Week 10 - Stages and Transfer of Learning
To perform a complex motor skill, the motor control system must solve the _____.
degrees of freedom problem
Identify the goals that a learner must achieve during the later stages according to Ann Gentile's two-stage model of motor learning. (Check all that apply.)
-Develop the capability of adapting a movement pattern. -Increase one's consistency in achieving the goal of the skill.
Identify the important goals that a beginner has to achieve in the initial stage of learning proposed by Ann Gentile. (Check all that apply.)
-To learn to discriminate between regulatory and nonregulatory conditions -To acquire a movement pattern
Which of the following situations involves a negative transfer effect?
A change in the spatial locations of a movement
Asymmetric transfer [Symmetric transfer]
A type of bilateral transfer in which there is a greater amount of transfer from one limb than from the other limb. [A type of bilateral transfer in which the amount of transfer is similar from one limb to another, no matter which limb is used first.]
_____ demonstrates our ability to learn a particular skill more easily with one hand or foot after we already have learned the skill with the contralateral hand or foot.
Bilateral transfer
Mechanical energy
Determined by dividing the work rate by the metabolic rate of an individual performing a skill
_____ refers to minimizing the energy cost of performing a skill.
Economy of movement
True or false: Negative transfer effects typically influence skill learning in all stages of learning.
False
Physiological energy
Identified by measuring the amount of oxygen a person uses while performing a skill
Positive transfer
It occurs when previous experience facilitates the learning of a new skill or the performance of a skill in a new context.
Zero transfer
It occurs when previous experience has no influence on the learning of a new skill or the performance of a skill in a new context.
Negative transfer
It occurs when previous experience hinders the learning of a new skill or the performance of a skill in a new context.
Learning how to learn
It states that learners can extract general principles about learning when they practice multiple tasks and apply them to other situations.
The specificity principle
It states that skill acquisition is related to the particular tasks that are learned and the contexts in which they are learned.
Which of the following is a goal that a learner must achieve during the later stages of Ann Gentile's two-stage model of motor learning?
Learn to perform a skill with an economy of effort.
_____ transfer effects occur when a previously experienced stimulus requires a different response.
Negative
Identify a finding of the experiment conducted by Lee, Swinnen, and Verschueren (1995) to understand the effect of a preferred coordination pattern on learning new movements.
People approach skill learning situations with distinct movement pattern biases.
Which of the following statements is true of established or preferred coordination patterns?
People can overcome their movement pattern biases with considerable practice.
Which of the following statements is true of the autonomous stage of the Fitts and Posner model of learning?
People can perform skills without conscious thought.
Identifying the most appropriate sensory corrections-
Specifying how a skill should feel from the inside
Developing a plan or strategy to approach the problem-
Specifying how a skill will look from the outside
Identify the first stage of learning in the classic learning stages model presented by Paul Fitts and Michael Posner.
The cognitive stage
Rick learns how to hold a baseball bat for the first time. He listens to his coach about the most efficient way to hold the bat. He, then, starts practicing while the coach observes. Which of the following stages of learning in the Fitts and Posner model is exemplified by this scenario?
The cognitive stage
Identify a true statement about negative transfer effects.
The environmental context characteristics of two performance situations are similar, whereas the movement characteristics are different.
Closed skills -
The learner can plan and prepare either without any or with a minimum of time constraints.
Open skills-
The performer has to plan and prepare the performance of a skill with severe time constraints.
In the context of freezing the degrees of freedom, the individual arm and hand segments work together in a cooperative way to enable optimal performance of a skill. This characteristic is known as _____.
a functional synergy
Rate of perceived exertion (RPE) is _____.
a measurable subjective perception
A feature of the associative stage in the Fitts and Posner model of learning is that _____.
a person makes small errors since he or she has acquired the basic mechanics of the skill
The final stage on the learning stages continuum in the Fitts and Posner model of learning is known as the ______.
autonomous stage
The transfer principle has been central to the understanding of how children _____.
acquire complex and context-specific skills during motor development
Unlike during the practice of closed skills, during the practice of an open skill, the performer must _____.
acquire the ability to quickly attend to the environmental regulatory conditions and to anticipate changes
According to Proteau and his colleagues, feedback dependency develops because the feedback becomes part of _____.
an integrated sensory component of the memory representation of a skill
The generalized motor program (GMP) theory predicts that because practicing a skill with one limb establishes the development of a GMP with its invariant characteristics, the skill could be performed with the contralateral limb by _____.
applying to the GMP the muscles parameter for that limb
The intermediate stage on the learning stages continuum in the Fitts and Posner model is known as the .
associative stage
The intermediate stage on the learning stages continuum in the Fitts and Posner model is known as the _____.
associative stage
The generally accepted conclusion about the direction of bilateral transfer is that it is _____.
asymmetric
Plasticity is commonly associated with _____.
behavioral changes or modification
When transfer of learning relates to learning of the same task but with the contralateral limb, it is known as _____.
bilateral transfer
According to Bernstein, when a person first attempts a skill, the motor control system reorganizes to solve the _____.
degrees of freedom problem
The _____ of bilateral transfer states that the basis for the positive transfer from a practiced to a nonpracticed limb is the important cognitive information related to what to do to achieve the goal of a skill.
cognitive explanation
Learning to shoot a rifle involves using the cocking mechanism and trigger to load and fire a bullet. It also involves knowing how to overcome a recoil while hitting a target. As one practices the skill and becomes more proficient, one performs all these movements without _____.
conscious attention
From a theoretical perspective, knowing whether bilateral transfer is symmetric or asymmetric would provide insight into the role of the two cerebral hemispheres in _____.
controlling movement
In the context of explanation for negative transfer occurrence, Zanone and Kelso argue that the ease with which new patterns of coordination are learned is a function of whether the learner's intrinsic dynamics _____.
cooperate or compete with the dynamics required by the task
A critical part of the learning process for the beginning learner is to solve the _____.
degrees of freedom problem
According to Ericsson and his colleagues, the specific type of intense practice a person needs to achieve expertise in any field is _____.
deliberate practice
Unlike mechanical energy, physiological energy is _____.
determined by measuring the caloric cost of performing a skill
In Ann Gentile's two-stage model of learning, open skills require _____ of the basic movement pattern acquired during the first stage of learning.
diversification
A characteristic of expertise is that it is _____.
domain specific
A likely explanation for negative transfer occurrence comes from the _____.
dynamical systems perspective
The dynamical systems theory refers to skill learning as _____, which means that when a motor skill is learned, coordination dynamics are learned without reference to the limb, or limbs, involved in practicing the skill.
effector independent
A feature of an expert is that he or she is in a(n) _____.
elite group of people who are exceptional and outstanding performers
If learning is conceived as a form of problem solving, as Bernstein maintained, then, regardless of the nature of the problems that need to be solved, much can be learned about the nature of problem solving by _____.
engaging in the problem-solving process
A true statement about changes in energy cost is that beginners _____.
expend a large amount of energy
True or false: Ericsson, Krampe, and Tesch-Romer (1993) reported that expertise in all fields is the result of the plasticity of the brain.
false
True or false: Negative transfer cannot result from cognitive confusion.
false
True or false: Positive transfer results from the difference in the cognitive processes required by two skills or two performance situations.
false
True or false: Gentile's taxonomy used to develop skill progression is based on the principle of negative transfer.
false, its based on the positive transfer
Although the perception-action coupling developed between the perceptual characteristics of a task and a motor system allows for fast and accurate performing, it can become problematic when the _____.
familiar perceptual situation requires a movement that is different from what was learned
In Ann Gentile's two-stage model of learning, closed skills require _____ of the basic movement coordination pattern acquired during the first stage of learning.
fixation
A strategy that involves holding of some joints rigid and/or coupling joint motions together in tight synchrony while performing a skill is known as _____.
freezing the degrees of freedom
The motor control explanation for bilateral transfer incorporates the _____ as well as our understanding of motor efference in the nervous system.
generalized motor program and the dynamical systems theories of motor control
One view of why positive transfer occurs contends that the more similar the component parts of two skills or two performance contexts are, the _____.
greater will be the amount of positive transfer between them
Gentile's taxonomy of motor skills can be used to _____.
guide the selection of a functionally appropriate sequence of activities during clinical rehabilitation
Unlike regulatory conditions in the environmental context in which a beginner performs a skill, the nonregulatory conditions are those characteristics of the performance environment that _____.
have no influence on the movement to achieve an action goal.
In the _____ proposed by E.L. Thorndike, "elements" are general characteristics of a skill or performance context—such as the purpose of the skill or the attitude of the person performing the skill—or specific characteristics of the skill, such as components of the skill being performed.
identical elements theory
The evidence provided by Zanone and Kelso for retroactive negative transfer is important because it suggests that any new learning will _____.
influence a whole range of behaviors connected to the new task
A feature of the cognitive explanation of bilateral transfer is that it _____.
is relevant to performing a skill regardless of the limb involved
In the context of negative transfer effects, the intrinsic coordination tendency to move the arms in temporal and spatial symmetry interferes with the participants' ability to _____.
learn a new asymmetrical movement pattern for the arms
The transfer principle helps us understand processes underlying the _____.
learning and control of motor skills
A type of change in the timing structure of a sequence of movements involves _____.
learning the types of phase relationships between limbs in coordination dynamics
A benefit of knowledge structure characteristics is that they enable an expert to _____.
make decisions faster
A likely reason for the occurrence of negative transfer is related to the _____.
memory representation developed as a result of learning a skill
An expert's knowledge structure is characterized by _____, which he or she uses in deciding how to perform in specific situations.
more decision rules
Changes in neuronal activity in the brain that are associated with shifts in brain region activation refers to
plasticity
A feature of the learner's goal in Ann Gentile's two-stage model for learning open skills is that the learners _____.
must acquire the capability to automatically monitor the environmental context and modify the movements accordingly
A feature of the learner's goal in Ann Gentile's two-stage model for learning closed skills is that the learners _____.
must refine movement patterns so that they can produce them correctly, consistently, and efficiently from trial to trial
The dynamical systems theory of motor control provides a basis for bilateral transfer and also states that what is learned is _____.
not specific to the limb used to practice a skill
A practical reason for investigating whether a greater amount of bilateral transfer occurs during asymmetric or symmetric transfer is that its answer can help professionals design practice to facilitate _____.
optimal skill performance with either limb
The three types of transfer of learning are _____.
positive, negative, and neutral
According to the _____, large amounts of improvement occur during early training, whereas further training yields smaller improvement rates.
power law of practice
There is sufficient evidence to recommend that for most skill training and rehabilitation situations, the greater amount of bilateral transfer occurs from the _____.
preferred to the nonpreferred limb
When people learn a specific relative time structure for a sequence of movements and are then asked to perform the sequence and ignore the rhythmic structure they learned, they typically _____.
produce the learned rhythmic structure for a number of trials
The amount of effort a person feels that he or she is expending while performing a skill is referred to as _____.
rate of perceived exertion (RPE)
The change in muscle use that occurs while a person learns a skill reflects the _____.
reorganization of the motor control system
When previously stable patterns of coordination become destabilized after a new pattern of coordination has been acquired, it is known as _____.
retroactive negative transfer
One of the types of timing structure conditions that lead to negative transfer effects is the _____ learned for a sequence of movements.
rhythmic pattern
A characteristic of experts in the context of vision is that they _____.
select more meaningful information in less time
In the context of the identical elements theory, E.L. Thorndike considered identical elements to include mental processes that _____.
shared the same brain cell activity as the physical action
The more traditional view of why positive transfer occurs contends that transfer is due to the _____.
similarity between the components of two skills or of two performance situations
According to Bernstein, the amount of transfer of skill components from one skill to another is based on the _____.
similarity of groups of background corrections associated with the two skills
A characteristic of negative transfer effects is that they are _____.
temporary in nature
According to Bernstein's views on the components that transfer from one skill to another, a positive transfer of learning between skating and bicycling will occur because _____.
the forces acting on the body are quite similar in both the skills
A characteristic of learning is that it is specific to _____.
the sources of sensory feedback available during practice
The effectiveness of assessing a practice routine, skill progression, and instructional method can be known only by determining _____.
their impact on performance in the situation for which the practice or instruction was designed
The influence of previous experiences on performing a skill in a new context or on acquiring a new skill is referred to as _____.
transfer of learning
For any instructor, coach, or therapist who wants to determine the effectiveness of a practice routine or instructional method, the rule of thumb should be that _____.
transfer test performance will provide the best assessment
A hypothesis explaining why positive transfer of learning occurs finds its clearest expression in the view that explains transfer effects in terms of _____.
transfer-appropriate processing
According to the _____, transfer is determined by the similarity between the cognitive processing required by the transfer task and the cognitive processing engaged in during training.
transfer-appropriate processing theory
In the context of positive transfer, the similarity in cognitive processes required by two performance or learning situations is a key point of the _____.
transfer-appropriate processing theory
During the cognitive stage of learning, a beginner focuses on cognitively oriented problems related to _____.
what to do and how to do it