more likely to make a difference for issues that are less visible/salient to regular voters EX: NRA gives member campaign $, member votes for the NRA-backed bill PACs

The Least Dangerous Branch

-From The Federalist #78: the judiciary, from the nature of its functions, will always be the least dangerous to the political rights of the Constitution; because it will be least in a capacity to annoy or injure them...The judiciary, on the contrary, has no influence over either the sword (Executive) or the purse (Legislative); no direction either of the strength or of the wealth of the society; and can take no active resolution whatever. It may truly be said to have neither FORCE nor WILL, but merely judgment; and must ultimately depend upon the aid of the executive arm even for the efficacy of its judgment -Alexander Hamilton wrote in his Federalist 78, the the judiciary branch was the least dangerous branch. They have no influence over the sword or the purse, can only interpret the law but cannot create or enforce like the executive and legistlative branches. No enforcement authority, lacks close ties with the public. Courts depend on the actions of the other branches in order to work. Often need the other branches to step in and intervene when they cannot come to decisions. Significant because shows that -Court is least dangerous branch "No influence over either the sword or the purse" "It may truly be said to have neither FORCE nor WILL but merely judgment" Need judicial review to uphold Constitution Superior law (as compared to regular laws) Court is not a threat to liberty - no enforcement power and lacks close ties to public (so weak)

Collective Goods

-Goods that are collectively produced and freely available for anyone's consumption. -Something everyone can benefit from -A public good is a good that is non-rivalrous and non-excludable. ---Non-rivalry means that consumption of the good by one individual does not reduce availability of the good for consumption by others; and non-excludability that no one can be effectively excluded from using the good, Goods and services that are enjoyed by all citizens and unlikely to be provided by any organization other than government. -Goods and services that can be shared by a whole group of people. -Government must provide public goods because private investors won't supply public goods because they can't make a profit on them and voluntary efforts won't supply public goods because the voluntary contribution of any one person exceeds the services received by that person.

Committee Government

-In 1885, Woodrow Wilson (then a political scientist) famously asserted that congressional government was equivalent to this, meaning that the work of Congress was done not on the floor but in small groups -Much of the work of government/forming policies doesn't happen on the floor, it happens within a committee. By the time a bill gets to the floor, its fate is very apparent. In reality, most of the governing happens within committees. You can probably include Rationale for Having Committees. -Idea that committee chairs are gatekeepers. It was true in 70s before leaders got all the power. The more you do, the better seat you get rather than basing that off of seniority. Reason civil rights bills took so long to come to floor was because all of south was Democrats in every committee and would not let them get to the floor.

Rally Around the Flag Phenomenon

-In times of crisis, population will come together to support their leader- using some tragedy to generate a sense of nationalism and support -Popularity when the pres. soars in a time of crisis., in times of crisis, population will come together to support their leader- using some tragedy to generate a sense of nationalism and support -Rally effect is much bigger when opposition leaders support President (since no opposing opinion leaders' voices are heard in media).

Political Attitude

-Individual's views about public policies, political parties, candidates, government institutions, and public officials -Description of one's attitude/views regarding policy-making, government's role, the pace of change, and freedom and equality -An attitude is an enduring predisposition to respond to a person, group, topic, or issue in a particular way. Combines feelings, beliefs, and thoughts. Some examples of general and specific attitudes: General / abstract. Specific / Narrow Distrust of government. Views concerning Obama health plan Right to privacy. Views on abortion -An attitude is an enduring predisposition to respond to a person, group, topic, or issue in a particular way. Combines feelings, beliefs, and thoughts in either a general/abstract way or a specific/narrow way.

Party Brand Name

-It is important for the party's brand name to be good in order to gain legitimacy, keep its members/gain new members, gain votes. Leads to collective action problem because all members are rewarded if party has a good reputation but need an incentive to contribute to building the good rep. Ex: Democratic party got bad brand name after Clinton scandal. Can greatly affect a party and its ability to carry out policy and legislation -Way party leaders market their party to solve collective action problem, get members to build a good party reputation, candidates use to make it easier for public to identify candidates -In essence is a Party's reputation (ex: Republican is conservative and big government) = Solve collective action problem: get members to contribute to building good party reputation -Why does congress pass public good bill for the entire country? Elections incentives politicians to do earmarks, tax breaks for local business, casework, etc. because you can claim credit for this. Why pass healthcare? Because they want their party brand to look better as a whole. Parties are so polarized now that its very difficult to successfully exist outside your party -The concept that a candidate's party identification also implies something about numerous policy realms theoretically unrelated to party identification. Party identification -a psychological thing. People don't continuously rationalize what the parties do once they identify.

Factors Affecting Individual Vote Choice

-Party identification, Heuristics, Opinion Leaders, Core Values, Characteristics and values of a Candidate and past performance. -The Economy (better economy, people think the incumbent is doing a better job) Economic Status, Heuristics, , Partisanship, Retrospective performance evaluation : -Partisanship Retrospective performance evaluation Approve/disapprove of president's job performance. Holds in midterms as well as presidential elections Candidate traits / evaluations Character, trust, personality

Selective Perception

-People's selective interpretation of what they see based on their interests, background, experience, and attitudes. -The phenomenon that people often pay the most attention to things they already agree with and interpret them according to their own predispositions. -People's tendency to see and hear what they want; info that conforms to pre-established attitudes, goals, needs. (we ignore what is irrelevant to us) -Screen out or modify ideas, messages, and information that conflict with previously learned attitudes and beliefs; Partisan bias: Partisans' beliefs about objective conditions can be shaped by (distorted by) partisan bias (i.e. there's a lot of room for emotion and identity) -Partisan bias: Partisans' beliefs about objective conditions can be shaped by (distorted by) partisan bias. Voters are not like politicians - big role for emotion, identity.

Priming

-Priming Media coverage primes the public to weight that issue more heavily in evaluating leaders. To prime someone you need to think of them in a certain frame with relating attitudes. By framing things and priming you end up with different public opinion. -Media coverage primes the public to weight that issue more heavily in evaluating leaders. Framing. -An enhanced ability to think of a stimulus, such as a word or object, as a result of a recent exposure to the stimulus.

Rise of Adversarial Journalism

-Referring to competition between media outlets and against the government. seen in the wake of vietnam and watergate (can't trust, media needs to be power involved in critically examining government and not be manipulated by politicians) increased competitive pressures. more sources competing for stories. -Try to find what is wrong with the candidates, their camp gins, their family members, etc.....focusing on finding the bad (Monica Lewinski) instead of positives of the candidates, different to increasing public opinion, but not going to make a huge difference to public opinion overall. -The political power of the news media vis-à-vis the government has greatly increased in recent years through the growing prominence of "adversarial journalism"- a form of reporting in which the media adopt a hostile posture toward the government and public officials.

Rationale for Having Commitees

-Reflects the need for tighter organization in the larger body. "Standing committees" = exist in Senate from one Congress to the next unless they are explicitly disbanded: fixed jurisdiction over set of policies, division of labor and specialization, provide information for House of Senate, increased overall efficiency, committee chairs given to majority party member with the longest term of service on the committee. -Provides info for Congress (division of labor), Promote reelection: get on committee that are of special concern to your district. -, provides information for congress and promote reelection by getting on specific committees that are of special concern to their district. It is a solution to the problems that arises when working with a collective institution(collective action problems, transaction costs, coordination problems, etc) because it divides labor and specializes certain issues and bills. Allows congress to specialize and have real experts dealing with certain things. -Provides information for Congress Promote reelection: get on committee that are of special concern to your district Tension: Impartial information for Congress vs. special benefits for committee members' districts -Need for information, coordination problems, resolving conflicts, collective action, transaction costs, and time pressures. Provides information for Congress Promote reelection: get on committee that are of special concern to your district

Political Institution

-Rules and procedures that structure political competition: constitution, veto, filibuster, Legislative, executive, judicial, bureaucracy. *Matters, because rules for the game structure actors and also creates long lasting offices, hard to change, people adapt to institutions; organization that manages conflict between political rivals, helps them find mutually acceptable solutions, enforce society's collective agreements. -An organization or group that significantly influences public policy; the three branches of govt (legislative, executive & judicial branches), the federal bureaucracy, mass media, political parties, special interest groups, & the „wealthy elite‟ are generally considered the major „political institutions‟ in our country

Expressive Benefits

-Selective incentives that derive from the opportunity to express values and beliefs and to be committed to a greater cause -The feelings of satisfaction people derive from working for an interest group cause they believe is just and right. also known as purposive benefits -Benefits for voting, which include strong partisanship and ability to see the difference between candidates

Logic of Agency Design

-Separation of powers/checks and balances generate: compromise: opponents 'help' design agency, supporters try to protect from "political uncertainty" eg hostile president. lock in bias results in lots of rules, restrictions, court appeals -If we have a good agency, (homeland security and TSA) achieve goal of safely landing planes, train some people to know what you need to do to keep plane safe. certain characteristics of bureaucratic aims. they are long lasting, vertical structure. consequences of dual principles:if congress is democratic and president is republican: have to figure out how to. control budget, leverage say over one agency that they want them to do, can increase, not want to do, can decrease the organization. all of congress' favorite interests group, to come to hearing and influence whether the bureaucracy wants to do. set up by congress so agency has to set up decisions.can make it possible for people to sue agencies. bureaucratic agencies: very efficient organizations that can get the work done in efficient matter,in US established a system that throws a bunch of wrenches into the streamline bureaucratic design. sig: ?? **logic of delegation, why you want to delegate and why is it hard? cutting budgets of agencies or shut down? -The arrangement of the bureaucracy is largely a product of the search by Congress and the White House for ways to maximize the political benefits and minimize the costs each time they use their authority. Model bureaucracy imposes conformity costs on bureaucrats and the people they deal with while reducing transaction costs and agency losses. -Separation of Powers generates this: Compromise- opponents "help" design agency; supporters try to protect from "political uncertainty" EX: hostile president (lock in bias); result in lots of rules, restrictions, court appeals ***Terry Moe reading: if you're on the team that wants the agency to do well regulating, then you want to create it to be insulated from outside political challenges, but Moe says that there is always conflict in congress EX: OSHA. Dems want aggressive OSHA to be able to police employers with dangerous workplace, but Nixon didn't want them to be aggressive, so OSHA has to go through a lot of work making it relatively weak. Also funding of the agency is important, because its a battle of agency design.

Conditional Party Government

-The degree of authority delegated to and exercised by congressional leaders; varies with and is conditioned by the extent of election-driven ideological consensus among members -Amount of power that members delegate to paty leaders depends on the extent of election driven ideological consensus among members; more unity=more power to leaders; overcome transaction costs with low conformity costs -When majority party members are (mostly) unified on policy, delegate more to leaders who act as agent(s) of his members. Overcome transaction costs of legislating, lower conformity costs than if party is divided; BUT when party members are not unified on policy, incentive to take powers away from party leaders -Theory saying that when party members are mostly unified on policy, they delegate more to leaders. But when party members aren't unified, they may take powers away from leaders. The leader is an agent to the member. -The strength of parties is a function of the level of intra-party preference homogeneity and inter-party preference conflict.

Free Rider Problem

-The difficulty faced by interest groups that lobby for a public good. Individuals can enjoy the outcome of the group's efforts without having to contribute, such as by becoming members of the group. -Individuals benefit from collective good regardless of whether they pay the costs EX: Healthcare people won't get insurance until they get sick -This is a form of prisoners dilemma. People do not contribute to the groups stand, but still enjoy the benefits of other people's collective effort.

Incumbency Advantage

-The electoral advantage a candidate enjoys by virtue of being an incumbent, over and above his or her other personal and political characteristics -The electoral advantage a candidate enjoys by already being in office because the longer the appointee has been in office, the higher percentage of the vote that appointee will receive - incumbents who run for reelection usually win because the system gives them important built-in benefits: name recognition, fundraising skills, campaign experience, experienced campaign aids, help from party leaders -The electoral edge afforded to those already in office - the advantage gained by House members after serving more than one term; has increased over the last few years due to weak party identification, meaning voters are more easily swayed by standing representatives, and by increased resources to Incumbents which allows them to go home and influence their Constituents more.

Media Bias

-The political bias present in media sources. This can come from the selection of stories covered, the way that they are covered, and the reporters covering them. -The bias or perceived bias of journalists and news producers within the mass media in the selection of events and stories that are reported and how they are covered. The term "media bias" implies a pervasive or widespread bias contravening the standards of journalism, rather than the perspective of an individual journalist or article. The direction and degree of media bias in various countries is widely disputed. -Reporters do tend to be liberal / Democratic Tends to affect coverage of social issues more than economic issues Coverage of campaigns -Tends to affect coverage of social issues more than economic issues. Reporters do tend to be democratic, but no study has definitively proven any sort of serious bias. Also, media has become more partisan to appeal to a niche of viewers (retro).

Aggregate Public Opinion

-The sum of all individual opinions. dynamics of aggregate public opinion: role of issue public and opinion leadership, limitations/problems. -Meaningful in what is shows through trends, in that it is stable, responsive to poli/econ events, reasonable (not always this way).....unlike individual public opinion given ease of lack of opinion selective perception or ignorance. -Displays: Stability, Responsiveness to political/economic events, reasonable coherence because measurement errors and random individual changes cancel each other out. -aggregate public opinion shows: Stability Responsiveness to political / economic events Reasonable coherence How Can Aggregate Opinion Seem So Sensible? 1) Measurement errors and random individual changes tend to cancel one another out. As a result, the average remains the same if circumstances remain the same. Even if only 20% are paying attention and change in response to new circumstances, that still affects aggregate opinion. 2) Issue publics and opinion leadership: Issue public: individuals who follow particular issue closely (due to their job or personal interest in topic). Less informed people rely on cues from opinion leaders Limitations: Depended on elite cues & may not be coherent (liberal/conservative mood), but NOT necessarily consistent

Elite vs. Mass Polarization

-There is less overlap among democrats and republicans at the political level: meaning among politicians there are less liberals in the Republican Party and less conservatives in the democratic party. A large part of this is due to the break down of each parties coalition of dissimilar forces, some of it is also due to issue activists which feel very strongly one way or the other and eventually go into Politics. In contrast voters/citizens of the United States are still mainly moderate on most issues, and one does not see such clear divisions among conservatives and Liberals as they do among politicians. However the masses have sorted more into either republican or democrat because the politicians, which before had a chance of being only slightly liberal, or slightly more moderate are now very liberal and very moderate. Thus the voters who may only be slightly liberal are more inclined now to sort with the Democrats versus the Republicans. -Elite: People in elite who study politics are very polarized. Elites sort on civil rights. Elites have a much more consistent message than in the past. Mass: People in the masses who don't study politics aren't very polarized, because they may swing both ways (like gay marriage, but not abortion). Masses sort on civil rights. Religious groups were originally in both coalitions, but now they are sorted to Republicans. When policies get passed, then interest group get involved (EX: abortion passed on Roe v. Wade, religious anti-abortions then chose a side to be on.) -Elites are polarized but most Americans are moderates. In most cases the difference in policy preferences between red and blue states are relatively insignificant. Elite: Sort on civil rights. Policies happen, groups get involved on both sides, leads masses to be able to see so they can choose which party to choose. Mass: Are not as polarized, pro gay marriage, pro business, can have many opinions. Masses have sorted because of civil rights.

Political Constraints on the Court

-They don't need to be reelected; however, lacks the ability to implement its decisions directly, must have cases brought before them, Congress controls its numbers, limited number of cases (only sees about 1% of appeals it receives), appointed, other two branches can override statutory decisions, constitutional amendment, impeachment threats, court packing. -1) court typically lacks the ability to implement its decisions directly (meaningful school desegregation in south did not occur until 10 years after brown, required prez and congress to step in). 2) Limits on the court's agenda: courts must wait for actual cases to be brought to them by litigants with standing before can act. congress has increased standing over the years. can handle only a limited number of cases. depends on lower courts to handle most cases. The supreme court decides about 100 cases annually --about 1 percent of the appeals it receives. 3)the appointment process makes it unlikely court will be too far from party in power for long, this is not a perfect constraint since presidents can make mistakes (like david sootier appointed by george HW bush but turned out to be a v. liberal justice). 4) threats from congress: congress can override statutory interpretations by passing new laws, constitutional amendments, impeachment (but only on SC justice has ever been impeached, and congress can alter the court's jurisdiction and change the number of justices) faces political constraints: unable to defy clear public majority for long. but, there often is no clear public majority on issue. courts as major venue for politics --judicializaition of politics -Do not face reelection constraint Two main goals: Preserve public legitimacy of Court. Otherwise, risk losing power need to justify their decisions in terms of legal arguments and reasoning. Policy / ideological goals - view of good policy, role of government (liberal, conservative) -They don't need to be reelected; however, lacks the ability to implement its decisions directly, must have cases brought before them, Congress controls its numbers, limited number of cases (only sees about 1% of appeals it receives), appointed, other two branches can override statutory decisions, constitutional amendment, impeachment threats, court packing. Could be a essay question. Talk about president, Congress.Nominated by president, confirmed by senate. Procedural constraint, reputation constraint.

Costless Filibuster

-Time constraint in the modern political scene make the filibuster much more difficult because the majority cannot keep 50 members present long enough to wait out the minority because there are many other bills that need to be passed. -Essentially you send an email saying you have enough people to sustain a filibuster, don't even bring this up. -Time constraint in the modern political scene make the filibuster much more difficult because the majority cannot keep 50 members present long enough to wait out the minority because there are many other bills that need to be passed. Just send a email saying "we got enough people to sustain the filibuster, dont't actually have to do the speaking filibuster.

Writ of Certiorari

-Used by SC to look at cases that lower courts already ruled on. It is how they choose the cases they look at. EX: Refuse to look at gay marriage. -An order given by a superior court to an appellate court and that directs the lower court to send up a case the superior court has chosen to review. This is the central means by which the Supreme Court determines what cases it will hear. -A document issued by the Supreme Court indicating that the court will review a decision made by a lower court. a. Significance: The Supreme Court does not hear appeals as a matter of right; instead, parties must petition the Court for a writ of certiorari. They do this to clarify the laws.

Political Ignorance Challenge

-Voters don't know a lot of facts about how U.S. government works, which would seem to present a "political ignorance challenge" in a representative democracy like ours that (would seem to) require citizens to know at least the basics so that they can hold their representatives accountable. -Voters rely on cues so opinion is not random / meaningless - but this is not same as being fully informed. -Do you like ObamaCare? No. Do you like universal healthcare? Yes! Bottom Line on Question Wording: Ask whether question is balanced - offer rationale for both sides Examine results with alternative question wording. Shows importance of how issue is framed for the public. Political ignorance challenge: Voters rely on cues so opinion is not random / meaningless - but not same as being fully informed. **Most people don't know a lot about politics establishes a question of voting? What do you think of voting if people are dumb? On the other hand, there is an idea that voters are capable of voting by using heuristics, voting cues. The existence of the electoral college is a mainstream idea that voters were ignorant, but the two results almost always coincide. -Voters rely on cues so opinion is not random / meaningless - but this is not same as being fully informed. People who participate in politics are ignorant. Should we trust these people? People can still vote in a rational way - heuristics.

Power of the Mass Media

-Watchdog over government Inform public about politics and policy Intermediary institution - link government to citizens. Influence: Agenda-setting When an issue is covered a lot, the public sees it as a bigger problem (e.g. crime) Priming Media coverage primes the public to weight that issue more heavily in evaluating leaders Limitations: Difficult to move direction of public opinion - "minimal effects" thesis Need to get people to hear the message (exposure) People have attitudes / predispositions that are hard to move Zaller: What Monica Lewinsky did for Political Science (and Jon Stewart) -Agents inherently enjoy an information advantage over the principals they serve. Crucial in mobilizing public opinion. Serves as a watchdog over the government and informs public about policies. Intermediary institution between people and government. -The media influences citizens by agenda setting. The media primes citizens to weigh certain issues more heavily than others by covering stories regarding the issue frequently. The media still faces limitations, especially in today's society, in which many different news stations are available often presenting certain ideologies, since voters that do not already hold the views of the station are watching stations with ideological slants similar to their own. It is also hard to keep the public focused on an issue for too long, and once the public has made up its mind on an issue it is hard to change their minds, causing the media to have an arguably minimal effect on the results of an election and instead causing factors such as the state of the economy, the candidates party affiliation, and the approval ratings of the incumbent president to have more of an effect on voters choices. Priming, agenda setting, rumors, niche marketing, biased, all encompassing....those who want to be clued in are those who don't want to be aren't. event hen media isn't changing people opinions/beliefs

Plural Executive

-Where executive branch is made up of multiple elected executives normally found in state constitutions, but not on the federal level. State: sect. of state, attorney general, governor. Founders toyed with the idea, but thought it would be counterproductive=collective action problems. -Idea proposed by Madison's Virginia plan was rejected by the framers because they wanted a more reactive executive in times of crisis but also an executive whose powers could recede when there was no crisis. Multiple leaders.

Midterm Loss

-With exception of three midterms, all election results in pres party losing seats in congress b/c Coattails in pres election years; Referendum on president; Surge and decline- more hardcore partisan person comes out in midterm years; Fewer quality challengers- more people will turnout in election cycle in which president is elected, so candidates think they will have an easier time getting elected; Presidential punishment balancing model- regardless of how pres is doing, want to balance the government -The tendency for the presidential party to lose congressional seats in off year elections. Often happens when an unpopular president meets poor economic situation. A trend, partially because it is easier to campaign on the offensive as opposed to the defensive.

Modern Presidency

-a political system in which the president is the central figure and participates actively in both foreign and domestic policy -began in 1933 with FDR and is characterized by president being main political leader and source of new legislation/ideas for the country -1. chief legislator (sets much of the agenda for congress, budgets insight, OMB "Clearance") 2. manager of massive bureaucracy (Exectuive Office of the Pres, executive order to get stuff done) 3. popular leader (must appeal to the voters) 4. leader of military superpower (careful and calculated risks)....all due to rise as world power, govnt in economy, public expectation -Chief Legislator Sets much of the agenda for Congress President's Program (OMB "Clearance") Manager of massive bureaucracy Executive Office of the President (1939) Increased use of executive orders Popular leader Leader of Military Superpower. Increased government role in economy Forces Congress to delegate Rise of US as world power Crises became routine Public expectations -Refers to the 20th century Presidents; The main differences were the growth of the bureaucracy under the presidency which gave it more power and the rise of active presidential involvement in domestic policy ares; Chief Legislator who sets much of the agenda for Congress; Manager of massive bureaucracy; Popular country leader and leader of military superpower - power to declare war remains "hollow," because neither the Vietnam, Korean, or 2000 wars were ever formally declared; Public expectations

Inside vs. Outsider Lobbying

-depends on access to officials, provide technical info (EX: effects of proposed program), provide political info (how constitutes will react & how to sell proposal to them, what other politicians are thinking about the issue (help plan strategy)), "Legislative Subsidy": using lobbyist to get stuff done about ex: farm legislation, talk to them about what would best help change it, might draft the bill for you Outsider- Votes: sends message=back us or you will lose votes at home, does not require access, tactics= media campaigns, demonstrations, protests, mobilize members to send message to politician, delivering votes is key resource (so gives chance for broad-based interest to compete) -Insider: Depends on access to officials to provide technical information, political information, and strategy. Outsider: "back us or you will lose votes at home" (Media campaigns, Demonstrations/Mobilization) Must be able to deliver votes to compete with broad-based groups.

Member of Congress goals

-reelection (only worry if there has been scandal otherwise almost guaranteed), policy passed, and power through seniority and good committee work -3 main goals: Reelection, policy, personal power. Must be reelected in order for any other goals to be achieved. Congressman must advertise, claim credit, take positions in order to get reelected. Significant because they will act in a way to protect the power of Congress and their policy goals, may or may not be in accordance with the President.

Textualism vs. Purposive Theory of Interpretation

-textualism: focus on meaning of the words in the law/ constitution (scalia). Purposive theory: ask what are the purposes expressed in the statute or constitution. interpret as 'reasonable' member of congress would have wanted it interpreted in light of current situation (breyer) -Scalia v Breyer. Scalia focus on the meaning of the words in the constitution and the written law (no ability to morph the law, not about the lawmakers intent). Breyer instead wants us to ask what are the purposes expressed in the statute/constitution, define and apply case by case, and allow questions to be asked that let us interpret in light of modern times. is this really just conservative vs liberal partisanship in judicial form??? -(9-1) Scalia has adopted this philosophy of interpretation which calls for, not a strict constructionist interpretation of the constitution and laws, but a reasonable interpretation that captures all that the law or constitution fairly means (Ex/ If someone says "uses a gun" it means as a weapon, and thus trading an unloaded gun for cocaine cannot be called 'using a gun'). (9-2) Breyer argues that the written word is driven by purposes and as a result a judge should try to find and "honestly say what was the underlying" reason for these laws or constitution. -Textualism focus on meaning of words in constitution. Breyer: Purposive Theory ask what are the purposes of the expressed statute or constitution? -

Power to Persuade

-the theory that a president's ability to shape government policy depends more on his ability to convince members of Congress, bureaucrats, and citizens to do what he wants than it does on the formal powers conveyed to him by the Constitution -Neustadt, prez must rely on his personal power of persuasion (speech skills, toughness on issues, bargaining, going public and delivering on commitments). results in the importance of professional reputation of the presidential candidates -Compliance gaining: Taking persuasive actions to get people to comply with our goals. People with more power have the ability to persuade with simple, direct strategies. People with less power have to employ strategies and consider negative consequences -Richard Neustadt, Presidential Power Importance of professional reputation Skill Toughness (deliver on commitments) His ability to get what he wants down through congress. -(Neustadt. 1960) The President doesn't have a lot of domestic policy power enumerated to him. Thus, the president must bargain and persuade others that what he wants is in their best interest.