Western Civ 2 - Test 1

Walter Gropius was BEST known for his

a. "socialist realism" paintings b. atonal, experimental music c. revolutionary directions in theater d. ideas of functionalism and practicality in architecture e. stream-of-consciousness writing in his novels and plays The correct answer is D. Walter Gropius was one of the most influential architects of the twentieth century. A founder of the Bauhaus School of art and design in 1919 and located in Germany's Weimar, Gropius' own structures were guided by the principle of functionalism. Form should follow function, and his buildings were often unornamented steel boxes with windows

World War II not only devastated the countries, cities, peoples, and cultures of Europe, but also destroyed

a. American commitment to globalism in foreign policy b. European supremacy in world affairs c. any commitment of old and new nations around the globe to supranational bodies of diplomacy and conflict resolution d. the capacity of western European nations to forge lasting economic and cultural ties in the post-war world e. the military power of the Soviet Union to play any future role in global affairs The correct answer is B. Beginning in the sixteenth century, the states of Europe dominated much of the world. From the western hemisphere to Africa and throughout Asia, it was the Age of the West. By the end of the nineteenth century, the nations of Europe had "carved up" much of Africa, established spheres of influence in China, and created empires everywhere, not least the British Empire. However, the world wars of the twentieth century weakened European hegemony, and by the end of World War II, Europe had lost its supremacy in world affairs.

The only European country with a declining population in the nineteenth century was

a. Germany b. Italy c. Austria d. France e. Ireland The correct answer is E. The population of Europe increased dramatically in the nineteenth century. The cause was not a rising birthrate, which in reality began to decline, but a decline in death rates due to fewer famines, epidemics, and wars. The exception was Ireland. Ireland's birth rate had risen significantly in the early part of the century, and to meet that population increase, the Irish peasants relied upon the potato. However, in 1845, the potato suffered blight. The resulting famine led to a million deaths. Another two million emigrated, many to the United States.

Which of the following statements BEST applies to Denis Diderot?

a. His materialistic, atheistic beliefs became tempered by his adoption of deistic Christianity. b. His Encyclopedia had considerable impact, particularly after its price was greatly reduced. c. His Encyclopedia had little impact due to its limited elitist appeal. d. The core of his educational beliefs expressed his devotion to sexual monogamy and chastity. e. He allied himself with Rousseau against the atheistic beliefs of Voltaire. The correct answer is B. Denis Diderot's twenty-eight volume Encyclopedia was a major weapon of the philosophes in their crusade against the Old Regime and its institutions. It became particularly influential in later editions when its price was drastically reduced, thus spreading Enlightenment ideas among doctors, lawyers, teachers, and even the clergy.

Which of the following statements BEST applies to Peter the Great of Russia?

a. His program of Europeanization was predominantly technical and aimed at modernizing the military. b. His respect for western governments led to increased powers for the Duma. c. His traditional, conservative attitude stripped away all previous social gains for women. d. His desire to teach Russians western customs could not be enforced among the old-fashioned nobles. e. His desire to turn Russia into a constitutional monarchy on the English model. The correct answer is A. Peter the Great (r. 1689-1726) was the greatest "westernizer" in Russian history. He traveled in the West in 1697-1698, and thus observed first-hand how "backward" Russia was at the time. However, Peter's interest in the West was mainly in technological and military matters rather than political or philosophical institutions and ideas.

The Diplomatic Revolution occurred when Maria Theresa of Austria refused to recognize the loss of

a. Hungary and fought the Spanish b. Galicia and took on the Bohemians c. Silesia and gained a French alliance d. Bosnia and allied herself defensively with England e. northern Italy and fought the Prussians The correct answer is C. In 1740, Prussia invaded Austrian Silesia. In the subsequent War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748), Maria Theresa fought alongside England against Prussia and France. In the second of the wars trigged by that invasion, the Seven Years' War (1756-1763), a diplomatic revolution occurred, with Austria and France allied against Prussia and Great Britain.

The first steps toward the Industrial Revolution in Britain occurred within its

a. cotton textile industry b. mining industry c. iron industry d. railroad industry e. canal network The correct answer is A. The cotton industry in Britain took the first step towards the Industrial Revolution. In the 1770s and 1780s, the cotton industry moved away from its traditional cottage industry approach and adopted modern factories, a development necessitated in part by the invention of such technologies as the flying shuttle, power loom, and eventually the steam engine.

The principal motive driving European states to develop public education systems for their citizens was

a. economic, to produce a more educated workforce b. military, to produce better trained army conscripts capable of learning how to use modern weapons c. political, to educate expanding electorates and strengthen patriotism and nationalism d. religious, so as to teach the poor obedience to authority e. psychological, to develop self-esteem among future workers The correct answer is C. There were several reasons for the development of mass public education in the late nineteenth century, including the belief that education would lead to social and personal improvement and the increasing need for more highly educated workers. However, the chief motive was political: expanding voting rights necessitated a more literate population and mass education could also instill the values of patriotism and nationalism.

Francis Bacon's greatest contribution to the Scientific Revolution was a methodology of

a. empirical experimental observation b. pure theoretical science c. reaching deductive conclusions by moving from general to particular principles d. science's urgent need to catalogue all of nature's diversity e. stressing the important of divine revelation The correct answer is A. Francis Bacon (1561-1626) established the scientific method that begins from the particular to the general. Through careful observations and precise experiments, correct generalizations could be ascertained. Bacon's inductive process was opposed by Descartes' deductive approach, by which one begins with self-evident truths and deduces more complex conclusions.

By the eighteenth century, the French bourgeoisie and nobility were

a. growing further apart in social status b. increasingly less distinguishable from each other c. rapidly losing social status to the third estate d. openly hostile and frequently involved in street battles e. economically submerged by the peasant and artisan class The correct answer is B. By the second half of the eighteenth century, the French nobility and the wealthier bourgeoisie were similar in many ways. It was possible for wealthy members of the middle class to enter the ranks of the nobility, and economically there was often little to differentiate the two groups. Also, the ideas of the Enlightenment were often attractive to both the aristocracy and the bourgeoisie.

A key result of the Seven Years' War in North America was

a. growing tensions between American colonists and the English government over higher colonial taxes needed to pay for war b. the colonists' growing sympathy for the defeated French c. greater acceptance of British policies by American colonists, especially in fiscal matters d. weakening of the American colonial economy and the collapse of American maritime commerce e. an alliance between the European colonists and Native Americans against Spanish and French invasions The correct answer is A. The Seven Years' War (1756-1763) was also fought in North America where it was known as the French and Indian War. England and England's colonies were victorious against the French and their allies, but it was economically costly. In the aftermath of the war, the English government attempted to get the colonists to assume some of the economic burden through a Stamp Act, but the results were riots in the colonies and the repeal of the act.

The French economy of the eighteenth century was

a. growing, due to an expansion of foreign trade and industrial production b. stagnant, due to foreign competition in industry and trade c. declining rapidly, due to overuse of arable land d. based largely on the silk industry e. weaker than either Poland's or Hungary's The correct answer is A. During the eighteenth century, the French economy grew significantly, particularly after 1730. The economic growth was especially notable in the expansion of foreign trade and an increase in industrial production. However, the wealth generated by the economic growth was not distributed evenly, with the aristocracy and the upper bourgeoisie reaping most of the economic gains.

The incident that prompted the nobles to depose James II was

a. his marriage to the Duchess of Orange b. the death of his first wife c. a French invasion of Ireland d. a religious alliance with France e. the birth of a Catholic son The correct answer is E. James II ascended the English throne in 1685. James was an avowed Catholic in overwhelmingly Protestant England. Already in his fifties, his heirs were his two Protestant daughters, Mary and Anne. However, his second wife bore James a son in the summer of 1688, and according to the law of primogeniture, even infant sons rank ahead of adult daughters in the royal succession. The result was the Glorious Revolution that drove James II from his throne, and he was replaced by Mary and her husband, William of Orange.

Continental industrialization differed from Great Britain's primarily because the continent

a. industrialized more through the private capital of rich men like John Cockerill b. was dependent on joint-stock investment banks like the Crédit Mobilier c. invested in the latest equipment and most productive mills and technology d. never established technical schools to train sufficient numbers of engineers and mechanics e. never made use of the factory system The correct answer is B. Continental industrialization occurred after industrialization in Britain. The increasing costs of machines and technologies required larger investments. The joint-stock investment banks mobilized the savings of thousands of investors, large and small, thus supplying the necessary capital. Among the most famous of the joint-stock corporations were the Crédit Mobilier in France, the Darmstadt Bank in Germany, and the Kreditanstalt in Austria.

After Napoleon's defeat, the Quadruple Alliance

a. sent troops to sack Paris b. restored the old Bourbon monarchy to France in the person of Louis XVIII c. returned Corsica to Italian control d. delivered an ultimatum to the pope demanding full control over all of Italy e. expelled Russia from the alliance because Czar Alexander refused to free the serfs The correct answer is B. In 1814, even before Napoleon's final defeat, the victorious powers—Britain, Austria, Russia, and Prussia, known as the Quadruple Alliance—restored the Bourbons to power in France. Louis XVIII, the brother of Louis XVI, succeeded Napoleon as ruler of France.

Russia's disastrous defeat in the Russo-Japanese war indirectly led to

a. the dismissal of Count Witte b. the Revolution of 1905 c. the enlargement of the Duma d. an unsuccessful coup by the Tsar e. the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II The correct answer is B. In 1904, the Japanese attacked the Russian fleet at Port Arthur in the Far East. A second Russian fleet was destroyed at the Battle of Tsushima Strait off the coast of Japan. Russia's defeat, combined with economic problems, led to demonstrations by workers in St. Petersburg. Troops were called out, violence resulted, and "Bloody Sunday" led to more demonstrations and more strikes. In the aftermath of the Revolution of 1905, Tsar Nicholas II instituted limited reforms.

In late nineteenth-century Europe, increased competition for foreign markets and the growing importance of domestic demand for economic development led to

a. the elimination of trade restrictions like tariffs b. a strong reaction against free trade and imposition of steep protective tariffs by most nations c. greater economic instability and a sequence of ever deeper economic depressions d. closer economic cooperation among the great powers e. the decline of colonialism and imperialism The correct answer is B. The increasing growth of industrial production in the late nineteenth century depended upon the access to new markets. Increased competition between the major industrial nations of the West led to a reaction against free trade, one of the major pillars of nineteenth-century liberalism, especially in Great Britain, but also elsewhere. By the beginning of the twentieth century, steep protective tariffs were again the norm.

At the beginning of the eighteenth century,

a. the old order was under severe attack b. the old order still remained strong c. republicanism was in ascendant d. enlightened absolutism had proved to be a failure e. republican revolutions had begun to transform central Europe The correct answer is B. At the beginning of the eighteenth century, Europe's traditional social order remained strong. Society remained organized on the basis of hereditary "orders" or "estates." Monarchies still governed and the theology of Christian churches still dominated religious and moral life. Although Enlightenment intellectuals attacked the status-quo, the pattern established in the Middle Ages largely endured.

In her path-breaking text, The Second Sex, the influential French feminist author Simone de Beauvoir argued that

a. women should renounce all contact with men and set up their own self-governing communes b. as a result of male-dominated societies, women were always and wrongly defined by their differences from men and consequently seen as second-class beings c. World War II had legitimated the political advantages and hegemonic power of males d. a "sexual revolution" was impossible and discouraged women outside of France from taking up her ideas e. there was a "feminine mystique" that forever differentiated women from men, thus there could never be any true equality between the genders The correct answer is B. In 1949, Simone de Beauvoir published The Second Sex, one of the seminal works in the women's liberation movement in Europe and America. De Beauvoir claimed that males dominated most societies and women thus invariably had only second-class status that was defined by their differences from men.

a. removing Saddam Hussein from power in Iraq b. agreeing to limit nuclear weapons in Europe c. adopting the policy of co-existence d. ending the Cold War e. signing the truce that ended the Korean War The correct answer is D. If individuals make a difference, then Ronald Reagan and Mikhail Gorbachev deserve credit for ending the Cold War. As president, Reagan focused upon building up American military strength, referred to the Soviet Union as the "Evil Empire," and was unwilling to accept détente between the superpowers, thus increasing economic and military pressure upon the Soviets. Gorbachev understood the weaknesses of the Soviet regime, and tried to reform them through glasnost and perestroika. The end result was the collapse of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War.

Ronald Reagan and Mikhail Gorbachev had their GREATEST impact on their era by collectively

a. Romanticism b. Realism c. Cubism d. Surrealism e. Expressionism The correct answer is D. Salvador Dali's best-known work, Persistence of Memory, is a prime example of Surrealism, an important cultural and artistic movement between the two world wars. Surrealists such as Dali were influenced by the ideas of Sigmund Freud and emphasized the unconscious as having a greater reality than the conscious state.

Salvador Dali was a well-known artist from which of the following artistic movements?

a. Paul Cézanne b. Claude Monet c. Berthe Morisot d. Vincent van Gogh e. Pablo Picasso The correct answer is D. Modernism in painting began with the Impressionist movement in the 1870s with Camille Pissarro and Claude Monet, who focused upon the "impressions" of the changing effect of light upon their subjects. A decade later, Post-Impressionists built upon the light and color of the Impressionists, but were also concerned about form and structure. One of the major Post-Impressionists was Vincent van Gogh. His The Starry Night is among the landmark paintings of modern art.

The Post-Impressionist painter of The Starry Night in the illustration is

a. German Schutzmannschaft b. Italian carbonieri c. French serjents d. British bobbies e. Dutch constables The correct answer is D. One of the first professional police departments was established in London. The individual responsible was Sir Robert Peel, the Home Secretary in the British cabinet, and the police became known then and since as bobbies. Another early police system began in Paris in 1829, with the police being known as serjents. In Germany in the aftermath of the revolutions of 1848, a police system called the Schutzmannschaft was established.

The policemen in the image, more-recent members of what was Europe's first official police force, are

a. Russia's Duma b. France's Estates-General c. Poland's Sejm d. England's Parliament e. Prussia's Reichstag The correct answer is D. Britain was the only major European state of the late eighteenth century with a legislature that had significant power. Poland had been dismembered by Prussia, Russia, and Austria. The French Estates-General had not met since the early seventeenth century and its brief resurrection in 1789 touched off the French Revolution. Prussia was largely dominated by its monarchs, exemplified by the absolute despot Frederick II. There was no national Duma in Russia until the twentieth century.

This painting of Europe's most powerful legislature of the eighteenth century shows

a. Baroque b. Rococo c. Neoclassical d. Romantic e. Realist The correct answer is D. Caspar David Friedrich's Man and Woman Gazing at the Moon is a brilliant example of Romanticism. Romantic painters often used nature as a subject, as Friedrich does here, portraying a mystical rather than a realistic or photographic landscape. Friedrich once claimed that "The divine is everywhere," even in a grain of sand. The two figures gazing at the moon seem to be almost transcending this world and experiencing the infinite, or perhaps nature itself is the infinite.

Which artistic style is BEST exemplified in the painting by Caspar David Friedrich?

As public morale and support for the war ebbed,

a. workers' strikes became less frequent as they were brutally repressed b. the liberal French government under Clemenceau found it impossible to end internal dissent c. propaganda posters and rationing became less important d. police powers were widely expanded to include the arrest of all dissenters as traitors to the state e. lack of public support ended the war The correct answer is D. As the war entered into its second and third years, public morale and support for the war waned considerably. The more authoritarian governments, such as Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Russia, traditionally used force to stifle dissent, but even the more democratic governments of France, Britain, and the United States expanded their police powers to curtail opposition to the war. Britain's Defense of the Realm Act (DORA) allowed the government to arrest dissenters as traitors.

a. American colonial criticism of the British monarchy b. Protestant British attack on Roman Catholicism c. Prussian satire on the court of Maria Theresa d. Irish criticism of British rule in Ireland e. satirical attack on France's privileged orders before 1789 The correct answer is E. This illustration is a French cartoon from 1789 that casts a critical view on the privileged rights of the ruling classes of the Three Estates. The cartoon shows a common man, naked, being ridden by an aristocrat, a cleric, and a judge. The majority, the cartoon indicates, is at the mercy of the First and Second Estate and in terrible distress.

The political cartoon in the illustration is a(n)

a. James I of England b. the Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V c. Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden d. William III of Orange e. Louis XIV of France The correct answer is E. The painting is a famous portrait of Louis XIV (r. 1643-1715) by Hyacinth Rigaud. In this portrayal, Louis is not the dashing young monarch he was when he assumed command of France with the death of Cardinal Mazarin in 1661 at the age of twenty-three. This portrait of Louis in his middle age still captures the Sun King's sense of royal dignity and grandeur, if not his youth. The picture is also valuable as historical evidence of the royal attire of the seventeenth century.

The portrait portrayed in the illustration is of

a. is an anti-war poster from the Boer War in South Africa b. is a pro-war poster from World War I c. reflects the patriotic enthusiasm of the New Imperialism of the nineteenth century d. is a satiric comment from the 1920s criticizing the pseudo-patriotism of the Great War e. was a pro-appeasement poster urging Neville Chamberlain to work for compromise with Hitler in 1938 The correct answer is B. Government propaganda played a major role in World War I, and British propaganda was perhaps the most successful. In this poster, Lord Kitchener, a famous war hero, points his finger at the viewer, saying "Britons want you." Others showed a young woman going to work in a munitions factory, urging others to do the same, and a young child asking her father, "What did you do in the war, Daddy?"

The poster in the illustration

a. Florence Nightingale b. Emmeline Pankhurst c. Emma Bovary d. Simone de Beauvoir e. Marie Curie The correct answer is E. Marie Curie, born in Poland, matriculated at the University of Paris, where she studied both physic and mathematics. Working with her husband Pierre, Curie discovered that the element radium gave off radiation that came from within the atom itself. Obviously, the atom was not a single body, but contained sub-atomic particles such as electrons and protons. In 1903, Curie was awarded the Nobel Prize in physics, and in 1911, she received the Nobel Prize in chemistry.

The recipient of two Nobel Prizes pictured in the photograph is

a. Florence Nightingale of England b. Queen Charlotte of Denmark c. the Empress Alexandria of Russia d. Queen Victoria of Britain e. the Empress Eugenie of France The correct answer is D. Queen Victoria ruled Great Britain and its empire from 1837 to her death in 1901. In the photograph, taken in 1881, she is surrounded by her large family. She gave birth to 9 children, and when she died, she had 37 great-grandchildren. Wearing black in memory of her husband, Prince Albert, who had died two decades before the photograph was taken, Victoria gave her name to the century, "the Age of Victoria," and a middle-class taste and code of moral behavior called "Victorianism."

Who is the central figure in the photograph who gave her name to an age and a code of behavior and was sometimes referred to as the grandmother of Europe?

Which of the following states exerted the MOST influence on Italy in the eighteenth century?

a. Austria b. England c. Spain d. Turkey e. France The correct answer is A. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, Spain exerted the greatest influence in the Italian peninsula, but it was Austria who benefited the most from the War of the Spanish Succession, which ended in 1713. Austria remained the dominant foreign power in Italy until the mid-nineteenth century.

Which innovative eighteenth-century composer wrote the opera The Marriage of Figaro?

a. Bach b. Handel c. Haydn d. Mozart e. Beethoven The correct answer is D. The eighteenth century was a great century in the history of music with composers such as Bach, Handel, and Haydn, but the musical forms of the concerto, symphony, and opera reached their apex in the works of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-1791). In his The Marriage of Figaro, Mozart carried the Italian comic opera to new heights, and it remains one of the world's most famous and popular operas.

The painting The Oath of the Horatii by Jacques-Louis David is an example of

a. Baroque art b. Rococo art c. Mannerist art d. Neoclassical art e. Romantic art The correct answer is D. Jacques-Louis David's Oath of the Horatii is an example of Neoclassical painting. Neoclassicism was a movement that emerged in France toward the end of the eighteenth century. Recent excavations of Roman Pompeii and Herculaneum brought a renewed interest in the ancient world, as is evidenced in David's painting of three Roman brothers swearing an oath. Neoclassical artists wished to replicate the dignity and simplicity of the classical style of antiquity.

The British policy of appeasement was based on

a. Britain's cowardly nature in world politics b. a general admiration of the Germans and their accomplishments c. a hatred and distrust of France d. a fear on the part of conservatives in the government that Hitler might turn to Stalin for support e. a mistaken belief that it would maintain peace and stability in Europe The correct answer is E. When Hitler demanded that the German-speaking area in Czechoslovakia known as the Sudetenland be turned over to Germany, the British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain and the French Premier went to Munich to meet Hitler. In order to avoid another world war and in the hope that it would result in peace and stability, the British and the French signed the Munich agreement, which gave Hitler what he wanted and resulted in the dismemberment of Czechoslovakia. Chamberlain claimed the agreement meant "peace for our time." World War II broke out within a year.

Who was responsible for the Special Theory of Relativity?

a. Curie b. Rhodes c. Planck d. Nietzsche e. Einstein The correct answer is E. Albert Einstein is responsible for the Special Theory of Relativity, which was first published in his 1905 paper "The Electro-dynamics of Moving Bodies." In it, Einstein stated that space and time are not absolute, but relative to the observer. The mechanistic world of Newton was no longer the only explanation for the universe. Other key figures in modern physics were Marie and Pierre Curie, who worked with radiation and the atom, and Max Planck, the discoverer of the quantum theory.

The leader of the Physiocrats and their advocacy of natural economic laws was

a. Denis Diderot b. Adam Smith c. Francois Quesnay d. Cesare Beccaria e. Pierre Boyle The correct answer is C. Francois Quesnay was the leading figure among the Physiocrats, who believed that there were natural laws in economics as in other fields. The Physiocrats claimed that the only source of wealth was land that was used for agriculture. The Physiocrats condemned mercantilism, and instead, following the "natural" laws of supply and demand, advocated that individuals should pursue their own self-interest. The state should not be involved in economic relationships.

Which of the following is NOT true of the French revolutionary republican calendar?

a. Each month consisted of three ten-day weeks. b. Most Christian holidays were kept. c. No efforts were made to enforce it. d. It was meant to signal a new beginning for the nation. e. 1792 became the Year I in the new calendar. The correct answer is B. In October 1793, the National Convention adopted a new, revolutionary calendar based not upon Christian beliefs and traditions, but upon the revolution itself. 1792 became Year I, the seven-day week was abolished in favor of the ten-day week (a decade), and the Christian holidays and saints days were replaced by festivals celebrating the revolution and its values.

The Industrial Revolution had its beginnings in

a. France b. Belgium c. Russia d. the United States e. Great Britain The correct answer is E. The Industrial Revolution began in Britain, a nation that had certain advantages over its potential rivals in the eighteenth century. An agricultural revolution had resulted in greater food supplies, a surplus of capital was available for investment, crucial resources such as coal and iron were on hand, and Britain's limited government was supportive of individual ambition.

The immediate origins of the Crimean War involved

a. French expansionism in the Black Sea b. Austrian expansionism in the Balkans c. Russia's right to protect Christian shrines in Palestine d. the Turks' assassination of a British diplomat e. English colonization of Mesopotamia The correct answer is C. The decline of the Ottoman Empire in the nineteenth century sparked the concerns and ambitions of Austria, Russia, France, and Britain. The spark that set off the war was the demand by Russia in 1853 that it must have the right to protect Christian holy places in Palestine. The Ottomans refused and Russia invaded. France and Britain joined the Ottomans against the Russians, in part because a Russian victory would upset the balance of power. Much of the fighting took place on the Crimean peninsula in the northern Black Sea; thus, the war is known as the Crimean War.

The first European to make systematic observations of the Heavens by telescope was

a. Galileo b. Copernicus c. Brahe d. Kepler e. Newton The correct answer is A. Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) was the first European to make extensive and systematic observations of the Heavens using a telescope. With his telescope, Galileo discovered mountains and craters on the moon, the four moons of Jupiter, and the sun spots. His findings indicated that the universe was composed of material substance like Earth, which contradicted the prevailing conception held by the Church.

Prior to World War I, the struggle for influence in southeastern Europe created serious tensions between

a. Germany and Italy b. Russia and Italy c. the Ottoman Empire and Britain d. Britain and France e. Austria-Hungary and Russia The correct answer is E. The decline of the Ottoman Empire sparked the opposing ambitions of Austria-Hungary and Russia in the Balkans. Austria-Hungary, its ambitions in central Europe blocked by Germany, sought to replace the Ottomans as the major power in southeastern Europe. The Russians had their own territorial desires to gain access to the Mediterranean at Ottoman expense, but as a Slavic people, they also saw their role as the protector of their fellow Slavs in the Balkans.

The prime minister of Piedmont who organized the Italian unification movement was

a. Giuseppe Mazzini b. Giuseppe Garibaldi c. Camillo di Cavour d. Victor Emmanuel e. Pope Pius IX The correct answer is C. After the failure to achieve Italian unification in 1849, King Victor Emmanuel, the new ruler of Piedmont-Sardinia, appointed Count Camilo di Cavour as prime minister. A brilliant diplomat, Cavour realized that the obstacle to Italian independence was Austria and that Piedmont was too weak to expel Austria by itself. Allying Piedmont with France was Cavour's solution. In 1859, war erupted and Austria was forced to abandon most of its Italian possessions. Italy was unified by the end of 1860, except for Venice and Rome.

World War II was largely made more likely by

a. Great Britain's aggressive plans on Europe b. lack of British and French opposition to German violations of the Versailles treaty c. Soviet expansionism and interference in Western Europe's affairs d. the League of Nations e. United States support of Nazi Germany during the 1930s The correct answer is B. In 1935, Adolph Hitler announced that Germany had rearmed in violation of the Versailles Treaty. The next year, he ordered German troops to reoccupy the demilitarized Rhineland. British and French politicians voiced opposition but did not act forcefully to oppose Hitler's actions. The economic depression and the millions of losses in World War I deterred the democratic governments from a strong response—better peace at any price.

Which of the following statements BEST applies to Napoleon?

a. He was a child of the Enlightenment and the French Revolution. b. He had a sense of moral responsibility to the people of France. c. He advocated an invasion of Britain in the 1790s. d. He was born the son of a Parisian merchant. e. He was a hero to all Europeans. The correct answer is A. Napoleon Bonaparte was a child of the Enlightenment and the French Revolution. As an outsider, born on Corsica, Napoleon could never have risen to the heights he did without the revolution that removed the special privileges that went with the hereditary Estates. When given power, in Egypt and later as Emperor, Napoleon personified the ideal of the Enlightenment in his many reforms, including the Civil Code, which preserved most of the revolutionary ideals including the principle of the equality of all citizens before the law.

The first Fascist state in Europe was

a. Italy b. Germany c. Russia d. France e. Spain The correct answer is A. The first Fascist state in Europe was Italy. In 1919, Benito Mussolini organized the first fascist political movement. In the confusion and disillusionment in post-war Italy, and through threats and terror, Mussolini coerced King Victor Emmanuel III to appoint him Prime Minister in October 1922.

The Austrian ruler at the time of the War of the Austrian Succession was

a. Joseph II b. Marie Antoinette c. Maria Theresa d. Charles VI e. Charles V The correct answer is C. Because Charles VI, the Austrian Habsburg emperor, had no sons, his dauther Maria Theresa was his heir. To ensure her peaceful assumption of power, Charles negotiated the Pragmatic Sanction, by which most of the European powers agreed to recognize Maria Theresa as his legal heir. Charles VI died in 1740, and in that year, Prussia's new monarch, Frederick II, ignored the agreement and seized Austrian Silesia, which led to the War of the Austrian Succession, 1740-1748.

The Spanish Civil War ended with the victory of

a. King Alfonso XIII and General Miguel Primo de Rivera and the restoration of divine right monarchy b. an antifascist coalition, aided by Soviet troops and supplies, and the creation of a liberal state c. the National Front, aided by Italian and German arms and money, and the establishment of a radical republic d. General Francisco Franco, who established a conservative, authoritarian, and anti-democratic regime with the strong backing of the reactionary Spanish Catholic Church e. Spain's communist party and the creation of a workers' dictatorship The correct answer is D. The Spanish republic was established in 1931. In 1936, a Popular Front government of democrats, socialists, and the revolutionary left, assumed power, but was unacceptable to many military officers. General Francisco Franco led a rebellion against the republic. The Spanish Civil War (1936-1939) resulted in Franco's victory and the establishment of an authoritarian regime that was supported by large landowners, business interests, and the conservative Catholic clergy.

The strongest statement and vindication of women's rights during the Enlightenment was made by

a. Mary Wollstonecraft b. Beatrice Williams c. Mary Astell d. Princess Amelia of Austria e. Jane Austin The correct answer is A. In her Vindication of the Rights of Women (1792), Mary Wollstonecraft delivered the strongest statement and vindication of women's rights during the Enlightenment. She argued that women are not slaves and they, too, have the capacity for reason equal to that of men. If women have reason, she said, they should have the same rights as men, a position many Enlightenment males were unwilling to concede.

The Cheka was a

a. Serbian terrorist group b. Slovak nationalist organization c. Bolshevik secret police unit used to murder and terrorize opponents d. Tsarist military reform agency e. Muslim terrorist organization in the Caucasus The correct answer is C. Lenin and the Bolsheviks came to power quickly and easily in October-November 1917 with the collapse of the provisional government. Keeping power was another matter. Russia soon sunk into civil war with the Bolshevik Reds fighting the Whites, who included such varied groups as monarchists, republicans, and non-Marxist socialists. In waging the civil war, Lenin authorized a new secret police—the Cheka, whose tool was terror against all opponents of the Bolshevik regime.

Which of the following statements BEST applies to Spain and Italy in the late nineteenth century?

a. Spain had returned to the status of a great power. b. Italy's unification was vigorously supported by the pope. c. Both countries were preeminent colonial powers, especially in Africa. d. Both countries remained second-rate European powers less transformed by the economic and cultural innovations of the age. e. Italy experienced domestic unrest between secular and religious factions, and Spain sunk into civil war between the liberal socialists and the conservative military and church leaders. The correct answer is D. In spite of the unification of Italy by 1870 and a new parliamentary constitution adopted in Spain in 1875, both nations remained second-rate powers. In Spain, the Catholic Church, large landowners, and the army resisted any modernization, and in Italy, there was constant conflict between workers and industrialists. Italy's pretensions to great-power status were ruined when Italy became the first European nation to lose a war to an African state (Ethiopia).

The French playwright Molière is noted for all of the following EXCEPT

a. Tartuffe b. benefiting from the patronage of Louis XIV c. satirizing French religious and social customs d. perfecting neoclassical tragedy e. enjoying the favor of the French court The correct answer is D. In his many comedies, such as Tartuffe, Jean-Baptiste Molière satirized the religious and social institutions and attitudes of his era, doing so while enjoying the patronage of Louis XIV. However, it was Racine, not Molière, who perfected the neoclassical tragedy.

The BEST statement of laissez-faire was made in 1776 by

a. Thomas Jefferson b. John Locke c. John Adams d. Adam Smith e. Alexander Hamilton The correct answer is D. Adam Smith's Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, or just Wealth of Nations (1776), was the best statement of laissez-faire ideas. Like the Physiocrats, Smith condemned mercantilism and government involvement in the economy and advocated free trade. Government should confine itself to protecting society from foreign invasion, defending people from injustice and oppression by the government and building and maintaining public works such as roads and canals.

The development of such superior locomotives as the Rocket, used on the first public railway lines, is attributed to

a. Timothy Faulkner b. George Stephenson c. Richard Trevithick d. Walter Zofrin e. James Watt The correct answer is B. Richard Trevithick developed a steam-powered locomotive for an industrial rail line in southern Wales in 1804, but it was George Stephenson's locomotive, the Rocket, that led to Britain's first modern railways. In 1832, on the 32-mile rail line running from Manchester to Liverpool, the Rocket traveled along at 16 miles per hour.

A less brutal approach to justice in the eighteenth century is associated with

a. Voltaire b. Beccaria c. Montesquieu d. Hume e. Rousseau The correct answer is B. Cesare Beccaria (1738-1794) attempted to create a new and more humane approach to justice. In his On Crimes and Punishements (1764), he argued that deterrent, not sheer revenge and brutality, should be the aim of punishment, and that imprisonment was less barbarous than the death penalty and thus the proper penalty for crime.

The "Golden Age" of the Dutch Republic in the seventeenth century witnessed

a. William III of Orange become king in what would later become a line of hereditary monarchs b. increasing economic prosperity of the United Provinces due to a series of wars late in the century c. the permanent abolition of the States-General d. the decline of Amsterdam as a financial center e. a fifty-year alliance with Louis XIV and France The correct answer is A. The Golden Age of the Dutch Republic was the seventeenth century when Amsterdam was the financial center of Europe. However, continuing disputes between the House of Orange and the States-General and a series of wars against France led to financial and political problems by the century's end. William III of Orange established a monarchical regime, but, leaving no heirs, the monarchy lapsed again until the nineteenth century.

In Newton's Principia, ordered reasoning revealed that the universe was

a. a chaotic, unpredictable place b. in fact a mathematical impossibility c. a regulated machine operating according to universal laws d. finite with clearly defined boundaries e. relative, thus anticipating the later theories of Einstein The correct answer is C. Isaac Newton (1642-1727), building on the work of Copernicus, Brahe, Kepler, Galileo, and others, established that the universe was a machine operating according to universal laws. The co-inventor of calculus, he was most famous and influential for his laws of universal gravitation. The mathematical proofs of his findings were published in Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, or the Principia.

According to Karl Marx, the struggle between bourgeoisie and proletariat would ultimately result in

a. a classless society b. the dictatorship of the proletariat c. all political power transferred to the proletariat d. a utopian society e. a utopian dictatorship The correct answer is A. To Karl Marx, the class struggle over the ownership and control of property was the theme of all of history. In the nineteenth century, the struggle was between the bourgeoisie, or the industrial middle class, and the proletariat, or the industrial working class. Inevitably, the proletariat would be victorious and form a dictatorship to correctly order the means of production, but ultimately a classless society would result, and the state as the instrument of one class against another would simply wither away.

The period of 1924-1929 in Europe witnessed

a. a growing feeling of optimism for a peaceful future b. the Great Depression destroy Europe's economy c. a direct occupation of Germany by World War I's victorious powers d. the western powers cut off all ties with Communist Russia e. a Marxist takeover of Eastern Europe The correct answer is A. The years 1924 to 1929 were "the hopeful years." In Germany, a new government headed by Gustav Stresemann and a solution to Germany's hyperinflation through the Dawes Plan stabilized the economy. Increasing prosperity led to new diplomatic initiatives. In 1925, France, Belgium, and Germany agreed to Germany's new post-war western borders in the Treaty of Locarno. The following year Germany entered the League of Nations. In 1928, sixty-three nations signed the Kellogg-Briand Pact that outlawed war as an instrument of national policy. Then came the Great Depression.

The Continental System tried to defeat the British by

a. a massive invasion of Britain b. preventing British trade c. causing political unrest in Britain d. forbidding the use of the English language anywhere on the continent e. flooding the English market with cheaper goods from Europe The correct answer is B. Napoleon's Continental System was instituted in 1806-1807. British sea power made it nearly impossible to invade Britain, but Napoleon hoped to win an economic victory by closing the European continent to British trade. It did not succeed. The continent was too large, there were alternative markets for the British, and Napoleon's supposed continental allies often ignored the no-trade restrictions.

Following the death of Alexander I in 1825, Russian society under Nicholas I became

a. a police state due to Nicholas's fear of internal and external revolution b. the most liberal of the European powers c. an industrial power after the abolition of serfdom d. increasingly influenced by ultra-conservative societies, such as the Northern Union e. a socialist bastion in Eastern Europe The correct answer is A. Tsar Alexander I died in 1825. His legal heir was his brother, Constantine, who rejected the crown. During the confusing interregnum, a number of reformers hoped to install the weak Constantine as tsar and establish a constitutional monarchy. The so-called Decembrist Revolt failed, and the new tsar (another brother), Nicholas I (r. 1825-1855), proved to be one of the most reactionary rulers in Russia's history.

The chief cause of rising European populations between 1850 and 1910 was

a. a rising birthrate b. a declining mortality rate c. better childhood immunization programs d. better human diet in a consumer economy e. absence of deaths from warfare The correct answer is B. The population of Europe increased dramatically between 1850 and 1910. Between 1850 and 1880, the main cause of the population increase was a rising birthrate, at least in Western Europe, but after 1880, a notable decline in death rates was the reason for the population increase. The decline in death rates after 1880 was mainly due to medical discoveries, such as a vaccine against smallpox, and improvements in the urban environment, including better nutrition and improved sanitation.

Due to the size of the country, industrialization in the United States was dependent upon

a. a substantial labor source b. improved technology c. better industrial methodology d. a good system of transportation e. massive government investment in factories and mines The correct answer is D. Because of its extensive territory, industrialization in the United States required an efficient system of internal transportation. Roads and canals, steamboats on the major rivers, and most importantly, railroads, ultimately met the need. By 1860, the United States had 27,000 miles of railroad track.

The immediate cause of World War I was

a. an uprising of Catholic peasants in Bavaria b. the assassination of Austrian Archduke Francis Ferdinand in Bosnia c. the German invasion of Poland d. the German naval blockage of Britain e. revolution in Russia caused by Russian defeat at the hands of Imperial Japan The correct answer is B. The immediate cause of World War I was the assassination of the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne. The Balkans had been a place of conflict for decades because of the Ottoman decline. Austria and Russia had their opposing claims, as did the smaller state of Serbia. In July 28, 1914, Archduke Francis Ferdinand and his wife were driving through Sarajevo in Bosnia when a Serbian terrorist assassinated them. The opposing alliances and their commitments soon dragged Europe into war.

As fought in World War I, trench warfare

a. became a one-sided success for the French b. increased the morale of soldiers who fought well and came to obey promptly the orders of their superiors c. became increasingly unreal as baffled and incompetent officers persistently ordered their men to accomplish battlefield objectives that were impossible d. brought great innovations to military tactics as the long conflict forced generals to devise novel tactics e. reduced the number of casualties and extent of injuries experienced by all sides The correct answer is C. Most of the politicians and generals did not anticipate that trench warfare would dominate World War I, particularly on the Western Front. Having no seeming alternatives, generals continuously ordered men into battle to gain objectives that were obviously impossible to achieve, given the trenches, barbed wire, and machine guns facing them. War became a senseless slaughter on all sides. The British experienced 60,000 casualties on the first day of the Battle of the Somme, and at Verdun, hundreds of thousands of French and German soldiers died in a few short months.

The Great Exhibition of 1851

a. showed how the Industrial Revolution had produced wealth from the coal mines of England b. displayed Great Britain's industrial wealth to the world c. was housed in the Royal Palace, a tribute to French engineering skills d. showed British agricultural technology to the world e. was unpopular with the conservative British public The correct answer is B. The Great Exhibition occurred in London in 1851. Housed in the Crystal Palace, a radical structure constructed entirely with glass and iron, the exhibition displayed Britain's industrial wealth to the world. Considered the first World's Fair, six million people visited the fair in six months to observe the 100,000 exhibits.

After 1648, the "Holy Roman Empire"

a. became one of the most powerful and centralized monarchies in Europe under the domination of Spanish grandees b. was not really an empire at all, but rather a loose association of 300 German states c. became divided into three great warring states: Prussia, Poland, and Silesia d. continued to acknowledge the temporal power of the pope e. disappeared entirely, its constituent parts absorbed by France and Prussia The correct answer is B. The Peace of Westphalia, which ended the Thirty Years' War, left the Germanys more divided than ever before. Although the Habsburgs continued to reign as the Holy Roman Emperors, the 300 or so German states were largely sovereign and autonomous. In the eighteenth century, the French writer Voltaire noted that the Holy Roman Empire was neither holy nor Roman nor an empire.

In the summer of 1789, when the "revolution of the lawyers" appeared doomed by imminent royal use of armed force, the French Revolution as a whole was saved by the

a. betrayal of the monarchy by high clergymen b. defection of key nobles of the sword to the rebels c. intervention of armed commoners against royal forces d. outside influence of mercenary troops paid by the rebels e. French army siding with the assembly against the king The correct answer is C. After the Third Estate declared itself the "National Assembly" in June 1789, Louis XVI prepared to use force to disband the lawyer-dominated assembly. However, the common people, in a series of urban and rural uprisings in July and August, saved the "revolution of the lawyers." The most famous of the uprisings was the fall of the Bastille in Paris on July 14, 1789.

The Bismarckian System had the ultimate result of

a. bringing peace to Europe for more than fifty years b. creating friendship between Germany and England c. easing tensions between France and Germany d. dividing Europe into two opposing groups of nations making war more likely e. forcing Austria into an alliance with Russia The correct answer is D. Ultimately, Bismarck's attempt to isolate France in order to maintain the gains Germany had made as the result of the Franco-Prussian War divided Europe into two opposing groups of nations, thus making war more likely. Initially, he allied Germany with Austria and Russia, but the Balkan rivalry between the latter two states ended the Three Emperors' League, and Bismack turned to Italy. By the early twentieth century, there were two opposing alliances: the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria and Italy, and the Triple Entente of Russia, France, and Britain.

At its premier, Igor Stravinsky's Rite of Spring, now considered as a classic example of modernism in music and ballet,

a. caused a riot among audience members with its heavy beat and dissonance b. inspired many authors to write poems using the music c. drew great public acclaim as a modern masterwork d. restored audiences' faith in music as a rational and soothing art e. was cancelled because of lack of any interest in the production The correct answer is A. Igor Stravinsky, working with the Ballet Russe under the direction of Sergei Diaghilev, revolutionized the world of music and ballet with The Firebird (1910) and Petrushka (1911), both based on Russian folk tales. His 1913 musical ballet, The Rite of Spring, proved to be particularly controversial, with its pulsating rhythms and dissonances, blatant sensuality, and radical dances and costumes. When first performed in Paris, it caused a riot.

One socioeconomic group that clearly benefited from World War I was

a. civil servants who received more powers and job security b. large industrialists, especially owners of factories making weapons and munitions c. young adults who received better, more technical training d. petty criminals who won release in wartime to work in factories e. senior citizens who were not subject to military conscription The correct answer is B. The one group in society that most benefited from the war was the owners of the large factories that manufactured munitions. Because of the continuing and immediate need for more and more shells, bombs, and guns, governments rarely placed limits upon industrial profits when it came to war production. Firms not directly involved in war production did not profit and were sometimes forced to go out of business.

Women in Mussolini's Fascist Italy were

a. coerced into factory work to aid industrial production b. regarded as equal to men in social status c. largely forced by government legislation to become homemakers d. aided by the government's emphasis on birth control e. prominent in most of the lower level committees of the Fascio di Combattimento The correct answer is C. According to Italian fascist philosophy, the family was the pillar of society and the only proper role for a woman was that of homemaker, "their natural and fundamental mission in life." According to Mussolini, female emancipation was by definition "unfascist." Like Italy, the Soviet Union was also a totalitarian state, but there women did more than their share of physical labor outside the home and in the work force.

The higher criticism of the Bible championed by the French Catholic scholar Ernst Renan

a. confirmed the accuracy of the Bible as a guide to Christian history b. questioned the historical accuracy of the Bible and denied the divinity of Jesus c. found the New Testament to be far more recent in composition than previously believed d. cast doubt on the authenticity of the letters of Paul e. claimed that the Bible was a forgery perpetrated in the Middle Ages by the Church The correct answer is B. Science, such as Darwin's theory of evolution, seemed to undermine the literal Bible, including its account of creation in just seven days. Some scholars applied critical principles, known as higher criticism, in examining the Bible. Ernst Renan, in his Life of Jesus, claimed that the Bible was not literally true, and he presented a Jesus as a human being rather than God, whose importance was as a moral example to human beings rather than a personal savior.

Isaac Newton and John Locke

a. created two antagonistic religious systems of thought b. argued that through rational reasoning and study, humans could discover natural laws governing all aspects of society c. claimed that mathematics and science would bring about the cure for the evils of society but only very slowly d. said the philosophers were the prophets of the future and that their rejection of the Scientific Revolution was justified e. were essentially seventeenth-century figures and thus largely irrelevant to the eighteenth-century Enlightenment The correct answer is B. The intellectual inspiration for the Enlightenment came primarily from Locke and Newton. Newton's mathematical world-machine suggested that natural laws could be ascertained not only in science, but also in politics, economics, and other fields. Locke's theory of knowledge, as expressed in his Essay Concerning Human Understanding, denied the concept of innate ideas and argued instead that every person was born with a blank mind, a tabula rasa, and that environment and experience were the crucial factors in human development, not birth and heredity.

After the attack on Pearl Harbor, the MAIN priority for the United States was

a. defeating Japan as quickly as possible b. recovering the Hawaiian Islands c. defeating Germany first and then turning its great naval war machine against Japan d. to remain neutral, while buying time to build up industrial and military supplies e. peace at any price The correct answer is C. Shortly after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, Hitler declared war against the United States. Before Pearl Harbor, there was much isolationist sentiment in the United States against getting involved in the war in Europe, which had begun in September 1939. President Roosevelt agreed with Britain's Winston Churchill and the Soviet Union's Joseph Stalin that the defeat of Germany was the first priority. Then, the American navy could be employed in the Pacific against Japan.

Yugoslavia was divided into warring factions because of

a. demands for ethnic separatism b. differences of political goals c. support of the Serbs d. lack of cultural diversity e. the success of a ruthless communist dictator The correct answer is A. Yugoslavia came into existence as a result of World War I. It was an artificial creation, made up of several different "nationalities" or ethnic groups. After World War II, the ideology of communism and the leadership of Marshall Tito held the state together, but after his death in 1980 and the demise of communism at the end of the 1980s, different ethnic groups demanded their own states. The dominant Serbs tried to prevent the disintegration but failed in spite of war and "ethnic cleansing."

The overall effect of the Scientific Revolution on the situation of women was to

a. dispel traditional myths of female inferiority b. increase the role of women in the child-rearing process c. open universities to women as students and professors d. demonstrate that there was no inherent skeletal differences between the sexes e. generate facts about differences between men and women to prove male dominance The correct answer is E. Overall, the Scientific Revolution merely reaffirmed traditional ideas of women and their capabilities. In spite of the accomplishments of Margaret Cavendish and Maria Winkelmann, most scientists sought to prove that women were inferior to men by nature and that their proper role was domestic as wives and mothers.

In September of 1792, the French National Convention

a. established a constitutional monarchy b. abolished the monarchy and established a republic c. voted to preserve the life of Louis XVI d. was dismantled by Louis XVI e. restored a monarchical dictatorship in order to defend France against foreign invasion The correct answer is B. In April 1792, France declared war on Austria, a defensive measure against previous Austrian threats. Initially, the war did not go well for France, in part because the royal army had disintegrated. Defeat in battle and economic problems led to the arrest of Louis XVI and the suspension of the 1791 constitution which had established a limited monarchy. The resulting National Convention voted in September 1972 to establish a republic.

The overall practical political purpose of the court of Versailles was to

a. exclude the high nobility and royal princes from real power b. serve as Louis XIV's residence from which to survey Paris c. act as a reception hall for state affairs d. give Louis XIV a life of privacy away from spies e. defend Louis XIV from attacks by foreign regimes The correct answer is A. Versailles served the political function of successfully excluding the high nobility and royal princes from their accustomed positions of power. By bringing them to Versailles and involving them in extensive and elaborate ceremonies, Louis was able to maintain his central control, as well as better ensure domestic peace and order in France.

Many Germans viewed the Versailles Peace Treaty as

a. fair and equitable b. in need of minor revisions c. irrelevant to the post-war world d. unfortunate but promising e. profoundly unfair to Germany The correct answer is E. Almost all Germans viewed the Treaty of Versailles as a "dictated peace" and profoundly unfair to Germany. During the 1920s and after, many German politicians, not least Adolph Hitler, used the unpopularity of the Treaty of Versailles as a political rallying cry. After coming to power in the 1930s, Hitler essentially tore up the treaty.

The scientific societies of early modern Europe established the first

a. fund-raising events for medical research b. regularly published scientific journals c. code of ethics for experimentation on humans and animals d. college departments for scientific study e. seminar programs for European universities The correct answer is B. The scientific societies of early modern Europe, notably the English Royal Society and the French Royal Academy of Sciences, emphasized both the practical and theoretical value of science. Scientific endeavors were seen as cooperative ventures, and their findings were published in regularly appearing scientific journals, such as the French Journal des Savants and the English Royal Society's Philosophical Transactions.

One of the chief concerns of the Allies at the Tehran, Yalta, and Potsdam Conferences was

a. how to end the war on favorable terms, should any one of them be defeated b. determining spheres of influence for the individual allied powers in post-war Europe c. how to rebuild the German economy after the war so as to extract maximum war reparations d. whether China and other lesser allies deserved any territorial rewards in any post-war settlement e. whether the United States and Britain should attempt to destroy the Soviet Union The correct answer is B. One of the major issues of the three Allied conferences (Tehran in 1943, Yalta in February 1945, and the post-European war conference at Potsdam in July 1945) was spheres of influence. Stalin was adamant about having a buffer zone in Eastern Europe to protect the Soviet Union, and Churchill agreed that spheres of influence might help in preventing future conflicts. Roosevelt vacillated, and at Yalta he favored self-determination. By July 1945, Roosevelt was dead, and Russia and the West were rapidly drifting apart—the Cold War had begun.

Charles Darwin's The Descent of Man

a. is filled with expressions of doubt and hesitancy over the new evolutionary theory b. expressed the first theory of genetic mutations c. explained the origin of human beings and their survival through adaptations to their environment d. placed humans in the center of a rational universe e. portrayed the downfall of humanity by using the scientific method to prove the relationship between animal species The correct answer is C. In his On the Origins of Species by Means of Natural Selection, published in 1859, Charles Darwin did not discuss human beings in his theory of biological evolution through natural selection. However, in his later The Descent of Man (1871), Darwin claimed that human beings were also the result of evolution, for "man is the co-descendant with other mammals of a common progenitor." Darwin's work was very controversial in his theory that human beings were not unique, but part of the evolutionary order of nature.

The general conception of the universe before Copernicus was that

a. it was orderly, with Heaven at the center and Earth circling around it b. Earth was the stationary center and heavenly spheres orbited it c. Earth rested on the shell of a giant tortoise d. it could not be revealed according to God's will e. Earth was flat, a fear that still concerned sailors and navigators The correct answer is B. Before Copernicus (1473-1543), it was believed that Earth was the center of the universe and that surrounding Earth were series of concentric heavenly spheres. This geocentric theory had existed for centuries and was the result of the concepts of Aristotle, Claudius Ptolemy (second century CE), and accorded with Christian theology. The geocentric, or earth-centered universe, was also known as the Ptolemaic universe.

In August 1914, the perception of the upcoming war among Europeans was that

a. it would be the dawn of a new socialist Europe b. it would be very short, possibly only weeks in duration c. it would mark the end of European civilization d. its long-term nature would revive Europe's suffering economy e. God was on the side of their opponents and it would thus be an unjust war The correct answer is B. When World War I broke out in August 1914, there was great enthusiasm for war in all the participating countries. Most believed that their nation was in the right in going to war and that their cause was the just cause. In addition, most believed that modern technology and weaponry would guarantee a short war and that modern economies could not tolerate a long war. They believed that "the boys would be home by Christmas."

Giuseppe Mazzini's nationalist organization Young Italy

a. liberated Italy's northern provinces from Austrian control b. failed to achieve his goal of Risorgimento by 1849 c. helped inspire successful liberal constitutions throughout Italy d. used the liberals in governments to extend suffrage to Italy's working classes e. used Austrian support to expel France from Italy The correct answer is B. The major early figure of Italian nationalism, or Italy's Risorgimento ("resurgence"), was Giuseppe Mazzini. In pursuit of Italian independence, Mazzini founded Young Italy in 1831. In 1848, rebellion spread throughout Italy. Mazzini and Giuseppe Garibaldi proclaimed a republic in Rome. However, the uprisings were quickly put down by the Austrians in the north and by the French, who returned Pope Pius IX to power in Rome. Risorgimento had failed in 1849.

The primary force behind the 1830 revolutions in Belgium, Poland, and Italy was

a. nationalism b. religion c. racism d. socialism e. economics The correct answer is A. The primary driving force in the 1830 revolutions in Belgium, Italy, and Poland in 1830 was nationalism. At the Congress of Vienna, the area once known as the Austrian Netherlands was added to the Dutch Republic, but in 1830,the former rebelled against the Dutch, leading to the establishment of the nation of Belgium. The other two national rebellions were less successful. The Austrians sent troops to put down the Italian uprising and the Russians crushed the Polish rebellion.

Rousseau believed the origin of inequality and the chief cause of crime to be

a. private property b. marriage c. religion d. ignoring the "general will" e. government The correct answer is A. In his Discourse on the Origins of Inequality of Mankind, Rousseau claimed that in their primitive state of nature, humans were happy. There was no need for laws or judges. However, private property intruded, necessitating laws, judges, and government, and leading to a considerable loss of individual freedom and liberty.

For Woodrow Wilson, the most important thing after World War I was to

a. punish Germany severely b. assure acceptance of his Fourteen Points c. deepen America's isolationism from European affairs d. bring about the disintegration of the Soviet Union e. unify Austria and Germany because they were both "German" societies The correct answer is B. In 1918, the American president, Woodrow Wilson, wished to turn the war aims away from national and territorial ambitions to more idealistic principles. His Fourteen Points included open rather than secret diplomacy, a reduction in armaments, the self-determination of all peoples, and "a general association of nations" to guarantee peace. During the peace negotiations, Wilson found himself outmaneuvered by the "realists," but the Versailles Treaty of 1919 did include the League of Nations. However, the American Senate refused to ratify the treaty; thus, the United States was not a member of the League.

The Romantic movement can be viewed as a(n)

a. reaction against the Enlightenment's preoccupation with reason b. continuation of Enlightenment ideals and practices c. attempt to create a socialist society d. movement of lower-class, less literate people e. exclusively confined to the universities of northern Europe The correct answer is A. Romanticism was a reaction to the Enlightenment's preoccupation with reason and rationalism. The Romantics, instead, stressed intuition, emotion, imagination, and feeling. An important influence on the Romantics was Johann Wolfgang von Goethe's novel, The Sorrows of Young Werther, in which the protagonist followed his inner feelings and eventually committed suicide when rejected by the girl he loved. Romanticism included poets such as William Wordsworth, painters like Caspar David Friedrich, and the musical composers Ludwig van Beethoven and Hector Berlioz.

When he established the Second Empire, Napoleon III

a. received the overwhelming electoral support of the people b. granted the National Assembly stronger legislative powers c. rescinded universal male suffrage d. cared little about public opinion e. rejected the family connection to his uncle, Napoleon Bonaparte The correct answer is A. Capitalizing on his uncle's fame, Louis Napoleon was elected president of France's Second Republic in 1848. The constitution did not allow for reelection, thus, in 1851, he overthrew his government, and the following year he became emperor of France's Second Empire as Napoleon III. He was a master of popular politics and used the democratic referendum process to gain the approval of the French voters for his political ventures.

Jacques Bossuet's Politics Drawn from the Very Words of Holy Scripture

a. rejected as ungodly Louis XIV's system of absolute rule b. was the fundamental statement of seventeenth-century divine right monarchy c. stressed that a limited monarchy with representative bodies was the most divine form of human government d. claimed that a king's authority and power were revocable under the law of God e. advocated a republican form of government rather than monarchies of the era The correct answer is B. Bossuet (1627-1704) was a product of his own age. In the seventeenth century, monarchies were the norm, as they had been in the past. Throughout history, many monarchs had justified their position as having been selected or chosen by the Gods or God. In seventeenth-century England, the Stuart kings would have also claimed that divine right sanctioned their rule.

At its most elementary level, nineteenth-century conservatism

a. sought to preserve past achievements by subordinating individual rights to the communal welfare b. became the most popular political philosophy in Russia c. sought above all else the achievement of individual rights d. was never popular among the political elite of Europe e. was originally inspired by laissez-faire individualism The correct answer is A. Although there were various varieties of conservatism in the nineteenth century, most conservatives agreed that there must be obedience to some political authority and that organized religion was necessary to preserve the social order. Also, individual rights and ambitions must be subordinated to the needs of the community, and the achievements and accomplishments of previous generations should generally be preserved.

The philosophy of René Descartes

a. stressed a separation of mind and matter b. stressed a holistic universe of mind and matter devoid of a creator-God c. saw the material world as a living thing containing the human essence d. would not have a wide influence upon Western thought until the nineteenth century e. could best be described as "pantheistic" The correct answer is A. In his Discourse on Method, Descartes (1596-1650) explained that he began by doubting everything he had ever learned. The only thing he could not doubt was his own existence—"I think, therefore I am." This he had arrived at by reason. The material world can be doubted, but not the mind, thus the two must be different. Cartesian dualism had a profound impact on western philosophy, science, and religion, and Descartes is considered to be the father of modern rationalism.

The Nazi Empire was

a. strictly organized into efficient states that paid tribute to Germany b. never much larger than the size of present-day Germany and Austria c. never organized systematically or governed efficiently despite German claims to the contrary d. for the most part composed of independent states that collaborated with Hitler e. was modeled after the British Empire The correct answer is C. Hitler's Nazi empire encompassed Europe from the English Channel in the west to near Moscow in the east. Parts of the empire, including western Poland, were annexed directly to Germany, but German civilian or military officials, often supported by local collaborationists, administered most of the continent. The German empire suffered competing lines of authority between various military and civilian bodies and was not administered either efficiently or systematically.

Friedrich Nietzsche

a. supported the Theory of Relativity b. felt reform was needed in a healthy Catholic Church c. believed that Christianity undermined the creativity of Western civilization d. was an advocate of Darwin's theories e. was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature The correct answer is C. Friedrich Nietzsche glorified the irrational. A critic of the European middle class, or bourgeois society, and its emphasis upon reason and rationality, Nietzsche argued that irrational life-forces were the true reality. Christianity, Nietzsche claimed, bore the responsibility for the decline of the West because of its "slave morality."

John Locke was responsible for

a. synthesizing previous doctrines on international law b. the idea of society as being in a constant state of war c. advocating political democracy for the entire populace d. emphasizing the social contract between the people and government e. justifying divine right The correct answer is D. John Locke, in his Two Treatises of Government, claimed that individuals had certain inalienable natural rights—life, liberty, and property. To protect those natural rights, governments were established. However, if the government did not protect those rights, thus breaking its social contract with the people, the people had a right to rebel and establish a new government. Locke's ideas were crucial in both the American and the French Revolutions

The key motives prompting England and France to fight Russia in the Crimean War included

a. the French emperor's ambition to humble the tsar b. Britain's concern over disruption of the existing balance of power caused by a victorious Russia c. Prussian demands that the allies attack Russia at any cost d. Russian efforts to promote revolution in western European nations e. antagonism to Russia's Orthodox Church The correct answer is B. Britain's major concern in 1853 was the possibility that the balance of power in Europe and the Near East would be disrupted by a Russian victory over the declining Ottoman Empire. When the Ottomans rejected the Russian demand that it be given control over the Christian holy places in Palestine, Russian invaded and the war began. The British government was less concerned about religion than the impact a Russian victory would have on British interests in the Middle East and India.

An overall effect of the Korean War on the Cold War was

a. the Soviet Union's domination over all of Southeast Asia b. the end of American and Soviet involvement in Asian political affairs c. a retreat by the United States to "Fortress America" and a policy of isolation d. a decrease in American defense spending due to the increased lethality of weapons systems e. the reinforcement of the American determination to "contain" Soviet power The correct answer is E. The Korean War began in June 1950 when communist North Korea invaded South Korea. The United States and the United Nations responded in a conflict that did not end until a truce in 1953, with North Korean forces driven out of the south and the truce line established at approximately the 1950 border between the two states. The American assumption was that the Soviet Union had authorized the North Korean invasion, thus repelling the communists and keeping South Korean free was seen as a victory for the American policy of containment.

Enlightened thinkers can be understood as secularists because they strongly recommended

a. the application of the scientific method to the analysis and understanding of all aspects of human life b. the rational dismantling of all churches and their competing but empty ideologies c. a complete stop to all efforts at the reform of justice d. rigorous state control of all forms of education e. the absolute and total separation of state and church The correct answer is A. In the eighteenth century, many figures of the Enlightenment became skeptical about religious truths and values, and, like Pierre Bayle and Voltaire, attacked religious intolerance, dogmatism, and superstition. They espoused secular values and some demanded that even the Bible should be subject to the new textual criticism of the age.

An overall effect of the Great Depression in Europe was

a. the complete destruction of Communist parties b. high unemployment rates in every nation except Great Britain c. the strengthening of liberal, democratic movements in the 1930s d. the rise of authoritarian movements in many areas of Europe e. the immediate destruction of the League of Nations The correct answer is D. Politically, the Great Depression led to the rise of authoritarian movements in many parts of Europe. Constitutional democracy seemed to have failed to either prevent the economic collapse or end it. Capitalism had apparently failed. Some were attracted to Marxism as an alternative, but totalitarian fascism also had a great appeal as evidenced in the coming to power of Adolph Hitler in 1933. In Eastern Europe, only Czechoslovakia could be called a democratic state in the 1930s.

The Thermidorian Reaction occurred after

a. the death of Louis XVI b. the invasion of Paris by the Prussians c. Napoleon came to power d. the Battle of Waterloo e. the death of Robespierre The correct answer is E. The most radical stage of the French Revolution was brought to an end in July 1794, or the month of Thermidor. The National Convention turned against Maximilien Robespierre, the head of the Committee of Public Safety, and on July 28, Robespierre was guillotined. With his death, the revolution turned in a more moderate direction, an event referred to as the Thermidorian Reaction.

The feature of the Versailles Treaty that most Germans found very hard to accept was

a. the loss of land that reduced the nation by half b. the reductions imposed in the size of the German military c. Article 231, the "War Guilt Clause" that imposed heavy war reparations on Germany d. the loss of all political sovereignty for a period of twenty years e. that Emperor William II was tried as a war criminal The correct answer is C. Article 231 of the Versailles Treaty of 1919 was particularly upsetting to most Germans, regardless of political philosophy. The so-called War Guilt Clause required Germany (and Austria) to accept full responsibility for World War I. Germany was required to pay reparations for the damage caused by the war. In the future, Germany's army was to be limited to 100,000 men, Alsace and Lorraine were returned to France, and sections of Prussia given over to Poland. However, it was Article 231 that was most resented.

The controversy over voting by order versus voting by head in the French Estates-General saw

a. the nobles of the robe advocate voting by head b. the "lovers of liberty" effectively blocking voting by head c. Abbé Sieyès's calling for the expulsion of the Third Estate from the Estates-General d. the Third Estate responding by forming a "National Assembly" e. the Second and the Third Estate expelling the First Estate because of the latter's church connections The correct answer is D. When the Estates-General met in May 1789, the Third Estates had twice as many representatives as the First or Second Estates and demanded voting by head rather than voting by Estate. When the First Estate declared in favor of voting by Estate, on June 17, 1789, the Third Estate voted to constitute itself a "National Assembly." Three days later, after being locked out of their assembly place, they convened in an indoor tennis court and swore an oath to continue to meet together.

The English Poor Law of 1834 was based on the theory that

a. the poor were entitled to decent levels of support b. the rich had a moral obligation to support the poor c. intentionally poor state welfare conditions would encourage the poor to find profitable employment d. levels of state support for social welfare programs should be indexed to the cost of living e. immigration to the colonies was the solution to unemployment and urban poverty The correct answer is C. The unemployed paupers traditionally were given poor relief only in the parish where they were born. The increased mobility of the industrial society made that unworkable. The solution was the Poor Law of 1834 that established "workhouses" where the "work" was both miserable and degrading. The assumption was that if receiving welfare was painful, the pauper would leave the workhouse and find secure employment. Charles Dickens savaged the philosophy of the workhouse in his novel Oliver Twist.

Politically, the period from 1715 to 1789 witnessed

a. the rise of the masses in politics as advocated by the philosophers b. the waning of monarchical power c. the continuing process of centralization in the development of nation-states d. "enlightened absolutism" take its deepest roots in France e. the birth of a number of republics throughout much of central Europe The correct answer is C. During the eighteenth century, European states continued to centralize political and governmental authority, primarily to increase the efficiency of tax collection and to create better armies. Monarchical power remained the only form of government in Europe until the French Revolution. The kingdoms of enlightened despots such as Frederick the Great's Prussia and constitutional monarchies such as England continued the process of centralization.

James Watt was vital to the Industrial Revolution for his invention of

a. the spinning jenny b. the mule-powered Newcomen engine c. a rotary engine that could spin and weave cotton d. the first steam-powered locomotive e. the steam-driven canal boat The correct answer is C. In the 1780s, James Watt developed a rotary engine powered by steam that could turn a shaft and thus drive machinery. His rotary engine was quickly applied to the spinning and weaving of cotton cloth. Since cotton factories no longer needed to be located near running streams and rivers, the production of cotton textiles increased enormously.

The chief reason for the United States' entry into World War I was

a. the success of British propaganda b. blatant German violations of the principles of neutrality and freedom of the seas c. the expulsion of the American consul from Berlin d. diplomatic chicanery on the part of the Austrians e. an attack from Mexico across the Rio Grande River The correct answer is B. British propaganda was very effective in World War I. As an American senator remarked, truth is always the first casualty of war. But it was the blatant German violations of the principles of neutrality and the freedom of the seas that led to American involvement. Germany resorted to submarines in the sinking of neutral ships in the hope of starving the British into surrender. Congress declared war against Germany on April 6, 1917.

"Small" wars like the United States' involvement in Vietnam and the Soviet Union in Afghanistan demonstrated that

a. the superpowers could never be at peace b. there would always be spheres of influence in the world where the superpowers would be at conflict c. there would be wars that the superpowers could not win against a strong nationalist and guerilla type opposition d. warfare in the world would be incessant e. overwhelming military power, including the use of nuclear weapons, could prevail even in so-called "small" wars The correct answer is C. In the 1960s, the United States failed to defeat the communist-nationalist forces of North Vietnam, and in the 1980s the Soviet Union experienced the same result in their invasion of Afghanistan in the attempt to prop-up a local communist ruler. These historical events suggest that nationalist and guerilla opposition (at times inspired by religious convictions) are the type of conflict that can be difficult even for superpowers to win.

In late nineteenth-century Europe, human progress was increasingly identified with

a. the technology of war b. economic inequality between nations c. material progress or greater consumption of material goods d. the internationalization of sporting competition e. western imperialism in Africa and India The correct answer is C. By the late nineteenth century, most Europeans believed that human progress meant material progress. Defining progress in material terms was largely a product of the Second Industrial Revolution that even more than the earlier Industrial Revolution of the eighteenth century provided more goods, "more things," to more of the population. For many, progress—particularly material progress—seemed inevitable and the solution to all of humanity's challenges.

British Liberals under Lloyd George achieved distinction for their

a. unilateral British disarmament and world peace proposals b. passage of the National Insurance Act of 1911 c. the nationalization of all private industry in Britain d. reductions in the size of the British colonial empire e. a permanent peace treaty with Imperial Germany The correct answer is B. Nineteenth-century liberalism stressed the freedom of the individual from government control, or a policy of laissez-faire. By the twentieth century, liberalism was more willing to embrace a greater role for government. In Britain, the key figure was David Lloyd George, who guided the National Insurance Act of 1911 through Parliament. The act provided benefits for workers in the event of sickness and unemployment, to be paid for by contributions from workers, employers, and the state. It was a radical change in Britain, although Bismarck's Germany had earlier, similar reforms.

Using Darwin's terminology, Herbert Spencer argued that

a. universal decadence would prevent future human progress b. all human societies were organisms evolving through time from a struggle with their environment c. no rational justification could be given for "natural selection" d. evolution could never be reversed e. Darwin was wrong and that creationism proved evolution to be a fallacy The correct answer is B. Herbert Spencer was a popular advocate of what is called "social Darwinism." Spencer claimed that societies were organisms that had evolved over time through struggling with their environments. Progress was a consequence of struggle. The strongest, or the "fit," were those who survived. Spencer argued that laissez-faire was the proper government role, or lack of role. For some like Spencer, wealth determined fitness, but for others, war or race "proved" the fittest.

The Marxist revisionist Eduard Bernstein stressed the need for

a. violent overthrow of capitalist governments b. the extermination of all individualists c. working through democratic politics to create socialism d. totally disregarding The Communist Manifesto e. an alliance with non-industrial societies to overthrow the industrial capitalism of Europe and North America The correct answer is C. Eduard Bernstein, a Marxist member of Germany's Social Democratic Party, argued in favor of evolutionary socialism rather than the orthodox revolutionary socialism. In Bernstein's opinion, capitalism was not collapsing and imminent revolution was not a likely possibility. Instead, Bernstein argued, socialism could be achieved gradually and through democratic means rather than through violent revolution.

Edwin Chadwick

a. was a leader in expressing the dislike of the middle class for the working poor b. wrote the Treatise on the Iron Law of Wages c. advocated modern sanitary reforms that resulted in Britain's first Public Health Act d. was representative of the new entrepreneurial, industrial class e. invented the work house The correct answer is C. Britain's Edwin Chadwick was obsessed with the problems of urban poverty and squalor. In 1842, he published his Report on the Condition of the Labouring Population in Great Britain, in which he urged that sanitary reforms be made in urban drainage, the removal of garbage and other refuse, and improvements in the water supply through efficient sewers and piped water. In 1848, and due to Chadwick's endeavors, Britain's first Public Health Act created the National Board of Health.

Vladimir Ilyich Lenin

a. was a peripheral figure in the establishment of a provisional government in Russia in 1917 b. denounced the use of revolutionary violence in his "April Theses" c. led the formation of a new, democratic labor party with strong middle-class support d. promised "land, peace, and bread" and a quick Russian withdrawal from World War I e. remained in exile in Switzerland throughout World War I and returned to Germany in November 1918 The correct answer is D. As leader of the anti-democratic Bolsheviks, Lenin, after returning from his exile in Switzerland in April 1917, planned for revolution. In his "April Theses" he argued that Russia did not have to go through a bourgeois stage, but that the revolution could move directly into socialism instead. To further the revolutionary aims of the Bolsheviks, Lenin appealed for public support against the provisional government by promising "Peace, Land, Bread."

The Constitution of the United States of 1789

a. was a revision of the Articles of Confederation b. was seen by European liberals as a utopian document that would never last c. created a republic in which the branches of government provided checks on one another's power d. had no real impact on the French Revolution e. was influenced by the ideas of Voltaire and Rousseau, but not Montesquieu The correct answer is C. In 1787, a convention was held in Philadelphia to revise the Articles of Confederation, a document that had proved too weak to govern the disparate thirteen states. The new Constitution was given additional powers, but the federal, or central, government was divided into three branches—executive, legislative, and judicial—so that any single branch would not have excessive powers over the other two. The Constitution was inspired in part by Montesquieu's The Spirit of the Laws (1748).

The Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen

a. was drawn up by the monarchy to limit freedoms b. was rejected by those influenced by the Enlightenment c. owed much to the American Declaration of Independence d. allowed aristocratic privileges to endure in France e. maintained the structure of the three Estates and envisioned the reconstitution of the Estates-General The correct answer is C. The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen, which was adopted by the French National Assembly on August 26, 1789, owed much to the ideas of the American Declaration of Independence and its concept of natural and inalienable rights, which in turn had been influenced by the earlier natural rights philosophy of John Locke. In the French Declaration, the stated natural rights are "liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression."

"Strength Through Joy"

a. was one of the most effective Nazi propaganda films to be made by German actors, producers, and directors corrupted by Hitler's ideology b. was Fascist Italy's most popular national recreation agency c. attempted to monitor and homogenize the leisure time of the German workers, building public support for Nazi policies d. failed miserably in its attempts to draw German workers to vacation package tours e. provided free vacations in the Black Sea for Soviet workers who exceeded their work quotas The correct answer is C. The Nazis' "Strength Through Joy" (Kraft durch Freude) program was to coordinate and monitor the leisure time of German workers by offering a number of activities such as concerts, packaged tours, and sporting events. As in Fascist Italy's Dopolavoro program, the aim of "Strength Through Joy" was to break down older group solidarities and identities and allow the state more control and direction over the individuals in society.

Among J.S. Mill's most provocative writings was his "On the Subjection of Women," in which he argued that

a. women should be kept in the home to improve men's chances of finding work b. the legal subordination of females to males is wrong since men and women possess the same natures c. Parliament should admit women members immediately d. female convicts be shipped out to colonize Australia e. prostitution should be legalized in London and throughout Great Britain The correct answer is B. In his essay "On the Subjection of Women," John Stuart Mill stated that the legal subordination of females to males was wrong. The differences between men and women were due to social practices and traditions, not to different natures. Mill believed that with an equal education, females could achieve as much as males.