Western Civilization 1 Study Questions

Efforts to revive strict monasticism began in the tenth century by the A. Cluniacs. B. Benedictines. C. Dominicans. D. Huguenots. E. Franciscans.

A; By the medieval period, secular rulers had begun to endow monasteries, which in turn turned away from a close interpretation of the Benedictine Rule to meet these lay concerns. In 910, the Cluniacs founded a monastic movement based in Cluny, France, that sought to return the monasteries to internal control and better adherence to the Rule. The Dominicans and Franciscans were later European monastic orders. The Huguenots were French Protestants.

Dante Alighieri and Francesco Petrarch had all of the following in common EXCEPT A. they were both active in politics. B. they wrote poetry about women whom they adored. C. they wrote works in Latin, but their most memorable achievements were in the Italian vernacular. D. their families were Florentine, but they spent much of their lives outside Florence. E. their love for classical literature inspired them to espouse a form of humanism.

(A) Although Dante (1265-1321) was active in Florentine politics, Petrarch (1304-1374) shunned politics in order to devote himself fully to a life of letters. Both wrote significant works in Latin, but they are best known for their Italian literature (C), which includes lyric poetry about their infatuation for women who did not return their love (B): Dante idealized Beatrice, and Petrarch idealized Laura. Dante spent much of his life in exile and died in Ravenna, where he is buried; although Petrarch was not exiled from Florence, his father had been, and he spent much of his life traveling between France and Italy (D). Both poets drew heavily upon classical Latin literature for inspiration (E), as seen in Petrarch's avowed love for the writings of Cicero, and Dante's choice of Virgil as a guide through the Inferno in his vernacular epic, the Divine Comedy.

The Hellenistic scientist Aristarchus (c. 250 B.C.E.) was exceptional in the history of science because he A. first put forward the theory that the Earth revolves around the Sun. B. designed a pump known as Archimedes' screw. C. wrote a geometry book known as the Elements. D. invented the astrolabe. E. accurately calculated the circumference of the Earth.

(A) Aristarchus argued that the Earth revolves around the Sun (known as the heliocentric theory) and that days and nights are caused by the rotation of the Earth. The astrolabe (a device for making observations of the sky) was invented by Hipparchus (D). The circumference of the Earth was accurately calculated by Eratosthenes (E). The geometry book known as the Elements was written by Euclid (C). The pump known as Archimedes' screw was, of course, invented by Archimedes (B).

The emperor who tried to restore Roman stability after the Pax Romana by dividing the Empire into four prefectures and twelve dioceses was A. Diocletian. B. Claudius. C. Decius. D. Constantine. E. Hadrian.

(A) Diocletian (284-305 C.E.) took the step of dividing the Empire up into four prefectures and twelve dioceses in the hope of streamlining imperial administration to deal with external and internal threats. He hoped that the appointment of co-emperors in each of the four prefectures would enable a more efficient response to threats arising on the borders, since a single ruler could not deal with multiple simultaneous invasions at opposite ends of the Empire. He also hoped that the threat posed by provincial generals and governors, who sometimes used their positions to attempt a coup d'état, could be eliminated by reducing the size and increasing the number of the provinces, thereby putting fewer resources in the hands of individual administrators; these numerous provinces were organized into twelve dioceses to ease their management. The system of four co-emperors is known as the Tetrarchy.

All of the following contributed to the fall of the Roman Republic during the first century B.C.E. EXCEPT A. invasions by tribes of Germanic barbarians. B. the desire of wealthy citizens to expand their own power at the expense of the government. C. the institution of clientage. D. the unwillingness of the Senate to enact political reforms. E. the professionalization of the army.

(A) Germanic barbarians were not a serious threat to the Roman Republic but to the Empire. During the age of the Republic, the only threat posed by Germanic tribes was that of the Cimbri and Teutones, who were defeated in southern Gaul by the general Marius in 102-101 B.C.E.

All of the following were influenced by the artistic legacy of the Renaissance EXCEPT A. Giotto. B. El Greco. C. Velazquez. D. Rembrandt. E. Rubens.

(A) Giotto (c. 1267-1337) was a medieval painter whose innovative naturalistic art inspired the Italian Renaissance

Hoplites were Greek soldiers who fought in formations known as A. phalanxes. B. legions. C. triremes. D. maniples. E. squadrons.

(A) Hoplites fought in phalanxes, which were units of about 8,000 men armed with spears who stood side by side several ranks deep. A frontal assault by cavalry was not much use against a phalanx. Thus, phalanxes revolutionized ancient Greek warfare, and they were also of political importance because the hoplites, who belonged to the class of small farmers, were able to demand a share of political rights from the nobility, who previously dominated the Greek city-states when their cavalry had been supreme

Which of the following was NOT an action of Pope Innocent III (1198-1216)? A. He instructed the Fourth Crusade to sack Constantinople. B. He presided over the Fourth Lateran Council. C. He proclaimed a crusade against heretics in southern France. D. He approved the foundation of the Franciscans and Dominicans. E. He made England a papal fief

(A) Innocent III did not plan the diversion of the Fourth Crusade but wanted to strike the Muslims in the Holy Land. Thus, he condemned the sack of Constantinople perpetrated by the crusaders in 1204. However, he later supported the Latin empire of Constantinople as a means of ending the schism with the eastern Church, not by effecting a true reconciliation with Greek Christians, but by replacing the Greek patriarchs with Latin patriarchs. These attended the Fourth Lateran Council, convened by Innocent III in 1215 (B), which proved a major milestone in the regulation of ecclesiastical life. Innocent III took energetic measures against heresy, not only at the council, but also by approving the foundation of the Franciscans and Dominicans (D) and by launching a crusade against the Albigensians, heretics who set up a rival church in southern France (C). Innocent III intervened in the political life of Europe as well, as evidenced by his dealings with England. When King John (1199-1216) refused to accept Stephen Langton as the next Archbishop of Canterbury, Innocent III threatened to support a French invasion of England planned by Philip II Augustus (1180-1223). It was only when King John surrendered and agreed to accept England as a papal fief (E) that Innocent III relented and forbade the French king from invading England.

The philosopher Plotinus (c. 200-270 C.E.) founded which school of philosophy? A. Neoplatonism B. Stoicism C. Epicureanism D. Skepticism E. Neopythagoreanism

(A) Plotinus was the founder of Neoplatonism, a philosophical movement which sought to revive the philosophy of Plato. Although Plotinus and later Neoplatonists (such as Porphyry, Iamblichus, and Proclus) insisted that they were merely giving a systematic form to the content of the Platonic Dialogues, they included many ideas drawn from schools of philosophy that arose after the career of Plato; the successors of Plotinus also included magical rituals. Neoplatonism vied with Christianity for intellectual leadership in the later Roman Empire. It was endorsed by the reactionary emperor Julian (361-363) but eventually suppressed by Justinian (527-565).

Which of the following authors wrote satirical works during the French Renaissance which were notorious for their coarse and earthy sense of humor? A. François Rabelais B. Jean Bodin C. Baldassare Castiglione D. Michel de Montaigne E. Catherine de' Medici

(A) Rabelais (c. 1494-1553) wrote satires describing the adventures of two giants named Gargantua and Pantagruel. His works, which were notorious for their bawdy humor and iconoclastic views of European society, were admired by King Francis I (1515-1547), a great patron of the Renaissance in France

The Battle of Lepanto (1571) was a victory for A. an alliance of Christian states against the Ottoman Turks. B. the Ottoman Turks against the Holy Roman Empire. C. the French against the Ottoman Turks. D. the English against the Spanish. E. the Venetians against the Spanish.

(A) The Battle of Lepanto was a naval engagement fought in 1571 between the Ottoman Turks and a coalition of Christian states known as the Holy League. Led by the pope, the Holy League included Spain, Venice, and Genoa. The battle was the first major victory by Europeans against the Ottomans and succeeded in freeing thousands of Christian slaves, even if nothing of long-term strategic value was attained.

Which of the following is NOT true of the Fourth Lateran Council? A. It exonerated the Waldensians, who had been suspected of heresy. B. It required all adult Christians to receive the sacraments of confession and communion at least once a year. C. It adopted the theory of transubstantiation as official dogma. D. It was convened by Pope Innocent III in 1215. E. It was attended by the patriarch of Constantinople.

(A) The Fourth Lateran Council, convened by Pope Innocent III in 1215 (D), did not exonerate the Waldensians but declared them heretics. The Waldensians were named after their leader, Peter Waldo, a wealthy merchant of Lyons who embraced a life of poverty and Christian simplicity around 1170. His followers criticized the hierarchy of the Church and denied that the sacraments were necessary for salvation. In condemning the Waldensians, the Fourth Lateran Council reaffirmed the necessity of receiving the sacraments for salvation, identified seven of them, and required all adult Christians to receive the sacraments of confession and communion at least once a year (B). With regard to communion (the Eucharist), it adopted as dogma the theory of transubstantiation, which maintained that the bread and wine used in the Mass are transformed into the substance of Christ's body and blood (C). The council was the most widely attended in the Middle Ages and even included the patriarch of Constantinople (E). Although the Latin and Greek churches were still estranged at this time, Constantinople was in the hands of Latin Christians who had conquered it during the Fourth Crusade.

The members of the Second Triumvirate in Late Republican Rome were Octavian, Lepidus, and A. Mark Antony. B. Crassus. C. Pompey D. Julius Caesar. E. Augustus Caesar.

(A) The Second Triumvirate consisted of Octavian, Lepidus, and Mark Antony. It was founded in 43 B.C.E. to end the chaos following the assassination of Julius Caesar (106-44 B.C.E.). Crassus, Pompey, and Julius Caesar (B, C, D) were members of the First Triumvirate, which had set a precedent for how to maintain order in Rome when the Senate could not. Like the First Triumvirate, which eventually led to civil war, the Second Triumvirate also did not endure but ended in a struggle for supremacy between Mark Antony and Octavian (the grandnephew and adopted heir of Julius Caesar).

All of the following were achievements of Augustus Caesar EXCEPT A. He established a calendar consisting of 365 days which added an extra day every four years to keep the year in step with the seasons. B. He established Rome's first police department. C. He established Rome's first fire department. D. He organized a grand building program in Rome. E. He ended almost a century of civil wars in Rome.

(A) The calendar consisting of 365 days with an extra day added every leap year was an accomplishment of Julius Caesar, and for this reason is known as the Julian Calendar (which served as the basis for the Gregorian Calendar that is currently in use). Julius Caesar adopted Octavian, his grandnephew (later called Augustus Caesar), as his heir. All the other choices accurately reflect the achievements of Augustus.

The papacy became a political power in addition to a religious authority during the Middle Ages because A. the disintegration of imperial government in western Europe forced the bishops of Rome to assume diplomatic and administrative duties. B. Jesus of Nazareth made no distinction between religious and political authority. C. the Emperor Constantine entrusted the governance of Italy to the papacy when he moved his capital to the east. D. popes were able to convince Christian society that secular rulers depended on the Church's hierarchy for their authority. E. the barbarians that invaded the Empire were overawed by the popes.

(A) The inability of the western half of the Roman Empire to fulfill its duties after the fourth century resulted in the transfer of some government functions to the only other bureaucratic organization available, namely, the Church, which was led by the bishop of Rome known as the pope. Although Pope Leo the Great (440-461) demonstrated how the papacy began to assume diplomatic responsibilities when he persuaded Attila the Hun not to sack Rome in 452, he was unable to protect Rome against the Vandals in 455 (E). Similarly, Pope Gregory the Great (590-604) did not overawe the Lombards who threatened Rome, but managed to protect the city against them only by paying tribute. Later, Stephen II (752-757) turned to the Franks for protection. The Frankish king, Pepin the Short, defeated the Lombards and gave the pope some of their territories in central Italy to govern. This "Donation of Pepin," which established the Papal States, was the formal beginning of the papacy as a political entity. It inspired an eighth-century forgery known as the "Donation of Constantine," which claimed that Constantine the Great had appointed the popes as rulers in the west when he moved his capital to the east (C). Popes referred to this document to defend their right to rule until its falsity was proven in the fifteenth century, hi general, popes had considerable difficulty convincing European society that they had political authority over kings (D). The Investiture Controversy of the eleventh and twelfth centuries demonstrates the level of resistance to this idea. Christianity did not initially combine political and religious authority, for it arose as an underground religion without political power, and its founder's words—"Render unto Caesar what is Caesar's, render unto God what is God's"—indicate a distinction between political and religious forms of authority (B).

Who was the author of a book entitled Utopia (1516) about an ideal society? A. Thomas More B. Miguel de Cervantes C. Desiderius Erasmus D. Martin Luther E. Andreas Vesalius

(A) Thomas More (1478-1535) was an English humanist and statesman who hoped to reform Christian society. His Utopia depicted an imaginary island with a government founded upon Christian principles, where property was held communally, the individual worked for the good of his or her neighbors rather than private gain, and tolerance was a basic principle. More worked toward his vision of such a society by participating in English government and in 1529 became King Henry VIII's lord chancellor. However, his support of Rome in the dispute between the king and the pope resulted in his imprisonment and execution.

The city of Rome was attacked by all of the following groups EXCEPT A. Gauls. B. Huns. C. Saracens. D. Vandals. E. Visigoths.

(B) Although the Huns threatened to sack Rome in 452 C.E., they turned back after Pope Leo I spoke with their leader, Attila, and dissuaded him. This event was of considerable significance, for it suggested the future role that the papacy would play in filling the power vacuum left by the gradual disintegration of the Roman imperial administration in the West. One should be careful to distinguish between the fall of the city of Rome and the fall of the Roman Empire; the former occurred several times, while the latter was actually a slow process of diminishing power rather than a sudden collapse.

Which of the following Greek philosophers taught that virtue consists in choosing the golden mean and theorized that governments can be divided into three basic types (rule by the one, the few, and the many)? A. Plato B. Aristotle C. Socrates D. Pythagoras E. Thales of Miletus

(B) Aristotle taught the ethical doctrine of the golden mean, which recommended moderation in all behavior, as well as the political theory that government consists of three basic types: monarchy (rule by one man), aristocracy (rule by a few men), and "polity" (rule by the majority); he also presented three forms of misgovernment: tyranny (misrule by one man), oligarchy (misrule by a few men), and democracy (misrule by the majority) which he equated with mob rule or anarchy.

"The territories he ruled surpassed those of Charlemagne, but his control of them was frequently challenged. As a consequence, he fought numerous wars, both against rival states and his own subjects. In the end he abdicated and retired to a monastery, where he soon died." The individual described above is A. Pope Julius II. B. the Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V. C. the Holy Roman Emperor, Frederick II. D. the King of France, Francis I. E. the King of England, Henry VIII.

(B) Before his election as Holy Roman Emperor in 1519, Charles was king of Spain. Thus, he is known as Charles I of Spain (1516-1556) and Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor (1519-1558). By acquiring the title of emperor, Charles added the domains of the Empire to his Hapsburg possessions, which made him the most powerful man in Europe. However, much of his power was hollow, for his authority was challenged by the Protestant princes in Germany, and his wars against them resulted in a stalemate. He also fought the French and the Italians, as well as the Ottoman Turks, who besieged Vienna in 1529.

The wife of Henry II of France (1547-1559), who as Queen Mother used her influence both to set policy in France and to introduce cultural features of the Italian Renaissance beyond the Alps, was A. Christine de Pisan. B. Catherine de' Medici. C. Catherine of Aragon. D. Henrietta Maria. E. Eleanor of Aquitaine.

(B) Catherine de' Medici (1519-1589), the great-granddaughter of Lorenzo the Magnificent, is credited with introducing Italian etiquette to the French court and was renowned as a patron of the arts. Her influence in politics was felt during the regency and reign of her sons, especially Charles IX (1560-1574). Catherine was implicated in the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre (1572), which touched off a round of fighting between Catholics and Huguenots when the former launched a bloody purge against the latter.

In order to regulate spiritual practices in his realm, Charlemagne promoted which monastic order? A. Augustinians B. Benedictines C. Jesuits D. Dominicans E. Franciscans

(B) Charlemagne sought to promote uniformity of monastic practice within his realm by imposing the form of monasticism established by St. Benedict of Nursia (c. 480-547). Before Charlemagne's intervention, monasticism varied widely from one community to another. Some communities were marked by excessive austerity, others by laxness; but the Rule of St. Benedict effectively balanced prayer, study, and physical labor.

Which of the following did NOT field large armies in the Thirty Years' War? A. Denmark B. England C. Sweden D. France E. Bohemia

(B) During the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648), England was preoccupied with an internal conflict between Parliament and the Stuart kings, James I (1603-1625) and Charles I (1625-1649), which prevented the island nation from becoming deeply involved in the Continental war. The tension between king and Parliament exploded into civil war between 1642 and 1649, ending in the execution of Charles I.

"His rise to fame and fortune was based on his service as a privateer. He claimed part of the American west coast for his native land and was hailed as the first of his countrymen to circumnavigate the globe. In return for his service, he was knighted by his monarch aboard his flagship." Who is the individual described above? A. Ferdinand Magellan B. Francis Drake C. Henry Hudson D. John Cabot E. John Hawkins

(B) Francis Drake began his career as a raider of Spanish shipping. He claimed a portion of the American west coast for England in 1579 and returned to England in 1580 by circumnavigating the globe. Queen Elizabeth I (1558-1603) knighted him aboard the Golden Hind.

The traditional date for the schism between the Greek and Latin churches is A. 395. B. 1054. C. 1204. D. 1378. E. 1417.

(B) Greek and Latin Christians, having become estranged over theological and political issues, excommunicated one another in the year 1054, the traditional date marking the Great Schism between the eastern and western churches. The main theological point of contention was the Latin church's use of the filioque clause in the Nicene Creed, whereby the Latins said that the Holy Spirit (the third person of the Trinity) proceeds from the Father "and the Son." The Greek church, by contrast, maintained the older formula, that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father only.

An entrepreneur who had offices in many financial centers of Europe and served as banker to the Hapsburg family was A. Jacques Coeur. B. Jakob Fugger. C. Wat Tyler. D. Francesco Guicciardini. E. Cesare Borgia.

(B) Jakob Fugger (145-1525) was a member of an entrepreneurial family that began in the cloth industry and later invested in mining. The Fuggers' immense profits enabled them to offer loans to the Hapsburgs. Based in Augsburg, Jakob Fugger had offices in most financial centers of the day, including Antwerp (the financial capital of Europe in the early sixteenth century), Vienna, Rome, Madrid, and many others.

The Renaissance philosopher Jean Bodin (1530-1596) strongly supported A. the Holy Roman Empire. B. royal absolutism. C. the economic policies of the physiocrats. D. the idea of democracy. E. the papacy's right to exercise broad temporal powers over kings.

(B) Jean Bodin supported royal absolutism. He argued that kings should not be restrained by laws but should enjoy supreme power over their subjects (however, he also believed that monarchs should follow natural law and custom in exercising their authority).

Which of the following inspired the religious reformers John Huss and Martin Luther? A. Thomas Aquinas B. JohnWycliffe C. Francis of Assisi D. Benedict of Nursia E. Chretien de Troyes

(B) John Wycliffe (c. 1330-1384) was an Oxford scholar who first declared many of the ideals espoused by later reformers, including John Huss (c. 1372-1415) and Martin Luther (1483-1546). Wycliffe opposed the privileged status of the clergy. He also translated the Bible into English in order to make it accessible not only to scholars who could read Latin, but also to Englishmen who knew only the vernacular.

The entire Greek world was conquered, and thus unified, for the first time by A. Rome. B. Macedon. C. Persia. D. Athens. E. Phoenicia.

(B) King Philip II (359-336 B.C.E.) led Macedon in the unification of Greece by conquering the allied forces of Thebes and Athens at the Battle of Chaeronea in 338 B.C.E.

Which of the following beliefs is NOT consistent with the economic policy known as mercantilism, which was prevalent in early modern Europe? A. A nation's wealth is defined primarily by its possession of precious metals. B. Tolls should be used within a nation to raise government revenue. C. Tariffs should be used to limit imports. D. Colonies should be founded as a source of precious metals and raw materials. E. Government regulation of commerce is good for a nation.

(B) Mercantilism was opposed to internal trade barriers, such as tolls. Mercantilists believed that governments should regulate commerce (E) by eliminating internal trade barriers and by using tariffs to limit imports (C). It was believed this combination of economic policies would encourage exchange within the national market and reduce the export of precious metals, which defined the wealth of a nation (A). The government also promoted colonies as a source of precious metals and raw materials (D), as well as a market for the sale of products manufactured by the nation.

All of the following are true of King Nebuchadnezzar II (605-562 B.C.E.) EXCEPT A. He was a member of the Neo-Babylonian dynasty. B. He ordered the deportation of the ten tribes of Israel. C. He built the Hanging Gardens for his wife. D. He conquered the kingdom of Judah. E. He destroyed Jerusalem and deported Jews to Babylon.

(B) Nebuchadnezzar had nothing to do with the Ten Lost Tribes of Israel, which had been deported by the Assyrians approximately a hundred years before the rise of the Neo-Babylonian dynasty, of which Nebuchadnezzar was a member (A). Nebuchadnezzar conquered the kingdom of Judah (D) in 598 B.C.E. and deported its people to Babylon (E) after destroying Jerusalem in 586 B.C.E. because of Hebrew unwillingness to acknowledge his rule. Nebuchadnezzar strove to outdo earlier kings in a display of power and cultural magnificence by sponsoring grand building projects in his capital city. The Hanging Gardens (probably a huge ziggurat covered with plants) was a particularly famous example of his building program, reportedly constructed as a gift for his Median queen (C).

The Romans were indebted to the Etruscans for all of the following EXCEPT A. their alphabet. B. the legion. C. the practice of divination. D. the arch. E. techniques for draining marshes and building sewers.

(B) Of the items listed, the only one for which the Romans were not indebted to the Etruscans was the legion. The Etruscans had trained the Romans to fight in phalanxes, but Roman ingenuity devised a variation on the phalanx known as the legion—a formation that allowed greater flexibility and tactical sophistication and enabled the Romans to conquer the Mediterranean region.

An important feature of Renaissance art that originated outside Italy was A. the use of linear perspective. B. the use of oil paint as a new medium. C. the revival of nudes in sculpture. D. the revival of classical themes. E. the revival of the dome as an architectural feature.

(B) Oil paints were first developed in Flanders. This innovation gave paintings a brighter, more vivid quality and allowed the artist a wider range of technical possibilities. Among the earliest artists to use the new medium was the Flemish painter Jan van Eyck (1390-1441). All the other innovations originated in Italy.

Which of the following works could NOT have been written before the Edict of Milan (313 C.E.) was promulgated by Constantine the Great? A. On the Nature of Things, Lucretius B. City of God, Augustine of Hippo C. Aeneid, Virgil D. On Agriculture, Cato the Elder E. Philippics, Cicero

(B) Since Constantine the Great's Edict of Milan legalized Christianity in 313 C.E., the only work listed that could not have been written before that event is Augustine of Hippo's City of God, which was produced as a response to the pagan argument that the legalization of Christianity was responsible for the sack of Rome in 410 C.E. The full title of Augustine's massive work is The City of God against the Pagans, and its 22 books were written between 413 and 426. All the other books were written before the founding of Christianity

Which of the following was the most commonly imported colonial commodity to Europe around 1600? A. cotton fabrics B. spices C. coffee D. tea E. silk

(B) Spices were the staple import during the earlier phase of colonialism, but by about 1650 European markets were oversupplied with this commodity, resulting in decreased profits. Traders responded to the situation by diversifying imports.

Which of the following was NOT an immediate consequence of the Black Death? A. Businesses and banks collapsed. B. Serfdom became more prevalent. C. Peasant revolts became more common. D. Wages increased. E. The price of food decreased.

(B) The Black Death first struck western Europe between 1347 and 1351, killing one-third or more of the European population and causing the rapid collapse of financial institutions (A). Although everyone suffered from the disaster, serfs and workers in the towns were eventually able to improve their employment conditions as a delayed effect of this terrible loss of population. Before the Black Death, Europe suffered from overpopulation: the number of people had swelled to the point that not enough food could be raised to support everyone, and there was more manpower than opportunity for employment. After the Black Death, however, Europe was faced with a manpower shortage. Since laborers were now low in supply and high in demand, they were able to demand wage increases (D); and since the existing fields could raise more than enough food for the survivors, the supply of food exceeded demand so that prices decreased (E). Not all the consequences were immediate. Lords initially tried to resist any drastic changes in their economic practices and refused to acknowledge the demands of the peasants, triggering widespread revolts (C). Although the uprisings were crushed by the upper classes, the laborers eventually were able to negotiate favorable terms of employment. Thus, laborers received higher pay and serfs were able to reduce their manorial obligations.

The Council of Nicaea, organized by the emperor Constantine in 325 C.E., condemned the heresy known as A. Monophysitism. B. Arianism. C. Iconoclasm. D. Gnosticism. E. Catharism.

(B) The Council of Nicaea organized by the emperor Constantine in 325 defined correct, or orthodox, teaching concerning the Trinity. It condemned the belief taught by the bishop Arius, and therefore known as Arianism, that Jesus Christ was created by God rather than begotten from the eternal divine substance, and that the Son is therefore of lesser dignity than the Father. The council was a victory for the bishop Athanasius (c. 293-373), one of the Greek doctors of the Church, who maintained that the Son was eternally begotten of the same divine substance rather than created, and therefore equal in dignity to the Father. The council concluded that Athanasius represented the correct teaching, or orthodoxy, which then became a feature of Catholic doctrine, encapsulated in the Nicene Creed. Although Arianism was formally condemned at this time, it persisted for several centuries before its final disappearance, in part because Constantine and his successors had second thoughts about the issue, and in part because the barbarians who had been converted by Arian missionaries refused to abandon the form of Christianity that they had initially accepted. A second council at Nicaea, convened by the Byzantine empress Irene in 787 C.E., condemned Iconoclasm (C), that is, the destruction of religious images called icons. The heresy known as Monophysitism (A) contradicted the orthodox teaching that Jesus Christ had a dual nature (fully human and fully divine) and instead maintained that he had only one nature (mono- one, physis nature), in which the human aspect was overshadowed by the divine. Monophysitism was condemned at the Council of Chalcedon in 451. Gnosticism (D) was an early heresy that challenged Christian orthodoxy in the second and third centuries by rejecting the Old Testament and teaching that matter was created by an evil deity who trapped spirits in bodies. Although Gnosticism was suppressed, its basic dualism was revived during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries in the heresy of Catharism (E), also known as Albi-gensianism, after the southern French town of Albi in which the heresy was mainly centered.

The Domesday Book is A. a chanson de geste composed in southern France in the twelfth century. B. an inventory of property in Norman England used to determine taxes. C. a manual for hunting witches written in the fifteenth century. D. John Wycliffe's fourteenth-century translation of the Bible. E. a medieval commentary on the Apocalypse (Book of Revelation).

(B) The Domesday Book is a systematic inventory of all feudal property in Norman England, prepared in 1086 at the command of William the Conqueror (1066-1087) for the sake of determining taxes. It was named after the Day of Judgment (Doomsday) because anything written in the book was to be considered as unchangeable as the final word of God.

A Dutch political theorist who used the concept of natural law to discuss the nature of just war was A. John Colet. B. Hugo Grotius. C. Niccolo Machiavelli. D. Nicole Oresme. E. Ulrich Zwingli.

(B) The Dutch jurist Hugo Grotius (1583-1645) wrote a book On the Law of War and Peace (1625) in which he presented a model for the correct relations between sovereign states. He based his discussion on the concept of natural law. Although Grotius argued that war is a violation of natural law, he outlined a set of conditions in which war could justifiably be waged. Thus, he made an important contribution to the theory of the just war.

The Golden Bull of 1356 A. ended the Investiture Controversy. B. established a college of electors made up of seven German states which were responsible for choosing the Holy Roman Emperor. C. ended the Hundred Years' War. D. ended the Great Schism in the Latin church. E. declared the doctrine of papal supremacy in relations between kings and emperors.

(B) The Golden Bull of 1356, issued by the Holy Roman Emperor Charles IV (1347-1378), formalized the procedure for electing emperors by establishing the rulers of seven German states as a college of electors: the archbishops of Cologne, Mainz, and Trier; and the secular rulers of Bohemia, Brandenburg, Saxony, and the Rhineland-Palatinate.

Each of the following was true of the Pax Romana EXCEPT A. It was a time of unprecedented prosperity in the Mediterranean. B. Roman legions were not used in war. C. There was high unemployment and poverty in the city of Rome. D. Christians were publicly executed. E. The city of Rome reached a population of about one million.

(B) The Pax Romana, which means "Roman Peace," refers to about 200 years from the reign of Augustus Caesar (27 B.C.E-14 C.E.) to the reign of Marcus Aurelius (161-180 C.E.), during which the Roman state enjoyed unprecedented stability. Although Rome was not wracked by civil wars of the kind that destroyed the Republic, its legions were frequently used on the frontiers of the Empire, either to extend the borders or to defend them against barbarian raids. During this time, the lands surrounding the Mediterranean Sea enjoyed unprecedented prosperity as commerce flourished within a large and stable area unified and maintained by the Roman state (A).

Philip II (1556-1598) assembled the Spanish Armada for all of the following reasons EXCEPT A. to invade England. B. to challenge Dutch naval superiority. C. to punish England for aiding the Dutch. D. to restore Catholicism in England. E. to depose Elizabeth I

(B) The Spanish Armada was not intended to challenge Dutch naval superiority because the Dutch had not yet achieved independence from Spain and therefore did not yet control a powerful fleet of their own. The Dutch rebelled against Spain in 1566 and were aided by England between 1585 and 1587. Philip II realized that he could not suppress the Dutch insurgency unless England was neutralized, so he assembled an armada of 130 ships to punish the English intervention (C) by invading England (A). He also hoped to restore Catholicism in England (D) by deposing the Protestant Queen, Elizabeth I (E). However, Philip's armada was destroyed by storms and the English navy.

The Waldensians were A. monks who led the reform of the Church in the eleventh century. B. Christian reformers who denounced the accumulation of wealth and were declared heretics at the Fourth Lateran Council (1215). C. a commercial league of Mediterranean coastal towns headquartered in Lyons (southern France) during the twelfth to fifteenth centuries. D. a mystery cult of the third century. E. a military religious order, founded in the twelfth century, who were charged with the defense of pilgrims in the Holy Land.

(B) The Waldensians were named after Peter Waldo, a rich merchant of Lyons who in the twelfth century experienced a religious conversion that inspired him to give his wealth to the poor and embrace a life of poverty. His followers traveled about Europe preaching a simple message based on their reading of the Bible and criticizing the Church for its accumulation of wealth. They were condemned as heretics at the Fourth Lateran Council (1215) and persecuted by the Inquisition.

In the system of medieval economics known as manorialism, the demesne was A. a plot of land granted by a lord to his vassal in exchange for feudal services. B. the land whose produce was reserved for the lord of the manor. C. woodland cleared for agricultural use. D. strips of land reserved for individual peasant families. E. a hedge that separated strips of land belonging to different peasant families.

(B) The demesne was the portion of a manor reserved for the use of the lord and his family. Serfs were required to work this land for their lord, in addition to the strips assigned for the support of their own families (D). There were no hedges between strips of land belonging to different peasant families (E), but narrow margins of unplowed land between the strips were known as balks. The strips assigned to each family would be scattered in various fields in order to ensure that everyone had a share of the best and worst portions of the manor. Woodlands cleared for agricultural use (C) were known as assarts. A plot of land granted by a lord to his vassal in exchange for feudal services (A) was a fief—from which the word "feudalism" is derived. In Carolingian times, the land-grant was known as a benefice.

What effect did the discovery of the New World have on the European economy in the sixteenth century? A. It caused high unemployment because slaves from the New World B. It caused inflation due to the increased amount of precious metals in Europe. C. It strengthened the craft guilds by stimulating trade. D. It discouraged governments from interfering with the ventures of entrepreneurs. E. It had no noticeable economic effect.

(B) The discovery of the New World led to conquests of native peoples from whom large amounts of gold and silver were taken and sent to Europe. With more money in circulation, the value of the currency declined: between 1500 and 1600, the prices of most commodities rose about 300 percent

"Their level of culture was at first relatively primitive in comparison to the contemporary civilizations of the ancient Near East, but their contacts with the people of Crete while trading and raiding in the eastern Mediterranean inspired certain advances, most notably the acquisition of writing and the use of the palace as an administrative center. Nevertheless, they remained politically divided in their mountainous home and, banding together at times for the purpose of war." The people described above are known as the A. Sumerians. B. Mycenaeans. C. Minoans. D. Egyptians. E. Phoenicians.

(B) The early Greeks are known as the Mycenaeans because they nominally recognized the king of Mycenae as their overlord. However, most of the time the rulers of the various Greek towns were proudly independent. This political fragmentation of the Greek mainland may have been largely due to geographical factors, for the mountains of the Balkan peninsula inhibited communication between political centers. When the Greek kings did unite under the leadership of Mycenae, it was for the sake of foreign conquest, such as the sacking of Troy, which inspired the Homeric poems, or the seizure of Crete from the Minoans (C). Although the Phoenicians (E) also traded in the eastern Mediterranean and were politically divided among themselves, they lived along a narrow strip of coastal territory rather than a mountainous hinterland and did not learn the art of writing from the inhabitants of Crete. The Sumerians (A) and Egyptians (D) were never primitive in comparison to other contemporary cultures, but were the most advanced societies of the ancient Near East from the very beginning of civilization.

The survival of the Roman Republic during the first century B.C.E. was most seriously threatened by which of the following? A. slave revolts B. wealthy citizens who commanded the armies of the Republic C. religious leaders who converted Roman citizens to various eastern mystery cults D. Carthaginian spies and saboteurs E. hordes of northern barbarians

(B) The greatest danger to the survival of the Roman Republic in the first century B.C.E. came from its own ruling elite, which was riven with factionalism. These struggles began when the Gracchi (the brothers Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus) tried to address popular discontent by instituting reforms that challenged the virtual monopoly of political power enjoyed by the Senate. Later on, some wealthy citizens, who served as legionary commanders, used their position to gain an advantage over their rivals in the Senate. They adopted the practice of paying soldiers from their personal wealth (the state did not pay troops but required them to serve at their own expense), which shifted the loyalty of troops from the state to their commanders.

In ancient Greece, helots were A. traders in Sparta who had no political rights. B. members of the enslaved population at Sparta. C. the poorest class of Athenian citizens. D. middle-class Athenians who fought as infantry in phalanxes. E. pieces of broken pottery used by the Athenians to exile citizens who seemed to pose a threat to democracy.

(B) The helots were members of the enslaved population at Sparta, whom the Spartiates, or dominant class, used to work the land. The helots were descended from the Messenians, a neighboring people whom the Spartans had conquered, and they outnumbered the Spartiates approximately ten to one.

Spain was established as a centralized monarchy in the fifteenth century A. when the Spanish princes decided to band together against the common threat of Islam. B. through the marriage of the rulers who governed the two largest states in the Iberian peninsula. C. as a result of a border war against France. D. at the command of the Holy Roman Emperor. E. by papal decree.

(B) The marriage between Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile in 1469 established a single large state in the Iberian peninsula, in which the rulers took dynamic measures to strengthen the power of the monarchy. Thus, Ferdinand and Isabella used Catholicism to centralize their monarchy, but the monarchy did not depend on the pope for its authority (E). The border with France was secured by means of a treaty in 1493 (C). The grandson of Ferdinand and Isabella, Charles I (1516-1556), was elected Holy Roman Emperor in 1519, by which time the centralized monarchy was already firmly established (D).

All of the following inventions appeared in Europe before the fifteenth century EXCEPT A. mechanical clocks. B. the printing press with movable metal type. C. magnetic compasses. D. astrolabes. E. eyeglasses.

(B) The printing press with movable metal type was invented in the middle of the fifteenth century, around 1450. It is generally accepted that Johannes Gutenberg of Mainz in Germany achieved the first effective model. Astrolabes (D), or instruments for measuring the position of celestial bodies, were acquired from the Arabs by the year 1100. Magnetic compasses (C) were in use around 1100. Lenses were used to correct vision (E) in the thirteenth century. Mechanical clocks (A) were assembled in Europe during the fourteenth century.

Which of the following Roman emperors did NOT persecute Christians? A. Decius B. Tiberius C. Diocletian D. Marcus Aurelius E. Nero

(B) Tiberius (14-37 C.E.) was the successor of Augustus, and it was during his reign that Jesus of Nazareth was crucified in Jerusalem by the regional governor, Pontius Pilate, without the emperor's knowledge. Subsequently, the Christians were too few in number for Tiberius to organize persecutions against them.

In 1529, the city of Vienna was besieged by the A. Holy Roman Emperor. B. Ottomans. C. Seljuks. D. Hohenzollerns. E. Hapsburgs.

(B) Vienna was besieged in 1529 by the Turks of the Ottoman sultan, Suleiman the Magnificent (1520-1566). However, the Hapsburgs (E), led by the Holy Roman Emperor (A), Charles V (1519-1558), were able to defend it

Which of the following was a consequence of the Treaty of Verdun (843)? A. The Frankish Empire was divided three ways between the sons of Charlemagne. B. The foundations were laid for the evolution of France and Germany. C. The Viking raids at last came to an end. D. The Magyar raids at last came to an end. E. The Muslims agreed to open the Mediterranean Sea to Frankish shipping.

(B) When the Treaty of Verdun was concluded in 843, neither France nor Germany yet existed, but the treaty divided the Frankish Empire into a western kingdom that would evolve into France, an eastern kingdom that would evolve into Germany, and a middle kingdom that would be absorbed by its neighbors. The process of absorption generated tension between the westerners and easterners which, in the modern age, presented cause for war between France and Germany. The Treaty of Verdun was concluded between the grandsons of Charlemagne, not his sons (A). Charlemagne's son and heir was Louis the Pious (814-840). Louis' three sons fought among themselves before settling their differences with the Treaty of Verdun, whereby Charles the Bald received the western kingdom, Louis the German received the eastern kingdom, and Lothair received the middle kingdom. Even though France and Germany did not yet exist, there were already strong cultural differences between the eastern and western ends of the Frankish Empire, as seen in the Strasbourg Oaths, which established an alliance between Charles and Louis in 842; the text reveals that Charles swore the oath in a Latinate language recognizable as Old French, whereas Louis swore the oath in an archaic form of the German language.

William the Silent was A. a leader in the English struggle against the Stuart kings. B. a leader in the Dutch struggle for independence. C. a crusader against the Ottoman Turks. D. a Holy Roman Emperor who opposed the Protestant Reformation. E. the founder of a new monastic order during the Catholic Reformation.

(B) William the Silent, or William I, prince of Orange (1533-1584), opposed the regime of the Spanish king Philip II, who controlled the Netherlands and established the Inquisition to persecute Dutch Protestants. William aided a rebellion against Spanish rule. He carried on the struggle as the leader of the Union of Utrecht, an alliance of Dutch provinces against Spain formed in 1579. Although William was assassinated five years later and the struggle for independence continued into the seventeenth century, the Union of Utrecht served as the foundation for the Dutch state.

Socrates (469-399 B.C.E.) and Jesus of Nazareth (c. 4 B.C.E.-30 C.E.) shared all of the following in common EXCEPT A. they did not write any books. B. they urged their listeners to lead moral lives and embrace the cause of justice. C. they tried to reform morals by providing a detailed outline of the ideal government. D. they were executed at the command of the governments under which they lived. E. they believed in the immortality of the soul.

(C) Although both Socrates and Jesus urged moral reform, only Socrates outlined the political structure of an ideal government, as shown in Plato's Republic. Jesus took a more spiritual approach which insisted that a person can repent of sins and live a moral life under any external form of government, even that of the Roman Empire, which many Jews of his day considered intolerably evil. Although Jesus' insistence on living up to a moral code of social justice had political implications, he did not offer a blueprint for an ideal form of government, and he did not even present a clear structure for the organization of the Christian community.

Which of the following best explains why the capital of the Roman Empire was eventually moved to the east? A. The crowding and high unemployment in Rome caused so much instability that the emperors were constantly in fear of revolution. B. The sack of Rome by the Gauls convinced the Romans that the city could not serve as an effective center of a great empire. C. The increasingly frequent threats to the northern and eastern borders, as well as the greater wealth of the eastern provinces, made the east attractive as a more effective administrative location. D. The sack of Rome by the Visigoths proved that the original capital was no longer defensible. E. The spread of latifundia, which were worked by slaves captured in the wars of conquest, sparked a series of revolts that made Rome too unstable to serve as the capital any longer.

(C) As Roman emperors found themselves forced to defend the borders against Germanic barbarians in the north and the Sassanians in the east, they moved the capital closer to the scene of battle in order to coordinate the defense more effectively. Roman emperors began to use Milan as their capital rather than Rome, and Diocletian (284-305 C.E.) temporarily transferred his capital to the eastern city of Nicomedia in Asia Minor. Constantine (306-337 C.E.) made the transfer permanent in 330 C.E. by founding a new capital near the site of ancient Byzantium, which was renamed Constantinople. Not only was Constantinople closer to the embattled borders, but the wealthiest provinces were also in the east, which made the collection of taxes and the exercise of administration easier.

The text that best demonstrates the influence of the Latin classics on the European imagination before the Renaissance is A. Lancelot, by Chretien de Troyes. B. Parzival, by Wolfram von Eschenbach. C. The Inferno, by Dante Alighieri. D. The Romance of the Rose, by Guillaume de Lorris. E. Tristan and Isolt, by Gottfried von Strassburg.

(C) Dante's Inferno is the first part of The Divine Comedy, which describes the poet's dream-like journey through hell, purgatory, and heaven. In the Inferno Dante's guide is the Roman poet Vergil, whose own Aeneid describes a visit to the underworld by the Trojan hero Aeneas. The other works look to non-classical sources of inspiration

All of the following measures were tried by ancient Athens to prevent violent revolution within the polis EXCEPT A. constitutional reform. B. the cancellation of debts. C. the redistribution of land. D. colonization. E. tyranny.

(C) Despite the threat of violent revolution, the Athenians did not tamper with property ownership. The city-states of Greece tried to relieve socio-economic tensions primarily through colonization (D), which reduced pressure on scarce resources by removing part of the population overseas, and tyranny (E), whereby a dictator stood above the law and settled disputes. Most city-states ended up reforming their political constitutions (A), as nobles who dominated the community conceded a share of power to the lower classes. In Athens, the constitutional reformer Solon (c. 594 B.C.E.) cancelled the debts owed by poor citizens to wealthy citizens (B), but he refused to seize the property of the wealthy in order to redistribute their land to the poor

During the period of the Old Kingdom in Egypt (c. 2700-c. 2200 B.C.E.), the Egyptians regarded the pharaoh as A. the chief high priest. B. a representative of the gods. C. a god. D. a figurehead with merely symbolic power. E. the foremost citizen of the republic.

(C) During the earliest phase of Egyptian kingship, the pharaoh was looked upon not merely as a high priest (A) or a representative of the gods (B), but as a god. Since the people accepted the idea that he owned all the land of Egypt and that his word was law, he was no mere figurehead

In contrast to Sumerian beliefs about the afterlife, the Egyptians of the Middle Kingdom (c. 2050-c. 1700 B.C.E.) and later believed that A. there was no life after death. B. the afterlife was a gloomy, shadowy form of existence, without joy. C. all levels of society could enjoy a happy afterlife. D. the afterlife was attainable only by the pharaoh. E. the soul was imprisoned in the body and could be happy only when death released it.

(C) Egyptians of the Middle Kingdom (c. 2050-c. 1700 B.C.E.) believed that the soul of every human being was immortal and could gain entry into the realm of the blessed if the correct funeral ritual was followed; because it was believed that the individual would be judged for misdeeds, it was also important that he or she should lead a moral life. Egyptians who lived during the Old Kingdom (c. 2700-c. 2200 B.C.E.) believed that only the pharaoh and his officials could attain immortality (D); for the rest, there was apparently no life after death (A). Thus, Egyptian attitudes toward the afterlife evolved over time. The Egyptians did not consider soul and body to be in conflict (E); the value they placed on the body inspired their practice of mummification. The Sumerians, in contrast to the Egyptians, did not share a sense of optimism about the possibility of a happy afterlife; while they did not think an individual's existence ended entirely, they regarded existence after death as a shadowy, gloomy condition (B).

The English statesman Francis Bacon (1561-1626) aided the rise of modern science A. by establishing a laboratory in which he conducted sophisticated experiments. B. by arguing that the natural world is best studied using the deductive method of reasoning. C. by encouraging the inductive method for the study of nature. D. by rejecting the empirical method. E. by winning Parliament's support for the foundation of the RoyalSociety.

(C) Francis Bacon (1561-1626) recommended induction as the best method for the advance of scientific knowledge. Inductive reasoning begins with particular instances and draws general conclusions. It is contrary to deduction, which proceeds from the general to the particular (B)—in other words, deduction begins with general principles and uses them to derive conclusions about specific instances

Which Catholic ruler made an alliance with the Ottoman Turkish sultan, Suleiman the Magnificent? A. Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden B. Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor C. Francis I, King of France D. Philip II, King of Spain E. Henry VIII, King of England

(C) Francis I of France (1515-1547) made an alliance with the Ottoman sultan, Suleiman the Magnificent, in 1536 while the Holy Roman Emperor, Charles Y, was conducting an invasion of southern France. The Turks aided their French ally by attacking Charles V's possessions in Hungary and the Mediterranean. The French also benefited from the alliance by receiving favorable trade status within the Ottoman Empire and a protectorate over sites of Christian worship in the Holy Land.

All of the following were Renaissance humanists EXCEPT A. Marsilio Ficino. B. Coluccio Salutati. C. Girolamo Savonarola. D. Lorenzo Valla. E. Giovanni Pico della Mirandola.

(C) Girolamo Savonarola (1452-1498) was a Dominican friar who lived in Florence at the height of the Italian Renaissance, but he urged asceticism and repentance of sins rather than the humanistic studies that the others advocated as a path to moral improvement. Denouncing the wealthy Medici family who supported humanism, Savonarola succeeded in having them temporarily exiled, but he ultimately failed to reform Florence into the ideal Christian government that he hoped; his attempt ended in his execution as a heretical fanatic.

The Greeks founded numerous colonies throughout the Mediterranean basin and the Black Sea from c. 700 to c. 550 B.C.E. primarily in order to A. share Greek civilization with the barbarians. B. found an empire uniting southern Europe, northern Africa, and the Near East. C. relieve socio-economic tensions in mainland Greece. D. counter the rising threat from the Roman Empire. E. establish a network of commercial trading posts.

(C) Greek colonization was motivated primarily by economic problems that caused social strife in the mother city-states. By removing part of the population to colonies outside Greece, it was hoped that the demand for scarce resources could be relieved and that social tensions would be decreased as the economic situation improved. Because the city-states were politically divided within Greece, the colonies they founded were not part of a single empire (B); indeed, they were usually politically independent of the founding city-state. Likewise, even though colonization was spurred on by pressing economic motives and did result in stimulating trade, the lack of concerted effort between the city-states in the founding of colonies indicates that their primary goal was not to establish a network of commercial trading posts (E). Finally, the Greeks, who considered all non-Greeks barbarians, did not care about sharing their culture with outsiders (A). The Romans were not a threat at the time (D); they were not free of Etruscan domination until 509 B.C.E., when most of the Greek colonies were already established.

Which of the following territories was NOT part of the Angevin Empire under Henry II Plantagenet (1154-1189)? A. County of Anjou B. Duchy of Normandy C. Duchy of Saxony D. Duchy of Aquitaine E. Kingdom of England

(C) Henry II Plantagenet never ruled the duchy of Saxony, which was part of the Holy Roman Empire (Germany) until 1180, when the Emperor Frederick I (1152-1190) dissolved it as a political unit to punish its rebellious duke, Henry the Lion (the duchy was later reconstituted).

Which of the following theologians is NOT considered one of the four Latin doctors of the Church? A. St. Gregory the Great B. St. Augustine of Hippo C. St. John Chrysostom D. St. Jerome E. St. Ambrose of Milan

(C) John Chrysostom (347-407) is considered one of the four Greek doctors (that is, "teachers") of the Church; he served as patriarch of Constantinople from 397.

Which of the following was a prominent Anabaptist who established a theocracy in the German town of Münster? A. Thomas More B. Ulrich Zwingli C. John of Leiden D. Martin Luther E. John Calvin

(C) John of Leiden led a takeover of the German town of Münster in 1534 and declared himself the king of a New Zion, which permitted polygamy on the model of the ancient patriarchs of the Old Testament and established the communal possession of property on the model of the early Christians in the New Testament. The city was besieged and captured, and John of Leiden was executed in 1536

Lorenzo the Magnificent, the Florentine patron of arts, was a member of which influential dynasty? A. Borgia B. Hapsburg C. Medici D. Sforza E. Visconti

(C) Lorenzo the Magnificent was the leader of the Medici family from 1469 to 1492. His father, Cosimo, made a fortune in banking, and the Medici used their wealth to dominate politics during the Renaissance—first in Florence, and later throughout Italy by influencing the papacy. Three members of the Medici became popes (Leo X, Clement VII, and Leo XI). The Medici also used their wealth to patronize artists and scholars of the Renaissance.

Martin Luther was NOT executed as a heretic because A. he was able to escape to neutral Switzerland. B. he won the support of the Holy Roman Emperor. C. he won the support of many of the German princes. D. he sided with the German peasants in their revolt. E. the Roman Catholic Church no longer recommended capital punishment for religious dissidents.

(C) Luther's teachings were condemned in 1520 by Pope Leo X. He was subsequently excommunicated but refused to recant at the Diet of Worms in 1521, where the emperor, Charles V, condemned Luther (B). He was not put to death, however, because his patron, Frederick the Wise of Saxony, hid him in Wartburg Castle. Later more princes with grievances against Rome or the emperor joined the Protestant cause, and they successfully resisted imperial attempts to crush their rebellion. In the peasant revolt of 1524-1525, Luther sided with the nobles (D).

"As an orator, he was unequalled in the Roman Republic and enjoyed a successful career as a senator and lawyer. Yet he was forced into retirement by Julius Caesar and passed the time by writing philosophical works. After the assassination of Caesar, he supported Octavian against Mark Antony, but when these two concluded an alliance among themselves, he was executed for his outspoken criticism." The individual described above was which of the following? A. Catullus B. Lucretius C. Cicero D. Cato E. Pompey

(C) Marcus Tullius Cicero (106-43 B.C.E.) devoted his life to the service of the Roman Republic and gave his life defending it in its closing days. Catullus and Lucretius (A, B) were poets of the late Republic. Cato (D) was a senator who instigated the Third Punic War (149-146 B.C.E.), which brought the Republic to unchallenged supremacy in the Mediterranean and set the stage for the rise of the Empire. Pompey (E) was Caesar's rival, whom Cicero supported during the civil war that began in 49 B.C.E. Cicero's support for Pompey (who died in the course of the war) precipitated his forced retirement by Caesar.

Which of the following was responsible for the execution of the Spanish religious dissident, Michael Serverus (1511-1553)? A. Ignatius of Loyola B. Tomas de Torquemada C. John Calvin D. Martin Luther E. Ulrich Zwingli

(C) Michael Servetus was executed in Geneva as a heretic at the recommendation of John Calvin (1509-1564). Thus, the reformers were often no more tolerant of dissenting opinions than were the Catholics. Servetus's principal heresy, offensive to Catholics and Protestants alike, was his denial of the Trinity.

"He was an architect, a sculptor, a painter, and a poet. The favored subject of his art was the muscular male nude. Tormented by his own genius, he left many works unfinished. Perhaps his most influential legacy was the force of his personality, whose temperamental, brooding character defined the image of the new artist for later generations." The individual described above is A. Lorenzo de' Medici. B. Thomas a Kempis. C. Michelangelo Buonarroti. D. Johann Reuchlin. E. Leonardo Bruni.

(C) Michelangelo Buonarroti (1472-1564) was, with Leonardo da Vinci and Raphael, one of the three great artists of the later Italian Renaissance. He finished the design of St. Peter's Basilica in the Vatican, sculpted the larger-than-life statue of David in Florence, painted the Sistine ceiling, and wrote memorable verse as well. The dramatic poses of Michelangelo's figures gave rise to Mannerism, and his volatile personality defined the modern image of the artist as a tormented genius.

The decline of the polis in the Hellenistic period and the opening of the Near East to the Greeks after Alexander the Great's conquest of the Persian Empire led to the rise of a religion in the Mediterranean known as A. Epicureanism. B. Christianity. C. Mithraism. D. Stoicism. E. the Eleusinian Mysteries.

(C) Mithraism, or the worship of Mithras, the ancient Persian god of light, spread to the Mediterranean after Alexander the Great's conquest of the Persian Empire (334-323 B.C.E.), when the Greeks began to turn away from the traditional civic deities of the polis and participate in mystery cults that promised immortality. The cult was especially popular later on in the Roman Empire and was a serious rival of Christianity (B), which of course did not arise until the first century C.E., that is, after the end of the Hellenistic period (323-30 B.C.E.).

Which of the following was NOT a reason for the rapid conquest of the Near East and North Africa by the Arabs during the seventh century? A. resentment against Constantinople for the suppression of Mono-physitism in the Byzantine provinces of the Near East B. long wars of attrition between the Byzantine and Sassanian Empires C. uninterrupted unity among the Arab tribes D. the zeal of a new religion proclaimed by the prophet Muhammad E. overpopulation in Arab lands

(C) The Arabs began their invasion of the Near East in 634 and by 712 had invaded Spain in the west and reached India in the east. Within this period of rapid conquest, however, their initial unity was interrupted by a civil war, from 656 to 661, when they could not agree on the caliph. This civil war, and another in 680, transformed the history of Islam by creating a schism between Sunnites and Shiites. The Shiites, or "sectarians," insisted that Muhammad's successor be a member of his family; they supported Muhammad's son-in-law, Ali, and denied the legitimacy of the first three caliphs, who had not been closely related to Muhammad. The Sunnites, or "traditionalists," believed Muhammad's successor did not need to be related to him by close family ties. When Ali was assassinated in 661, the Muslims accepted as their next caliph Muawiyah, founder of the Umayyad dynasty. Ali's son, Hussein, challenged the heir of Muawiyah in 680, but died fighting at Karbala. Under Umayyad leadership, Arab expansion resumed, but the seeds of future dissent and instability were sown.

Battles were fought at all of the following sites during the Persian Wars (490 and 480-479 B.C.E.) EXCEPT A. Marathon. B. Salamis. C. Zama. D. Plataea. E. Thermopylae.

(C) The Battle of Zama (202 B.C.E.) ended the Second Punic War between Rome and Carthage. The Athenian army defeated the Persians at Marathon in 490 B.C.E. (A), and their navy defeated the Persians at Salamis in 480 (B). The Spartans were defeated by the Persians at Thermopylae in 480 (E), but vanquished the Persians at Plataea the following year (D).

In the year 100 C.E., most converts to Christianity were A. Greek philosophers. B. wealthy Roman citizens. C. slaves and the poor. D. Pharisees. E. Roman soldiers.

(C) The Christian message of an imminent end of the world followed by the reward of eternal life for virtuous believers appealed at first mostly to slaves and the urban poor, who had little else to hope for in the harsh realities of the early Roman Empire

The Dark Age of ancient Greece (c. 1100-800 B.C.E.) was caused by A. the Persian invasion of the Balkan peninsula. B. the fall of Troy. C. the migration of the Dorians into Mycenaean centers of civilization. D. the conquest of Minoan Crete by the Mycenaeans. E. the Roman invasion of Greece.

(C) The Dark Age of ancient Greece (c. 1100-800 B.C.E.) was caused by the migration of Dorian Greeks into the Balkan peninsula, where they overthrew the civilized centers of the Mycenaean Greeks. The Mycenae-ans had conquered Minoan Crete around 1400 B.C.E., when civilization in the Balkan peninsula was at its height before the Dark Age (D), and they conquered Troy around 1200 B.C.E. (B). The Persians did not invade Greece until the fifth century B.C.E. (A), and the Romans did not invade Greece until the second century B.C.E. (E).

In The Defender of the Peace, Marsilius of Padua argued that A. kings rule by divine right. B. popes have the right to depose emperors. C. all political authority derives from the people. D. the church should be governed by councils made up of bishops. E. only a government dominated by nobles could guarantee peace.

(C) The Defender of the Peace, which Marsilius of Padua wrote in 1324, argued that political power derives from the people. Marsilius rejected the notion that the emperor receives his authority from God (A). He believed that the pope should have no political authority whatsoever (B) and should not even enjoy spiritual leadership of the Church, which should be governed by councils composed of lay people (D). His ideal form of government was not that of the nobles (E), but that of the Italian communes (city-states), whose rule was based on representation.

The First Triumvirate is the name given to an informal alliance in Late Republican Rome between Pompey, Crassus, and A. Lepidus. B. Mark Antony. C. Julius Caesar. D. Octavian. E. Sulla

(C) The First Triumvirate was an informal alliance made in 60 B.C.E. between the generals Pompey, Crassus, and Julius Caesar, who joined ranks to oppose the power of the Senate and carve the Roman territories into personal spheres of interest. The First Triumvirate ended in 53 B.C.E. when Crassus died while campaigning in the Near East; the remaining two generals could not agree on redrawing their spheres of interest and led Rome into a civil war, in which Pompey was killed (48 B.C.E.).

Which of the following groups of barbarians were NOT despised and dreaded as heretics by Catholic Christians? A. Vandals B. Lombards C. Franks D. Visigoths E. Ostrogoths

(C) The Franks accepted Catholic Christianity under the Merovingian king Clovis around the year 500, and therefore easily received the support of the clergy and people in western Europe. They in fact gave their name to the land which they occupied, changing this geographic entity from Gaul to France. All the other Germanic tribes listed were despised and feared as heretics, for they had accepted the Arian form of Christianity (which taught that Christ became divine when adopted by God as his Son, rather than eternally divine as Catholic orthodoxy maintained).

Which of the following brought the Great Schism in the Latin church to an end? A. the election of Urban VI in 1378 B. the election of a new pope in 1409 C. the Council of Constance (1414-1418) D. the Council of Basel (1431-1449) E. the Council of Florence (1438-1445)

(C) The Great Schism in the Latin church, which began in 1378, was ended in 1417 by the Council of Constance. This event signifies the high-water mark of the conciliar movement. The Council of Basel (D) set itself up as a rival to the pope, declaring that councils should hold supreme power in the Church at all times, not only in moments of crisis. In the end its intransigence merely discredited the conciliar movement. The Council of Florence (E), which was convened by the pope as a rival to the Council of Basel, tried to end the schism between the Latin and Greek churches. The election of Pope Urban VI (A) in 1378 began the schism within the Latin church, and the election of a new pope in 1409 (B) merely aggravated it, for then three rival popes each claimed sole authority over the Church.

All of the following were involved in the Hundred Years' War (1337-1453) EXCEPT A. Henry V of England. B. Philip the Good of Burgundy. C. Otto III of Germany. D. Charles VII of France. E. Joan of Arc.

(C) The Hundred Years' War (1337-1453) was fought between France and England?, with Burgundy aiding the English for a time. Otto III of Germany, the Holy Roman Emperor from 980 to 1002, died long before the event took place. Actually lasting some 116 years, the Hundred Years' War did not consist of continuous fighting but was frequently interrupted with truces. All of the individuals mentioned were involved in the last phase of the fighting, which began with the invasion of France by Henry V (1413-1422) (A). Philip the Good?, the duke of Burgundy (B), initially aided England. In 1430 he captured Joan of Arc (E) and delivered her to the English, who executed her as a heretic. Joan had rallied the French, however, and in 1435 Philip abandoned the English to become the ally of the French king, Charles VII (1422-1461) (D), who saw the conflict end at last in victory for France.

The Peace of God was a movement led by the Latin Church during the Middle Ages to A. end warfare with the Muslims in the Holy Land. B. achieve reconciliation with the Greek Church. C. protect non-combatants. D. end feudal warfare. E. restrict warfare to certain days of the year.

(C) The Peace of God is the name of the movement organized by the Latin Church to protect non-combatants, who were often victimized by warfare between feudal lords. It began in northwestern Europe during the tenth century and urged rival warriors to spare churchmen and serfs in the lands of their enemies. It was initially resisted by feudal lords, but in the eleventh century was adopted by them to curb violence among their vassals. The Peace of God should not be confused with the Truce of God, which was a movement to ban combat on holy days, such as Sundays, Easter, and Christmas (E), not an attempt to end feudal warfare altogether (D).

The largest of the empires of the ancient Near East, which was conquered by Alexander the Great (336-323 B.C.E.), was ruled by the A. Assyrians. B. Hittites. C. Persians. D. Neo-Babylonians. E. Sumerians.

(C) The Persians ruled the largest empire of the ancient Near East until the time of the Macedonian king Alexander the Great (336-323 B.C.E.), whose empire included not only the former holdings of the Persians, but also Egypt and Greece.

The western half of the Roman Empire came to an end in 476 C.E. when the last emperor in the West was deposed by A. Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths. B. Alaric, king of the Visigoths. C. Odoacer, a Gothic chieftain. D. Attila the Hun. E. Gaiseric, king of the Vandals.

(C) The last Roman emperor in the West, Romulus Augusrulus (475-476) was deposed by Odoacer, a Gothic chieftain, who ruled Italy as his personal kingdom with the permission (though not necessarily the approval) of the eastern Roman emperor, Zeno. Since the western emperor was never replaced, the Empire in the West is traditionally said to have come to an end in 476.

Which of the following threatened to interfere with the rise of the French nation during the fifteenth century by establishing itself as a powerful state on the frontier between France and the Holy Roman Empire? A. Aquitaine B. Aragon C. Burgundy D. Navarre E. Granada

(C) The only choice on the frontier between France and the Holy Roman Empire is Burgundy. During the later phase of the Hundred Years' War (1337-1453), Philip the Good, the duke of Burgundy (1396-1467), fought against France, captured Joan of Arc, and handed her over to the English for execution. Philip was later reconciled with the French monarchy, but he also vied with it by assembling a collection of territories that constituted one of the most powerful European states of the fifteenth century, reaching as far north as the Netherlands. Philip commanded considerable wealth and his court was renowned for its cultural achievements. When Philip's son, Charles the Bold, inherited the duchy, he challenged the authority of King Louis XI of France (1461-1483) in an ambitious project of expansion. His efforts came to naught, however, when he died fighting in 1477. Thereafter, Burgundy posed no threat to the rise of France.

An artist of the northern Renaissance whose paintings show a preoccupation with grotesque and fantastic subjects in nightmarish scenes of great complexity was A. Robert Campin. B. Albrecht Dürer. C. Hieronymus Bosch. D. Jan van Eyck. E. Hans Holbein.

(C) The paintings of Hieronymus Bosch (1450-1516) often depict wild scenes in which human beings are tormented by demons. His paintings include such titles as Ship of Fools, the Earthly Paradise, the Seven Deadly Sins, and the Temptation of St. Anthony.

Protestants established a lasting presence during the sixteenth century in all of the following EXCEPT A. the Holy Roman Empire. B. the Netherlands. C. Spain. D. France. E. England.

(C) The presence of adynamic Inquisitionin Spainprevented Protestantism from being tolerated there. Instituted in 1478 to bring uniformity to Spanish religion by persecuting the Moors and the Jews, the Inquisition was also a powerful deterrent against the rise of Protestant influences on the Iberian peninsula.

The ancient Hebrew prophets taught all of the following EXCEPT A. The Hebrews are a chosen nation. B. Yahweh is the one true God. C. The leader of the nation should be immune from criticism. D. Amassing wealth is sinful if it exploits poor people. E. Judah's exile was divine punishment for its sins.

(C) The prophets did not refrain from criticizing their kings when their kings acted unjustly. Thus, the prophet Elijah denounced Ahab, king of Israel (871-852 B.C.E.), for executing one of his subjects on false charges so that he could seize his property. Since the prophets dared to challenge the authority even of the head of state, they can be seen as ancient proponents of civil disobedience. They also served as the conscience of the Hebrews.

"God has given us the papacy. Now let us enjoy it." This remark was made by which pope? A. Innocent III B. Leo I C. LeoX D. Gregory I E. Gregory VII

(C) The remark is attributed to Pope Leo X (1513-1521), the second son of the Florentine banker and patron of the arts, Lorenzo de' Medici. This Renaissance pope squandered the papal treasury on luxuries and artistic endeavors; his attempt to replenish the coffers and fund his building programs in Rome by selling indulgences precipitated Martin Luther's rebellion against the Roman Catholic Church.

Which of the following is NOT true of Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531)? A. He taught that it is not necessary to fast during Lent. B. He banned the use of religious images in churches. C. He agreed with Martin Luther on the doctrine of the Lord's Supper. D. He died at a battle between Catholic and Protestant forces. E. He abolished monasteries.

(C) Zwingli was a Swiss reformer who served as the religious advisor of the city of Zurich. Although he was inspired by Luther's teaching, the two men disagreed on the subject of the Lord's Supper and were unable to reconcile their views during a meeting in 1529. Luther believed that Christ is present in the Eucharist, although he denied that the bread and wine is actually changed into the body and blood of Christ, as the Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation maintained. Luther's position is known as consubstantiation. Zwingli, however, denied that Christ is substantially present in the Eucharist, which he believed has merely a symbolic meaning. This theological disagreement prevented the German and Swiss Protestants from coordinating their efforts. As a Protestant reformer, Zwingli taught that the pope has no authority to lead the Christian people, and he rejected the Catholic tradition of fasting during the forty days before Easter known as Lent (A). He also rejected monasticism, and therefore closed down monasteries (E). For the sake of simplifying Christian worship, he banned both music and religious images (B). Zwingli converted several of the Swiss cantons besides Zurich, but a civil war broke out between the Protestant cantons and the cantons that remained Catholic. Serving as a chaplain, Zwingli was killed by the victorious Catholic forces following the Battle of Kappel in 1531 (D).

The mendicant friars founded in the thirteenth century received their name from their practice of A. inquisitorial interrogation. B. converting heretics. C. frequent travel. D. begging for food. E. preaching on street corners.

(D) "Mendicant" is derived from the Latin word mendicare, which means "to beg." The first of the mendicant orders was founded by St. Francis of Assisi (1181-1226), who reacted against the rising wealth and greed of thirteenth-century Italian society by embracing poverty as the ideal form of Christian life. His complete renunciation of private property required him to beg for his sustenance, and the life of Christian simplicity that he manifested so inspired others that they flocked to follow his example. Pope Innocent III (1198-1216) recognized his followers as the Order of Friars Minor, more commonly known as the Franciscans. Like the Benedictine monks, Franciscan friars had to renounce personal property; unlike the Benedictines, they did not live in monasteries but traveled among the people (C) on a mission of preaching and good works (E). Since they did not have monasteries to support themselves, they depended on the charity of Christian society for their support, and thus became known as mendicants, or beggars. Their contribution to society was so greatly appreciated that the Order soon became very wealthy through donations and established friaries (dormitories) all over western Europe. Among those inspired by St. Francis was St. Dominic (c. 1170-1221), who founded another mendicant brotherhood, the Order of Preachers, which specialized in the conversion of heretics (B). In time the Dominicans were put in charge of the Inquisition

An artist whose use of copper engraving and woodcuts extended the principles of Renaissance art far beyond Italy was A. Jan van Eyck. B. Titian. C. Sandro Botticelli. D. Albrecht Dürer. E. Donatello.

(D) Albrecht Dürer (1471-1528) was a German artist who visited Italy and brought the principles of the Renaissance north of the Alps. His paintings and drawings are rich in detail, and their perspective and realism are enhanced by the use of light and shadow. Dürer also mastered the medium of engraving, so that his artwork could be mass-produced in books, and thus his examples of the new styles of the Renaissance reached a much larger audience than did the works of artists who restricted themselves to paintings or sculptures.

All of the following are true of the Persian king Cyrus the Great (559- 530 B.C.E.) EXCEPT A. He freed the Persians from domination under the Medes. B. He established an empire that reached from the Indus valley to the shores of the Mediterreanean Sea. C. He used respect and tolerance instead of cruelty and repression to gain the obedience of the subject peoples within his empire. D. He abandoned the westward expansion of his empire after losing the battle of Salamis to the Greeks. E. He allowed the Jews exiled in Babylon to return to Judah.

(D) Although the Greeks did prevent the westward expansion of the Persian empire at the battle of Salamis, this event took place in 480 B.C.E., some 50 years after Cyrus had died. Having begun his career by successfully leading an uprising of the Persians against the Medes in 550 B.C.E. (A), Cyrus went on in 546 B.C.E. to conquer Greece's neighbor in Anatolia, the famously wealthy king Croesus of Lydia. However, once Cyrus had established his empire on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea, he turned his attention to the east, conquering the lands as far as the Indus valley (B). Cyrus was not only a military genius, but an exceptionally shrewd political thinker and an enlightened ruler as well, as he showed from the very beginning when he treated the overthrown Medes with leniency. Thus, departing from the infamous terror tactics of the Assyrians, Cyrus gained the obedience of the peoples he conquered by showing them tolerance (C). Cyrus's decision to allow the Jews exiled in Babylon to return to Judah (E) was one example of his policy of respect and tolerance toward subject peoples.

All of the following were titles of public offices in ancient Rome EXCEPT A. consul. B. tribune. C. dictator. D. archon. E. censor.

(D) An archon was a public official in ancient Greece; Solon had been elected archon of Athens in 594 B.C.E. in order to reform its constitution.

All of the following explorers and colonialists were sponsored by Portugal EXCEPT A. Vasco da Gama. B. Alfonso de Albuquerque. C. Bartholomew Diaz. D. Hernando Cortez. E. Pedro Cabral.

(D) Cortez was a Spanish conquistador who overthrew the Aztec Empire.

A Dutch humanist who published an edition of the Greek New Testament was A. Marsilio Ficino. B. John Colet. C. Johann Reuchlin. D. Desiderius Erasmus. E. Thomas More.

(D) Desiderius Erasmus (1466-1536), also known as Erasmus of Rotterdam, was a Dutch humanist who hoped to reform the Church by seeking inspiration from Christianity in its earliest stages. To this end he published in 1516 an edition of the original Greek text of the New Testament, including notes and a new Latin translation, which he hoped could be used to inspire spiritual renewal. He corresponded with religious reformers yet took a moderate position and never broke away from the Roman Catholic Church.

Queen Elizabeth I (1558-1603) was able to strengthen the power of the English monarchy by A. declaring that monarchs owed their authority to God alone. B. producing an heir who was able to prevent civil war. C. rooting out all vestiges of Catholicism in England. D. cooperating with Parliament. E. maintaining peace with Spain.

(D) Elizabeth's reign was characterized by her judicious cooperation with Parliament. She knew when to enlist Parliament for support, when to compromise, and when to challenge parliamentary attempts to set royal policy. For example, she opposed calls by the Puritans to eliminate all Catholic traditions and strove instead for a religious compromise that was acceptable to moderate

"He was committed to the cause of reform. In order to free the Church from political manipulation, he challenged the emperor over the right to in vest bishops. His claim that popes have the power to depose kings seemed proven when the emperor stood before him in the snow and begged for absolution. However, the emperor later forced him to flee Rome, and he died in exile. The struggle between popes and emperors over the appointment of bishops continued for a generation before it was resolved." The passage above describes the career of which of the following popes? A. Pius II B. Leo III C. Innocent III D. Gregory VII E. Urban II

(D) Gregory VII (1073-1085) was an energetic pope who led what has been called the Gregorian Reform, which sought to improve the quality of the clergy and establish the papacy as unquestioned leader of European society. Gregory opposed the practice of secular rulers who appointed bishops for political ends, claiming that laymen could not appoint clerics, not even if the layman were an emperor. His position brought him into conflict with the Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV(1056-1106) in a struggle between church and state known as the Investiture Controversy. Gregory initially had the better of the struggle. He excommunicated Henry in 1076, precipitating a revolt that forced the emperor to ask for absolution the following year at a place called Canossa. Eventually Henry and Gregory revived the struggle, but this time the emperor brought an army into Italy and the pope had to flee Rome. The Investiture Controversy was not resolved until the Concordat of Worms in 1122.

"Although he was a vassal, he controlled more territory than his lord. When he himself became a king, he married his lord's former wife. Within his own kingdom, he expanded the royal authority by centralizing the system of justice. His energetic efforts to this end, however, brought him into conflict with the Church and led to the assassination of a man who had once been a close friend. Later his sons rebelled against him with the support of their mother." The paragraph above describes the life of A. Louis VII of France. B. Philip II Augustus of France. C. Richard I of England. D. Henry II of England. E. Henry IV of Germany.

(D) Henry II of England (1154-1189) was initially the vassal of Louis VII of France (A). When he became king of England, he married Eleanor of Aquitaine, whose marriage with Louis VII had just been annulled. Henry soon appointed his chancellor, Thomas Becket, as the archbishop of Canterbury, but Henry's attempts to put churchmen accused of crimes on trial in his own royal courts rather than in the ecclesiastical courts brought the two men into conflict. Their standoff ended in 1170 with the murder of Becket by some of Henry's knights. Within a few years, Henry's sons, egged on by their mother, rebelled against him. Among these was Richard the Lion-Hearted, himself later king of England (C). Philip II Augustus (B), the son of Louis VII, participated with Richard in the Third Crusade. Henry IV of Germany (E), as the Holy Roman Emperor, was vassal to no one.

The Odyssey of Homer is a Greek epic that portrays A. the voyage of the hero Aeneas to found a new kingdom after the fall of Troy. B. the voyage of the Argonauts to seize the Golden Fleece. C. the war of the Mycenaeans against Troy. D. the return of the king of Ithaca to his homeland after the fall of Troy. E. the journey of Gilgamesh to the underworld in search of immortality.

(D) Homer's Odyssey describes the homeward voyage of Odysseus, the king of Ithaca who designed the Trojan horse used by the Mycenaean Greeks to enter and overthrow the city of Troy. Homer's Iliad describes the war of the Mycenaeans against Troy (C). The voyage of the Trojan prince, Aeneas, to found a new city (Rome) was a Latin epic written by Virgil, entitled the Aeneid (A). The voyage of the Argonauts is described in the Argo-nautica, written by the Hellenistic poet, Apollonius of Rhodes (c. 295-215 B.C.E.) (B). Gilgamesh (E) is not a Greek epic but a Sumerian epic.

"If we win another battle against the Romans, we shall be utterly ruined." This remark was most likely said by which of the following leaders? A. Scipio the Elder B. Alexander the Great C. Philip II of Macedon D. Pyrrhus of Epirus E. Xerxes

(D) King Pyrrhus of Epirus, who fought the Romans in southern Italy in the 270s B.C.E., defeated them twice but at a very high rate of casualties to his own forces. Finding the Romans to be relentless fighters, Pyrrhus despaired of a final victory against them and abandoned the Greek city-states who had called upon him for help. Today, the term "Pyrrhic victory," named after Pyrrhus of Epirus, refers to a battle that is won at such great cost that the victorious side cannot afford to continue fighting.

The complete works of Plato first became available in western Europe due to the efforts of A. ancient Roman scholars. B. medieval scholastics. C. medieval monks. D. Italian humanists during the Renaissance. E. French humanists during the Renaissance.

(D) Only a few works of Plato were known in Europe outside of Greece before the Italian Renaissance. The Timaeus, which describes the creation of the world, was the only work to be translated by ancient Roman scholars (A). The text was later preserved by medieval monks (C). It was not until the twelfth century that a few other dialogues—the Meno and the Phaedo—were translated into Latin. Even then, they did not circulate widely and did not make much of an impression. The most famous of Plato's dialogues, The Republic, could not be read in Europe until it was translated into Latin by the Italian humanists, who turned to Plato as part of their reaction against the favored position of Aristotle in the scholastic universities (B). The most prominent of the Italian Platonists was the Florentine philosopher, Marsilio Ficino, who translated the complete works of Plato into Latin under Medici patronage. From Italy, the works reached France, where the humanistic printer, Henri Estienne (c. 1528-1598) (E), established a famous edition.

The following political figures all contributed to the evolution of Athenian government before the Peloponnesian War EXCEPT A. Pericles. B. Cleisthenes. C. Draco. D. Polybius. E. Peisistrarus.

(D) Polybius (c. 200-118 B.C.E.) was a Hellenistic historian who wrote about the Roman rise to dominance in the Mediterranean; because he lived long after the Peloponnesian War (431-404 B.C.E.), he could not have played a part in the early evolution of Athenian government.

Which of the following is NOT true of Roman Law? A. It was influenced by Stoic philosophy. B. It was influenced by the concept of natural law. C. It was formulated in authoritative manuals toward the end of the Pax Romana, from the second to the early third century C.E. D. It first received a written form during the reign of Augustus Caesar (27 B.C.E.-14 C.E.). E. The emperor Justinian (527-565 C.E.) commissioned the codification of earlier law codes in an immense work known as the Corpus Juris Civilis.

(D) Roman Law received its first written form around 450 B.C.E. with the promulgation of the Twelve Tables. It evolved over the centuries as the Romans conquered the Mediterranean and had to administer law to diverse peoples, each with their own law code. This need to provide justice to diverse groups inspired Roman leaders to devise a single law code for the whole empire, which was influenced by the concept of natural law (B), a feature of Stoic philosophy (A), which was popular among the ruling class. Toward the end of the Pax Romana, when the Empire was at the height of its prosperity, Roman jurists made the most important formulations of Roman Law (C), publishing authoritative textbooks from the second to the third century C.E. In the sixth century C.E., the emperor Justinian sponsored a codification of these jurists' authoritative teachings (E).

The sarcophagus was produced by which of the following ancient peoples? A. Greeks B. Assyrians C. Celts D. Etruscans E. Romans

(D) Sculptures set upon sarcophagi (coffins) depicting a husband and wife in a cheerful attitude were characteristically Etruscan. The angular features of the figures, especially their sharp, exaggerated smiles and almond-shaped eyes, are also typical of Etruscan statues.

The Rule of St. Benedict (480-547) was an exceptional document in the history of monasticism because A. it required vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience. B. it was the only monastic rule available in Europe. C. it prohibited corporal punishment as a method of discipline. D. it outlined an ideal balance between prayer, study, and work. E. it focused on the individual monk rather than the community.

(D) The Benedictine Rule was exceptional for its balance of three basic activities that defined the monastic regimen: prayer, study, and work. Thus, monks who lived according to the Benedictine Rule spent roughly equal amounts of time praying and chanting hymns, reading the Scriptures and works of theology, and engaging in manual labor (such as raising crops or copying books). The Rule composed by St. Benedict focused on cooperation between monks living in a community rather than the development of exceptional individuals who could practice amazing acts of asceticism (E), and it was thus ideally suited to serve as a model for most people who felt a calling to the religious life.

From the sixteenth to the seventeenth centuries, the Dutch fought a struggle for independence against A. Burgundy. B. France. C. England. D. Spain. E. the Holy Roman Empire.

(D) The Dutch rebelled against the rule of the Spanish king, Philip II (1556-1598), who inherited the Netherlands from his father, the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V (also Charles I of Spain). The movement for Dutch independence coincided with the spread of Protestantism. Rioting broke out in 1566 to protest Philip's use of the Inquisition to enforce obedience to the Roman Catholic Church. In 1579 the Union of Utrecht, led by William the Silent, prince of Orange, became the core of the independence movement. The struggle was not concluded until 1648, when Spain finally recognized the independence of the Dutch Republic of United Provinces.

The system of writing developed in Greece after the Dark Age (c.1100-800 B.C.E.), was based directly on A. a Minoan syllabary. B. the Roman alphabet. C. the Etruscan alphabet. D. the Phoenician alphabet. E. Sumerian cuneiform.

(D) The Greek alphabet was based on the Phoenician alphabet, but differed from it by using some of the symbols to represent vowels (Phoenician letters represented consonants only)

People who opposed the emperors and supported the popes in the political struggles of Italy from the twelfth to the fifteenth centuries were known as A. Condottieri. B. Janissaries. C. Marranos. D. Guelfs. E. Ghibellines.

(D) The Guelfs were members of a political faction that opposed the authority of the Holy Roman Emperor in Italy and rallied around the pope for solidarity. Their counterparts—those who wanted Italy to remain part of the Holy Roman Empire, under the control of the emperor—were known as Ghibellines (E). Condottieri (A) were leaders of mercenary armies in Italy. Janissaries (B) were Ottoman soldiers, recruited as children from the Christian population and converted to Islam, who were trained to be loyal only to the sultan. Marranos (C) were Jews who converted to Christianity in order to escape torture by the Spanish Inquisition; they were suspected of divided loyalty and often persecuted.

"Give me a lever long enough and a place to stand, and I will move the world." This declaration was made by A. Aristotle. B. Pythagoras. C. Euclid. D. Archimedes. E. Socrates.

(D) The Hellenistic scientist, Archimedes (287-212 B.C.E.), is famous for having made discoveries in the field of mechanics and for demonstrating the power of pulleys and levers. The quotation attributed to him illustrates his confidence in the power of science to control the environment.

Which of the following is NOT true of the Peace of Augsburg (1555)? A. It recognized the Augsburg Confession as a legitimate religious position. B. It ended the war between Charles V and the Protestant princes. C. It recognized the legitimacy of Lutheranism. D. It extended toleration to the reformed churches of Calvin and Zwingli. E. It established the principle that the religion of a state should be decided by its prince

(D) The Peace of Augsburg did not recognize Calvin's or Zwingli's religious reforms. It ended a civil war within the Holy Roman Empire which began in 1546 when Charles V (1519-1558) attacked the Schmalkaldic League, a defensive alliance of Protestant princes (B), and established the principle that the prince of a sovereign state should decide the religious alignment of his state (E). The only religious alternative to Catholicism it recognized was Lutheranism (C), as outlined in the Augsburg Confession drawn up by Luther's discipline, Melanchthon (A).

Which of the following was most deeply affected by the invention of the printing press? A. the Gregorian Reform B. the Hundred Years' War C. the Reconquista D. the Protestant Reformation E. Conciliarism

(D) The Protestant Reformation greatly benefited from the printing press as a means for the rapid dissemination of information—especially theological works and political pamphlets. The power of printing was acknowledged by the papacy in its publication of an Index of Prohibited Books in 1559, which sought to limit the spread of Protestantism through censorship.

The Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) A. founded the nation of Portugal. B. ended the War of Spanish Succession. C. introduced the Inquisition into Spain. D. divided the New World between Spain and Portugual. E. gave the Hapsburgs control of Spain.

(D) The Treaty of Tordesillas revised a settlement that Spain and Portugal had conducted in 1493 with Pope Alexander VI, who had divided the Atlantic along a longitude one hundred leagues west of the Azores, giving all lands west of that line to Spain, and all lands east of it to Portugal. The new line was established 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands, which gave the easternmost part of South America to Portugal. Because of the Treaty of Tordesillas, Brazil became part of the Portuguese empire.

The Emperor Hadrian's decision to rebuild Jerusalem on the model of a Greco-Roman city A. ended the Diaspora. B. revived Jerusalem as the most important center of Christianity. C. was greeted by the Jews as a welcome gesture. D. triggered the Bar Kochba rebellion. E. led ultimately to the siege of Masada.

(D) The decision by Hadrian (117-138) to rebuild Jerusalem triggered a rebellion led by the Jewish warrior Simon Bar Kochba. The bloodshed lasted from 132 to 135. Since many Jews left the region, it intensified the Diaspora (A). A major cause of the fighting was Hadrian's decision to include a pagan temple, which the Jews regarded as blasphemous (C). The Bar Kochba rebellion was even more disastrous than the uprising against the Romans that began in 66 C.E., which ended in the destruction of the Temple of Jerusalem in 70 and the capture of the last fortress of Masada in 73 (E). By the time of Hadrian, Rome was becoming the most important center of Christianity (B).

Medieval colleges, such as the one founded by Robert de Sorbon in Paris during the thirteenth century, were originally A. schools that were devoted entirely to the liberal arts. B. schools that specialized in the study of law, medicine, or theology. C. guild-like associations of teachers and students. D. residence-halls for poor students enrolled in a university. E. associations of churchmen who met periodically to elect a new pope.

(D) The earliest colleges, such as the one founded by the philanthropist Robert de Sorbon in 1257, were initially residence-halls for the support of students enrolled in a university who could not afford to pay living expenses. Colleges were also founded at Oxford and Cambridge. They took their name from the Latin word collegium, which means "association." As a general term, this word was also applied to the College of Cardinals, founded in 1059 for the election of new popes (E); only later did colleges acquire their academic meaning. The Latin word universitas, from which "university" is derived, similarly had a broad meaning which later acquired a strictly academic one. "University" originally meant any "corporation" or "guild." The medieval university was, in fact, a corporation of teachers and students (C). The universities commonly provided instruction in the liberal arts (A) and offered particular specialized studies as well (B).

The Gospels, which form the core of the New Testament, are attributed to A. Matthew, Luke, James, and John. B. Matthew, Thomas, Luke, and John. C. Matthew, Thomas, James, and John. D. Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John. E. Matthew, Mark, Thomas, and James.

(D) The four canonical Gospels, which constitute the centerpiece of Christian Scripture, are attributed to the early disciples Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John. They were written between 70 and 100 C.E., within a generation of the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem (70 C.E.). "Gospel" means "good news" and refers to a text that describes the ministry of Jesus of Nazareth. The first three Gospels are called "synoptic" because they show close similarities; the Gospel of John, however, which was the last to be written, is very different in its presentation of the events of Jesus' ministry. These four texts were not the only Gospels to be written. There were, in fact, many, but only four were accepted by the Church as "canonical," that is, "authoritative." The non-canonical texts, such as the Gospels of Thomas and James, focus on events not described in the authoritative books (such as the childhood of Jesus). Some of them were written by the Gnostics (followers of an early Christian heresy).

The College of Cardinals was established in 1059 for the purpose of A. ending the "Babylonian Captivity" (Avignonese papacy). B. ending the Great Schism in the Latin church. C. providing accommodations for poor students at the university of Paris. D. electing the pope. E. training canon lawyers.

(D) The purpose of the College of Cardinals, founded in 1059, was (and is) to elect the pope. By founding an electoral college restricted to members of the church hierarchy, reformers hoped to keep laymen, such as emperors, kings, or the Roman nobility, from installing their own candidates for political ends.

The city of Rome was sacked in 1527 by the forces of A. the Venetian Republic. B. the Ottoman Turkish Emperor, Suleiman the Magnificent. C. the King of England, Henry VIII. D. the Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V E. the King of France, Francis I.

(D) The troops of Charles V Hapsburg ruler of the Holy Roman Empire (1519-1558), sacked Rome while capturing Pope Clement VII (1523-1534) during one of the Valois-Hapsburg wars for control of Italy. The pope had allied himself with Francis I of France (1515-1547), and his imprisonment was intended as punishment for his opposition to imperial authority. The troops looted the city because they had not been paid.

The primary aim of merchant guilds in the eleventh century was A. to restrain competition among craftsmen. B. to raise joint-stock companies. C. to lend money to kings and nobles. D. to protect their own members and wares. E. to promote the economic policy known as mercantilism.

(D) When trade revived in Europe during the eleventh century, it faced high risks. Merchants banded together in caravans and hired guards in order to defend themselves from brigands and the loss of their wares through highway robbery. They also agreed to help one another in legal disputes. These associations developed into merchant guilds that came to dominate commerce in the towns. The craftsmen who bought raw materials from the merchants soon banded together in craft guilds of their own, which had as their primary aim the regulation of their respective trades, including the restraint of competition (A). Merchants were not supposed to lend money for profit (C), a practice that the Church regarded as usury. Joint-stock companies (B) and mercantilism (E) were not factors in European economics before the sixteenth century.

The Russian national hero Alexander Nevsky (c. 1220-1263) is best remembered for his victory over the A. Turks. B. Mongols. C. Poles. D. Byzantines. E. Teutonic Knights.

(E) Alexander Nevsky, elected prince of Novgorod in 1236, is best remembered for his victory over the Teutonic Knights at Lake Peipus in 1242. His successful defense of Novgorod prevented the monastic military order that was expanding in the Baltic region from establishing a firm foothold within Russian lands. Nevsky did not fight the Mongols (B) but cooperated with them and thus increased his power over neighboring Russian princes.

Which of the following is a novel about the opposition between chivalric ideals and the realities of early modern society? A. Pico della Mirandola's Oration on the Dignity of Man B. Boccaccio's Decameron C. Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet D. Machiavelli's The Prince E. Cervantes's Don Quixote

(E) Don Quixote (written in two parts, in 1605 and 1615) is a novel about an idealistic Spanish nobleman who seeks adventure as a knight-errant but finds that chivalry is out of step with the modern world. Miguel de Cervantes (1547-1616) used the work as a vehicle to satirize early modern Spanish society. His own life reflects the misadventures of his novel's protagonist. Cervantes fought at the naval battle of Lepanto in 1571, was captured by pirates, and sold as a slave. He made several attempts to escape before family and friends were finally able to ransom him. Unable to secure employment, he took odd jobs and wrote novels and plays in order to support himself. Success eluded him until he wrote about the misadventures of Don Quixote, and even then pirated editions deprived him of much of the royalties he deserved.

In the ninth and tenth centuries C.E., western Europe suffered invasions from A. Ostrogoths, Visigoths, and Vandals B. Vikings, Visigoths, and Vandals. C. Vikings, Huns, and Mongols. D. Lombards, Magyars, and Mongols. E. Saracens, Vikings, and Magyars.

(E) During the ninth and tenth centuries, western Europe suffered repeated invasions by Vikings from the north, Magyars from the east, and Saracens (a name often given to medieval Arabs or Muslims) from the south. The Vikings, who depended on hit-and-run tactics using their long-ships, mostly struck the coastlines and river valleys of England, Ireland, and France. The Magyars were horsemen from central Asia whose raids were finally ended by the German king Otto I (936-973) at the Battle of Lechfeld in 955; they settled central Europe and from them are descended the Hungarians. The Saracens, who were based in Spain, North Africa, and the Mediterranean islands, raided southern France and Italy.

The Peloponnesian War (431-404 B.C.E.) was caused by A. Xerxes's invasion of Greece. B. a Roman invasion of Macedon. C. an Athenian invasion of the Peloponnesus. D. imperialistic conflict between Rome and Carthage. E. Sparta's fear of Athenian imperialistic expansion.

(E) Fear of the steady expansion of the Athenian Empire was the root cause of the Peloponnesian War (431-404 B.C.E.), which led Sparta to invade Attica in the hope of humbling Athenian power in a pitched land battle. The Athenians did not start the conflict by invading the Peloponnesus (C); the war was named after the Peloponnesian League led by Sparta. The conflicts between Rome and Carthage are known as the Punic Wars (D), Xerxes's invasion of Greece was part of the Persian Wars (A), and the Roman invasions of Macedon are known as the Macedonian Wars (B).

Which of the following statements is NOT true of feudalism? A. It functioned according to a contractual agreement of a personal nature between two individuals. B. As a system of political organization, it was characterized by weak central authority. C. It involved a lord granting a fief to a vassal, who agreed to perform military or other service. D. It reached the height of its development during the twelfth and E. It describes the relationship between a lord and the serfs who worked his fief.

(E) Feudalism does not describe the relationship between a lord and his serfs (which is called manorialism), but rather the relationship between one member of the nobility and another. It takes its name from the Latin word feudum, which means "fief—a grant of land that a high-ranking noble, called a lord, made to a lower-ranking noble, called a vassal, in exchange for military and other service, such as duty at the lord's court of law.

All of the following were motivations for Prince Henry the Navigator (1394-1460) to sponsor voyages of discovery EXCEPT A. to acquire accurate geographical information about Africa. B. to find the kingdom of a legendary Christian ally, Prester John. C. to outflank the Muslims by converting lands they had not yet reached. D. to find gold and stimulate trade. E. to prevent the Portuguese from dominating newly discovered lands.

(E) Henry the Navigator was Prince of Portugal, and therefore sought to promote Portuguese preeminence in voyages of discovery. In fact, the expeditions he promoted (although he himself did not participate in them) were the earliest, beginning after the Portuguese capture of Ceuta in North Africa in 1415. Prince Henry's motivations were scientific (A), military and religious (B, C), and economic (D).

The Society of Jesus was founded in the sixteenth century by A. John Knox. B. John Calvin. C. Thomas Erasrus. D. Ulrich Zwingli. E. Ignatius of Loyola.

(E) Ignatius of Loyola (1491-1556) founded the Society of Jesus, or Order of Jesuits, which received papal approval in 1540. This new religious order was an important instrument of the Catholic Reformation. All the other choices are Protestant reformers

Which of the following could NOT have written poetry praising the reign of Augustus Caesar? A. Horace B. Virgil C. Juvenal D. Ovid E. Lucretius

(E) Lucretius (96-55 B.C.E.) was active during the late Republic, before the reign of Augustus Caesar (27 B.C.E.-14 C.E.). Lucretius wrote a philosophical poem On the Nature of Things, which championed Epicurean philosophy and presented the theory that the world is made up of atoms.

Which of the following was the leading fourteenth-century thinker of the nominalist school, whose formulation of a principle of logical economy later influenced modern science? A. Duns Scorus B. Thomas Aquinas C. Dante Alighieri D. Roger Bacon E. William of Ockham

(E) Nominalism was a theory that ideas have no substantial reality of their own, but are merely verbal labels or "names" (in Latin, nomina) which human beings attach to the concepts that exist nowhere but in their own thoughts. William of Ockham is famous for formulating the principle of logical economy, which maintains that entities should not be multiplied without cause, hi other words, if one cannot provide a logical justification for the existence of some abstract being, one cannot use its existence as a premise upon which to build a logical system, be it a system of natural philosophy or theology, as the scholastics before William of Ockham had done. This principle of logical economy is known as "Ockham's razor," whose function is to reduce any system to the smallest possible number of elements. Modern science proceeds according to this fundamental principle, in conjunction with experimentation and measurement; thus, if a supposed entity—whether the soul or God—cannot be measured or its existence proven logically in some way, the scientist should proceed under the assumption that it does not exist. While William of Ockham was a forerunner of modern science because of his reductionism, he did not reject the existence of the soul or God because he did not adhere to logic alone; he also accepted the evidence of divine revelation. His "razor" was not used against the Christian faith but against the elaborate systems of theology that were constructed on what he regarded as faulty premises.

The Punic Wars were fought between A. Greece and Phoenicia over the colonization of the Mediterranean shores. B. Greece and Persia over the freedom of the Ionians. C. Rome and Macedon over control of Greece. D. Tyre and Sidon over trading rights in the Mediterranean. E. Rome and Carthage over their conflicting imperial ambitions.

(E) Rome and Carthage fought the Punic Wars. The name is derived from the Latin word Punicus, which means "Phoenician," and refers to the descendents of the Phoenician settlers who founded Carthage. The Romans and Carthaginians fought three wars over the course of two centuries (from the third to the second B.C.E.) to determine which of them would control an empire dominating the shores of the Mediterranean Sea.

The principal textbook for the study of Roman law in the twelfth century was A. Thomas Aquinas's Summa Theologica. B. Peter Lombard's Sententiae. C. Galen's Tegni. D. Gratian's Decretum. E. Justinian's Corpus Juris Civilis.

(E) The Corpus Juris Civilis, which the Emperor Justinian (527-565) commissioned in the sixth century, became the principal textbook for the study of Roman law, which scholars at Bologna revived in the eleventh century. Their method was to "gloss" this basic text, that is, to write comments on passages that required elaboration.

All of the following help explain the leading role taken by the Dutch in seventeenth-century trade EXCEPT A. the innovative design of their merchant vessels. B. their use of the joint-stock company. C. the dominant position of merchants in the government of the United Provinces. D. their geographic position. E. their leading role in the earliest voyages of discovery.

(E) The Dutch did not take a leading role in the earliest voyages of discovery, which were headed by the Portuguese and Spanish, but they were better equipped than most European powers to take advantage of economic possibilities once the discoveries were made. The Dutch did not engage in overseas exploration until 1600. When they did, the government of the Dutch Republic of the United Provinces, which was dominated by businessmen (C), took a very proactive role in encouraging commerce. It sponsored the Dutch East India Company, a highly successful joint-stock company for long-distance commercial voyages

Which of the following gave religious toleration to the Huguenots? A. Treaty of Westphalia B. Treaty of Tordesillas C. Edict of Milan D. Edict of Worms E. Edict of Nantes

(E) The Edict of Nantes, issued in 1598 by Henry IV of France (1589-1610), granted religious toleration to French Calvinists, known as Huguenots. The king, who was known as Henry of Navarre before his coronation, was himself a Calvinist and fought against the Catholics in the French wars of religion. In 1593 he converted to Catholicism in order to establish peace in his realm, since many refused to acknowledge a Protestant as king of France. Henry nevertheless continued to care for his Protestant subjects and sanctioned their form of worship with the Edict of Nantes, which remained in effect until revoked by Louis XIV in 1685.

The Hanseatic League was A. an organization of Italian communes for defense against the Holy Roman Empire. B. a religious alliance of Swiss cantons for the promotion of Calvinism. C. an opposition party against the Hapsburgs within the Holy Roman Empire. D. a consortium of Danish and Swedish coastal cities for defense against English privateers. E. a commercial association of northern German cities to promote trade in the Baltic Sea and the North Sea.

(E) The Hanseatic League, or Hansa, arose in the mid-twelfth century as a loose commercial association of northern German towns, most notably Lubeck, Hamburg, and Bremen, for the promotion of trade in the North and Baltic Seas. The coastal towns initially banded together to defend against piracy and to compete with Scandinavian shipping, then began to conclude formal alliances with one another in the thirteenth century, extending membership to inland cities along rivers, such as Cologne. The League was at its zenith in the fourteenth century, when it successfully went to war with Denmark over encroachments of its trading privileges in the Baltic. In the sixteenth century it was overshadowed by the rise of England and the Netherlands as major military and economic powers, and it was marginalized by the opening of Atlantic trade with the New World. It was finally dealt a death blow by the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648).

The main purpose of the Magna Carta, signed by King John of England in 1215, was to A. establish a parliamentary form of government. B. extend freedom to all Englishmen by abolishing serfdom. C. raise taxes for war against France. D. establish a centralized judicial system for the entire realm. E. safeguard the existing feudal privileges of the barons.

(E) The Magna Carta was concerned primarily with the protection of feudal privileges traditionally held by the English barons against royal attempts to expand the powers of the monarchy. This document was precipitated by King John's effort to raise money for his ongoing war against France by demanding new taxes (C) without first consulting his barons, as he was bound to do by feudal law and custom.

Which of the following works of medieval literature was written in Old English? A. Song of Roland B. Divine Comedy C. Canterbury Tales D. Edda E. Beowulf

(E) The Old English epic Beowulf, which survives in a manuscript written about the year 1000, describes the adventures of a hero who fights a series of monsters. This literary work is not attributed to any author. The Old English language is also called Anglo-Saxon. It flourished until the twelfth century, when the influence of the Normans, who invaded England in 1066, began to change the language into a distinctly different form known as Middle English

The geocentric theory of the universe was first opposed in the sixteenth century by the European astronomer A. Michel de Montaigne. B. François Rabelais. C. Johannes Kepler. D. Galileo Galilei. E. Nicholas Copernicus.

(E) The Polish astronomer Nicholas Copernicus (1473-1543) was the first European scholar to challenge the geocentric model of the Ptolemaic universe, which held that the earth is at the center and the sun travels around it. Copernicus made the case for a heliocentric, or sun-centered universe, in his book On the Revolutions of the Celestial Orbs (1543). He was later supported by Kepler and Galileo (C, D)

The written body of Jewish civil and religious law, compiled after the destruction of the Temple in 70 C.E., is known as the A. Sepruagint. B. Torah. C. Pentateuch. D. Tanach. E. Talmud.

(E) The Talmud is the written body of Jewish civil and religious law, which provides a framework for the practice of rabbinic Judaism. It consists of two basic parts, the Mishnah, or codification of the laws, and the Gemara, a commentary on the Mishnah. The Mishnah was established toward the end of the second century C.E., and two parallel traditions of Gemara developed thereafter, one compiled by rabbis in Palestine and the other by the rabbinic academies in Babylonia. The Babylonian compilation became the authoritative version.

Which is true of the Treaty of Westphalia (1648)? A. It recognized the Dutch Netherlands and Switzerland as sovereign states. B. It formally ended the Thirty Years' War. C. It allowed each of the German principalities within the Holy Roman Empire to conduct its own foreign policy. D. It reaffirmed the principle that the ruler of a German principality should decide the religious alignment of his state. E. All of the above.

(E) The Treaty of Westphalia, named after the German province in which the peace-talks occurred, formally ended the Thirty Years' War (B) and revised the political landscape of Europe. It recognized the sovereignty of two relatively new states—Switzerland and the United Provinces of the Netherlands (A)—and it effectively deprived the Holy Roman Emperor of any real power over the German principalities by granting each of them the right to make its own alliances and declare war

Which dynasty controlled England at the end of the Wars of the Roses (1454-1485)? A. House of Lancaster B. House of Stuart C. House of York D. House of Anjou E. House of Tudor

(E) The Tudor dynasty came to power in England when Henry Tudor, earl of Richmond, defeated Richard III (1483-1485) at the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485. This engagement concluded the dynastic struggle known as the Wars of the Roses, an English civil war in which the House of York (C) challenged the House of Lancaster (A).

All of the following were part of the financial practices of Italian bankers during the Renaissance EXCEPT A. bills of exchange. B. maritime insurance. C. double-entry bookkeeping. D. the establishment of branch offices in cities across Europe. E. the encomienda system.

(E) The encomienda system was used by the Spanish in their New World colonies. It forced native Americans to work on great plantations and was closer to the medieval manorial system than the new economic forms of nascent capitalism that the Italians were developing. The Spanish encomienda should not be confused with the Italian commenda, a temporary partnership which arose in the late Middle Ages whereby an investor contributed capital to a trader who then did all the work required to turn a profit; the profits were shared between the two. The commenda was a prototype of the joint-stock companies that arose during the Commercial Revolution of the sixteenth century. Although during the Middle Ages the Church had condemned the charging of interest as usury and therefore denied banking as a legitimate profession for Christians, it was more flexible during the Renaissance in its definition of what constituted usury, which allowed wealthy merchants, like the Medici of Florence, to invest their profits in money-lending.

"Of the three great Athenian playwrights who are renowned for their tragedies, this one won fewer awards than his colleagues, yet his plays resonate more with modern audiences because of the psychological depth of his characters. His play Medea describes the gruesome murders committed by a sorceress who escaped punishment from the gods." Which of the following authors does the passage describe? A. Aeschylus B. Plato C. Aristophanes D. Sophocles E. Euripides

(E) The paragraph describes Euripides (c. 480-406 B.C.E.). His fellow tragedians were Aeschylus and Sophocles (A, D). Aristophanes (C) was famous as a writer of comedies. Although the youthful Plato (B) had ambitions as a playwright, the death of his teacher Socrates prompted him to devote his life to the writing of philosophical dialogues portraying Socrates as the principal speaker.

Which of the following is true of the tyrant Peisistratus? A. He was assassinated in a violent uprising of the Athenians. B. He instituted the harsh laws that governed Spartan society. C. He led the Macedonians in the conquest of Greece. D. He abandoned the constitutional reforms instituted by Solon. E. He instituted the festival of Dionysos at Athens, where Greek drama nourished.

(E) The tyrant Peisistratus sought to legitimate his seizure of political power in Athens by winning over the goodwill of the citizens through a building program and through the institution of religious holidays, including the festival of Dionysos. In order to assure Greek citizens that he was on their side, he preserved the constitution established by Solon (D), although he staffed it with his supporters. Peisistratus ruled Athens continuously from 546 B.C.E. until 527, when he died a peaceful death; his sons, however, were later overthrown (A). The harsh laws that governed Spartan society were instituted by the legendary lawgiver, Lycurgus, and their government was not considered a tyranny but a balanced constitution, with kings, council of elders, and assembly (B). Philip of Macedon conquered Greece; he was considered a tyrant by some Greeks but was supported by others (C).

"Before he had reached the age of 33, he had conquered the Near East and founded several cities that bore his name, the most famous of which was in Egypt. He hoped to conquer India as well, but was prevented by the mutiny of his troops." The paragraph above describes which of the following? A. Philip of Macedon B. Cyrus the Great C. Julius Caesar D. Augustus Caesar E. Alexander the Great

(E) When Alexander the Great (336-323 B.C.E.) died before his thirty-third birthday, he had conquered the entire Persian Empire as well as a few territories that the Persians had not controlled, including borderlands near India. His conquest of that region, however, was thwarted in 326 B.C.E. by the mutiny of his troops, who wanted to return home after long years of campaigning.

The most intense period of the persecution of witches in Europe occurred during which of the following centuries (C.E.)? A. Fourth B. Seventh C. Tenth D. Thirteenth E. Sixteenth

(E) Witches were not persecuted as intensively in the Middle Ages as they were in early modern times. Medieval accusations of witchcraft tended to be isolated incidents, whereas those during the sixteenth century tended to result in numerous convictions. While the medieval Inquisition of the thirteenth century established an environment of suspicion, and the manual known as The Hammer of Witches (published in 1486 by two Dominican inquisitors) systematized the process of trying suspects, it was the environment of the religious wars that fanned the flames of persecution. Both Catholics and Protestants tried and executed thousands of witches. The Enlightenment finally put an end to the witch-craze.

The Gracchi attempted to reform the Roman Republic through all of the following measures EXCEPT A. the extension of Roman citizenship to the Italian allies. B. the reform of the legions. C. the sale of state-subsidized grain to the poor. D. land redistribution. E. the transfer of jury duty from the senators to members of the equestrian class.

B

Which of the following official legalized Christianity in the Roman Empire? A.Nicene Creed B.Edict of Milan C.Council of Nicaea D.Edict of Naples E.Council of Ephesus

B; Prior to the issuance of the Edict of Milan in 313 CE, Christianity was not legally tolerated by the Roman Empire. The Nicene Creed formalized Catholic doctrine and was developed at the Council of Nicaea in 325. The Council of Ephesus further clarified orthodox doctrine in opposition to competing religious ideas. The Edict of Nantes legalized the practices of the French Protestant Huguenots several centuries later.

"As a young man he served in the military during the Thirty Years' War. However, mathematics was his passion, and his contribution to geometry endures to this day. He is most famous, however, for three Latin words that serve as the foundation for his philosophical system: Cogito, ergo sum." The thinker described above is A. Miguel de Cervantes. B. Tycho Brahe. C. Blaise Pascal. D. René Descartes. E. Francis Bacon.

D) Descartes (1596-1650) sought a military career in his twenties and served during the early phase of the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648). Soon, however, his preoccupation with mathematics and philosophy led him to devote his life to the study of truth. He established a connection between algebra and geometry that is expressed in the system of Cartesian coordinates, which graphically depicts algebraic equations on a two-dimensional grid. Descartes also made contributions to science, but his most famous achievement was in philosophy. His axiom "Cogito, ergo sum," which means "I think, therefore I am," was a skeptical reaction to scholasticism, which had used authority as the starting point of its conclusions. Descartes, in contrast, considered the relationship between thinking and being as the essential starting point for a logically consistent system of knowledge. Although his point of departure was skeptical in nature, he constructed logical arguments from this foundation to prove the existence of God.

Machiavelli was critical of the Italian city-states for their A. opposition to the pope. B. use of violence to attain their goals. C. patronage of the arts. D. failure to honor treaties. E. dependency on mercenaries.

E) Machiavelli criticized the Italian city-states for their use of mercenary armies led by figures called condottieri because these soldiers-of-fortune were unwilling to take risks and were often unreliable. He recommended the use of citizen militia, because they would not be tempted to switch their loyalties and would be willing to risk their lives to save their families and property.

Early Portuguese exploration primarily focused on what? A. searching for golf in South America B. seeking the Northwest Passage C.Following the routes of the Vikings D.Locating agricultural areas in the Caribbean

Early Portuguese exploration primarily focused on what? A. searching for gold in South America B. seeking the Northwest Passage C.trading along the African coast D.Following the routes of the Vikings E.Locating agricultural areas in the Caribbean

Which factor most contributed to the fall of the Assyrian Empire? A. The Ten Tribes of Israel rebelled and suffered deportation. B. Egyptian forces beat back the Assyrian army at the Nile Valley. C. Opposing civilizations mastered the creation of bronze weapons. D. Harsh treatment generated a great deal of hatred among subjects. E. The Persian Empire led a successful invasion of Assyrian lands.

The Assyrians, armed with superior iron weapons, conquered widely through the Fertile Crescent to create an empire stretching from the Tigris-Euphrates to the Nile Valley. Harsh conquerors and rulers, the Assyrians commonly deported rebellious subject peoples. Over time, however, such treatment generated too much hatred among subjects to maintain long-term stability, and the Neo-Babylonians successfully took the Assyrian capital in 612 BCE.

"He was renowned as a charismatic teacher, and his decision to lecture on theology in Paris added to its reputation as a center of learning. He agreed to tutor a young woman of keen intelligence; they had a love affair with disastrous consequences, and in repentance he became a monk. Other monks considered his theology heretical, and he died shortly after a condemnation of his teaching." The passage above describes the career of A. Anselm of Canterbury. B. Peter Abelard. C. Thomas Aquinas. D. Nicholas of Cusa. E. Bernard of Clairvaux.

"He was renowned as a charismatic teacher, and his decision to lecture on theology in Paris added to its reputation as a center of learning. He agreed to tutor a young woman of keen intelligence; they had a love affair with disastrous consequences, and in repentance he became a monk. Other monks considered his theology heretical, and he died shortly after a condemnation of his teaching." The passage above describes the career of A. Anselm of Canterbury. B. Peter Abelard. C. Thomas Aquinas. D. Nicholas of Cusa. E. Bernard of Clairvaux.

The emergence of the Reformation in England stemmed from A. Henry VIII's need for a male heir. B. theological rifts with the Catholic Church. C. the sale of indulgences and other luxuries. D. doctrinal objections to the ideas of transubstantiation. E. the teachings of Martin Luther and John Calvin.

(A) Although Protestantism in much of Europe arose as people embraced the theological ideals of Martin Luther and other Protestant leaders, the Reformation in England began from political motivations. Henry VIII, in need of the male heir that his longtime Spanish wife Catherine of Aragon had been unable to produce, sought to have his marriage to her annulled. When the pope refused under pressure from Catherine's Spanish relatives, Henry VIII separated the Church of England from Rome in order to secure the desired divorce. The move left the king at the head of the Church of England, although the doctrinal changes made were slight.

"His father had wanted him to become a lawyer, but he eventually abandoned the study of law and turned to classical literature. Though he wrote extensively in Latin, which he sought to restore to its classical style, his more popular literary achievements consisted of his vernacular poetry." Who is the individual described above? A. Francesco Petrarch B. Peter Abelard C. Paracelsus D. Baldassare Castiglione E. Marsilius of Padua

(A) Francesco Petrarch (1304-1374) abandoned his legal studies at the University of Bologna when his father died, for he preferred the contemplative life of letters to the active life of practicing law. He wrote an epic poem in Latin on the Roman hero Scipio Africanus, as well as numerous works in prose, but his sonnets in the Tuscan dialect of the Italian vernacular earned him the most praise.

All of the following Greek philosophers are known as Pre-Socratics EXCEPT A. Plato. B. Pythagoras. C. Heraclitus. D. Empedocles. E. Thales of Miletus.

(A) Plato (c. 427-347 B.C.E.) was a student of Socrates (469-399 B.C.E.). After the death of Socrates, Plato wrote his philosophical Dialogues, in which Socrates is the principal speaker.

Which of the following did Pope Gregory I (590-604) NOT do? A. Acknowledge the spiritual primacy of the patriarch of Constantinople. B. Send missionaries to England. C. Defend Rome from barbarians through diplomacy. D. Promote Benedictine monasticism. E. Feed the poor of Rome.

(A) Pope Gregory I asserted the spiritual primacy of the papacy, and thus claimed papal supremacy over the patriarch of Constantinople. During his pontificate Rome was nominally still part of the Byzantine Empire, but the emperor in Constantinople was unable to offer protection or other aid, and Gregory found it necessary to perform many of the functions that had formerly been the duty of the imperial government.

Which is true of Richard I the Lion-Hearted (1189-1199) during the Third Crusade? A. He captured the coastal city of Acre and executed Muslim prisoners of war. B. He was the first king to lead a crusade. C. He invaded Egypt. D. He founded the crusader kingdom of Jerusalem. E. He persuaded Venetian forces to seize Constantinople.

(A) Richard I of England (1189-1199), known as the Lion-Hearted, was one of three kings to lead the Third Crusade. In 1191 he captured the city of Acre on the coast (now part of Israel) and ordered the execution of over two thousand Muslim prisoners of war.

The cause of ecclesiastical reform in western Europe before the twelfth A. Cluniacs. B. Jesuits. C. Franciscans. D. Dominicans. E. Merovingians.

(A) The Clunaics were monks who belonged to a consortium of Benedictine monasteries led by the abbey of Cluny in eastern France, founded in the tenth century. The Cluniacs cooperated with the papacy to reform ecclesiastical discipline. In the eleventh century, especially under the leadership of Pope Gregory VII (1073-1085), they strove to free the church from control by powerful members of the laity, who often appointed bishops and abbots for political reasons rather than spiritual ones.

Which event reintroduced the threat of Muslim invasion of Europe from the Renaissance onward? A. The fall of the Byzantine Empire at Constantinople B. The success of the reconquista on the Iberian Peninsula C. The launch of the Christian Crusades to the Holy Land D. The alliance between the French and the Ottoman Turks E. The sack of the city of Vienna by Turkish invaders

(A) The Ottoman Turks conquered the city of Constantinople in 1453, overthrowing the Byzantine Empire and ending the last vestiges of the ancient Roman Empire. The establishment of the succeeding Ottoman Empire brought a major Muslim force to Europe for the first time since the occupation of the Iberian Peninsula (that had been largely ended by the reconquista), and brought the first real chance of European-Arab conflict since the earlier Crusades. The Ottomans quickly became active in European affairs, signing a treaty with the French monarch to oppose the Holy Roman Empire and unsuccessful laying siege to the city of Vienna in the sixteenth century.

All of these people were important Renaissance-era figures outside of Italy EXCEPT: A. Erasmus B. Petrarch C. Shakespeare D. Thomas More E. Albrecht Dürer

(B) Although many of the important innovations of the Renaissance centered on Italy, its ideas and influence spread throughout Europe. Of this group, only the Humanist Petrarch was Italian. Erasmus was an important Dutch Christian Humanist thinker. Shakespeare was a famed English dramatist, and Thomas More an English statesman and writer. Albrecht Dürer was a noted German painter.

The Amarna Period was most characterized by the development of A. advanced pyramid and tomb architecture. B. a short-lived monotheistic religious system. C. highly stylized and formal artistic forms. D. an accurate calendar based on the solar year. E. extensive administrative palace bureaucracies.

(B) During the Amarna Period, the Egyptian pharaoh Akhenaton adopted a revolutionary religious system based on the worship of a single god, the disk of the sun, Aton. However, Egyptian priests opposed the changes and the cult was suppressed after his death. The Amarna Period was otherwise mostly known for its unique statuary, which was much more naturalistic and relaxed than traditional stiff, formal forms.

The ancient Greeks living around the year 500 B.C.E. honored all of thefollowing gods in public festivals EXCEPT A. Dionysos. B. Mithras. C. Zeus. D. Athena. E. Apollo.

(B) Greeks alive in the year 500 B.C.E. did not engage in public worship of Mithras, a Persian god whose cult did not become popular in the Greek world until after Alexander the Great's conquest of the Persian empire (334-323 B.C.E.), when the polis was in decline and the demoralized Greeks turned away from the public worship of their traditional patron deities to private worship in mystery cults.

During the Middle Ages, Constantinople was attacked by all of the following EXCEPT A. Arabs. B. Mongols. C. Turks. D. Vikings. E. Christians.

(B) Of the groups listed, only the Mongols never threatened Constantinople. The city was attacked by Arabs (A) as early as 672 and eventually conquered by Turks (C) in 1453. Vikings (D) from Sweden mounted a series of attacks between 860 and 1043.

The religion of the Sumerians, with its gloomy view of the afterlife and its pantheon of capricious gods, is most fully described in which of the following ancient texts? A. The Book of the Dead B. The Epic of Gilgamesh C. The Hebrew Bible D. Homer's Iliad E. The Letters of Akhenaton

(B) The Epic of Gilgamesh describes the quest of the Sumerian king of Uruk who strove against the temperamental gods as he searched for immortality after the death of his friend Enkidu.

The Frankish barbarians converted to Catholic Christianity during the reign of the Merovingian king named A. Pepin the Short. B. Clovis. C. Charles Martel. D. Merovech. E. Gregory of Tours.

(B) The Frankish king Clovis (481-511) married a Catholic Burgundian princess. After experiencing a battlefield conversion (like that of the Emperor Constantine), he required all his subjects to accept Catholicism rather than Arian Christianity. The Merovingian dynasty was named after Clovis's grandfather, Merovech (D).

Who built mostly domed structures with a square base? A.Turks B.Byzantines C.Arabs D.Mongols E.Ostrogoths

(B)Byzantines; It is the most impressive example of Byzantine architecture, demonstrating its characteristic design of a dome over a square base.

Which of the following statements is NOT true of Pericles (c. 495-429 B.C.E.)? A. He was frequently elected general by the people. B. He led the imperialistic expansion of Athens. C. He was an aristocrat who tried to restore oligarchy. D. He hired the sculptor Phidias for his building program of the Acropolis. E. He used tribute from the Delian League to fund artistic endeavors in Athens.

(C) Although Pericles (c. 495-129 B.C.E.) was an Athenian aristocrat, he championed the cause of democracy and actively opposed oligarchy ("government of the few") by transferring traditional powers of the aristocratic council of the Areopagus to the democratic Council of 500, and by introducing payment for public service so that even poor citizens could afford to participate in government. In pursuing these policies, Pericles was motivated by practical concerns, for he regarded democracy as the most effective form of government, which would make Athens powerful by motivating the entire population to strive for the community's welfare

Which of the following was NOT one of the achievements of Charlemagne? A. He conquered the Saxons and forced them to convert to Christianity. B. He seized territory in Spain from the Muslims. C. He crowned himself emperor. D. He defeated the Lombards in Italy and made their kingdom his own. E. He gathered scholars from all over Latin Christendom to make his court an international center of learning.

(C) Although it is true that Charlemagne became emperor of a revived western Roman Empire, he did not crown himself (as Napoleon Bonaparte was to do centuries later). He was, rather, crowned by Pope Leo III (795-816)—a fact which was to have crucial implications for the future of church and state relations. The coronation, which took place on Christmas Day of the year 800, was apparently not Charlemagne's idea, but that of Leo III, who hoped to increase the prestige of the papacy by claiming the right to make emperors.

"Paris is worth a Mass." The statement above was made by A. Catherine de'Medici. B. Cardinal Richelieu. C. Henry of Navarre. D. Nicole Oresme. E. Philip the Fair.

(C) Henry of Navarre (1553-1610), of the Bourbon dynasty, was the leader of the Huguenots (Protestants) in the French wars of religion. When the last Valois king of France, Henry III, died in 1589 without an heir, the rules of succession made Henry of Navarre the first Bourbon king of France, as Henry IV (1589-1610). Most of the French people, however, who were Catholic, refused to accept a Protestant as their king and resisted Henry IV's attempts to enter Paris. In order to win the acceptance of his people, Henry IV converted to Catholicism in 1593, on which occasion he reputedly uttered the phrase, "Paris is worth a Mass," indicating his willingness to accept Catholic practices (such as the ritual of the Mass), which he had rejected as a Protestant, for the sake of political expediency. Although the Huguenots were initially dismayed at the conversion of their defender, Henry did not forsake them but used his power as a Catholic king of France to issue the Edict of Nantes (1598), which granted religious toleration to the French Protestants and ended the wars of religion in France.

The Iliad of Homer is an epic poem based on A. the Dorian invasion of Greece. B. a tragic play by Aeschylus. C. the war against Troy waged by the Mycenaeans. D. the wars between Athens and Sparta. E. the wars between Greece and Persia.

(C) Homer's Iliad is a legendary account of the Trojan War based on the actual war against Troy waged by the Mycenaean Greeks around 1200 B.C.E. The Iliad was composed at the end of Dark Age of ancient Greece (between about 850 and 700 B.C.E.) which began when the Dorian Greeks invaded the Balkan peninsula

All of the following were Greek poets EXCEPT A. Archilochus. B. Pindar. C. Ovid. D. Hesiod. E. Sappho of Lesbos.

(C) Ovid (c. 43 B.C.E.-17 C.E.) was a Latin poet who wrote during the time of the first Roman emperor, Augustus. Hesiod (D) was second only to Homer and wrote the Theogony, which describes the legends of the gods, and Works and Days, which describes life on a Greek farm. The other poets, Archilochus, Pindar, and Sappho (A, B, E) wrote lyric poetry.

Sargon of Akkad (c. 2371-2316 B.C.E.) is best known for A. establishing the art of writing among the Sumerians. B. spreading monotheism in Egypt. C. unifying Mesopotamia by conquering the Sumerian city-states and creating a vast empire. D. bringing peace to the ancient Near East by sponsoring a treaty between the Babylonians and the Kassites. E. freeing the Hebrews from exile in the Babylonian Empire.

(C) Sargon led the Akkadians, a Semitic people, in the conquest of the Sumerian city-states. His empire included and extended beyond the region of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, as far as Lebanon in the west.

Which of the following eastern European peoples were finally converted from paganism to Christianity in the fourteenth century, when their leader strengthened his realm by marrying the Catholic queen of a neighboring state? A. Czechs B. Poles C. Lithuanians D. Slovaks E. Russians

(C) The Lithuanians were the last Europeans to accept Christianity. Their chieftain, Mindaugas, converted to Catholicism in 1251, but the people remained pagan when he was assassinated in 1263. It was not until 1386, when Jagiello, the grand duke of Lithuania, married Jadwiga, the queen of Poland, that the Lithuanians finally accepted Christianity from the Latin church.

During the period of the late Merovingians, the most powerful office in the Frankish realm was that of the A. seneschal. B. constable. C. mayor of the palace. D. emperor. E. king.

(C) The Mayor of the Palace was the most powerful official in the Frankish realm during the period of the late Merovingian dynasty, whose last representatives were known as the "do-nothing" kings (E) because they entrusted all important affairs to their Mayor

The Peloponnesian League was A. an alliance of Greek city-states led by Athens whose transformation into the Athenian Empire precipitated the Peloponnesian War. B. an alliance of Greek city-states during the Hellenistic period. C. an alliance of Greek city-states led by Sparta. D. a commercial consortium of Greek city-states organized to promote overseas colonization. E. a commercial consortium of Phoenician city-states organized to promote overseas colonization.

(C) The Peloponnesian League was organized and led by Sparta as a mutual defense organization composed of most of the city-states on the peninsula in southern Greece known as the Peloponnesus. It lent its name to the Peloponnesian War (431-404 B.C.E.) because Sparta led it in its assault on Athens

Which of the following occupations did NOT fit into the medieval conception of society described by the phrase "those who fight, those who pray, those who work"? A. knights B. monks C. merchants D. priests E. serfs

(C) The concept of the three orders—those who fight, those who pray, those who work—reflected the society of the early Middle Ages, which was politically unstable, intellectually preoccupied with the supernatural, and economically based on agriculture rather than commerce. This was a world in which merchants played a negligible role; indeed, they did not arise as a distinct class until the eleventh and twelfth centuries, when political stability made possible the revival of trade and the growth of towns, which are the centers of commerce

Which of these nations had the weakest centralized monarchy by the end of the Renaissance? A. France B. Spain C. Italy D. Turkey E. England

(C) The strengthening of centralized monarchies that began during the late Middle Ages continued into the Renaissance. After the Hundred Years' War and skirmishes with the Duchy of Burgundy, France was united under the strong Valois kings. Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile managed to secure Spain and complete the reconquista. Henry VIII ruled England with a firm hand, and the Ottoman Turks established a strong imperial monarchy at Constantinople. Italy, however, remained divided into multiple, competing city-states and kingdoms with no clear dominant power.

All of the following explorers and colonialists were sponsored by Spain EXCEPT A. Ferdinand Magellan. B. Hernando de Soto. C. Vasco da Gama. D. Hernando Cortez. E. Francisco Pizarro

(C) Vasco da Gama was employed by Portugal when he sailed for India in 1497. Although Magellan (A) was Portuguese, he was employed by Spain during the first circumnavigation of the globe for which his expedition is famous

The most widely read philosopher in the medieval universities was A. Plotinus. B. Maimonides. C. Averroes. D. Aristotle. E. Plato.

(D) Aristotle was so important in the medieval universities that he was often referred to simply as "the Philosopher." His works were initially read through the commentaries of the twelfth-century Muslim philosopher Averroes (C), but later Scholastics preferred to separate the two and focus on Aristotle himself, especially when his texts became available in new translations based on the original Greek text.

The Old Babylonian kingdom of the Amorites in Mesopotamia disintegrated around 1600 B.C.E. because A. increasingly oppressive taxes and repeated crop failures led to long-term economic depression. B. the nobility and the priesthood conspired against the king, leading to political fragmentation. C. a series of slave revolts destabilized government and undercut the economic foundations of the region. D. it was invaded by Hittites from the north and Kassites from the east. E. it was invaded by Hyksos from the west.

(D) Around 1600 B.C.E. Mesopotamia was invaded by Hittites from Asia Minor (Anatolia) and Kassites from what is now Iran. Although the Hittites merely raided the Old Babylonian kingdom and returned home with the spoils of war, the Kassites overthrew the Babylonian kings and ruled in their place for five centuries.

The Dominican friar Bartolomé de Las Casas was A. the leader of the Spanish Inquisition during the reign of Queen Isabella. B. the founder of the Dominican Order. C. an early leader of the Reconquista. D. an early critic of Spanish imperialism in the New World. E. a humanist who wrote an Oration on the Dignity of Man.

(D) Bartolomé de Las Casas (1474-1566) was a Spanish missionary in the New World who was appalled at the brutal enslavement of native peoples and campaigned for their humane treatment.

"Moreover, I think Carthage must be destroyed." This remark, frequently repeated at the end of his speeches in the Senate, was said by A. Julius Caesar, to win support for his war against the Gauls. B. Augustus Caesar, to win support for his war against the Germans. C. Marius, to win support for the Jugurthine war. D. Cato the Elder, to win support for the Third Punic War. E. Scipio the Elder, to win support for the Second Punic War.

(D) Cato the Elder (234-149 B.C.E.) was a Roman senator who led the war-party during the second century B.C.E. He ended all the speeches he gave in the Senate, regardless of the subject, with a call to renew the war against Carthage. Although Carthage posed no serious threat to Rome, which had already conquered its rival twice, the party led by Cato wanted it utterly destroyed so that Rome could have a free hand in subduing the rest of the Mediterranean. Cato eventually succeeded in convincing the Senate to begin the Third Punic War against Carthage, but did not live to see Scipio the Younger raze the city in 146 B.C.E.

"At first an unremarkable pastoral society, the people of this city-state expelled their kings early in their history and established a form of government consisting of elected public offices. Its domination by a few wealthy families led to tumultuous periods of class struggle. The society's favorable geographical position, in combination with the development of an innovative form of military organization and a toughminded refusal to be discouraged by setbacks, enabled it to take a dominant role in international politics." The society described above was that of the A. Carthaginians. B. Athenians. C. Etruscans. D. Romans. E. Gauls.

(D) Key features of Roman society and culture include: their rejection of monarchy, their representative form of government (the Republic), the domination of this government by the patrician class that constituted the Senate, the turmoil caused by the attempt of the plebeians to resist the self-serving policies of the patricians, the virtues of toughness and uncompromising tenacity, and the innovative military formation known as the legion, which was superior to the phalanx used by most ancient Mediterranean societies and enabled Rome to dominate its neighbors.

Which of the following is NOT true of the Carolingian Renaissance? A. It brought scholars from all over Western Europe to study at the court of Charlemagne. B. It founded schools to train clerics. C. It promoted a simplified script, which forms the basis of the modern printed alphabet. D. It promoted Greek as the common language of the Frankish empire. E. It preserved much of the classical literature of the pagans through the copying of manuscripts.

(D) Only a few Carolingian scholars (especially those from Ireland) could read Greek. Charlemagne promoted Latin as the common language of his empire.

Ostracism was originally a practice in the ancient world by which A. the Spartans forced their young men to leave their mothers and live a harsh life of military training in barracks. B. criminals were sent to penal colonies. C. the Romans executed individuals who tried to overthrow the Republic. D. the Athenians temporarily exiled individuals whom they regarded as a threat to democracy. E. the Phoenicians decided on members of the community to send out for the purpose of establishing colonies.

(D) Ostracism derives from the Greek word ostraka, which was a piece of broken pottery on which the Athenians would write the name of an individual (usually a wealthy aristocrat) whom they considered a danger to their democracy.

All of the following are true of the Athenian political reformer Solon EXCEPT A. He divided citizens into four classes based on their wealth. B. He wrote poetry. C. He canceled the debts of impoverished citizens. D. He established a Council of 500 members. E. He restored freedom to citizens who had been sold into slavery.

(D) Solon established a Council of 400, which drew 100 members from each of the four traditional tribes of Athens. The Council of 500 was established by a later reformer, Cleisthenes, who sought to break the power of the nobles, who dominated the four tribes, by establishing ten tribes based on new political units called denies; each of these ten new tribes supplied 50 members to the Council of 500. All the rest is true of Solon: he canceled the debts of impoverished citizens (C), restored freedom to citizens who had been sold into slavery (E), divided citizens into four classes based on their wealth (A), and wrote poetry, in which he described his political experiment (B).

Which of the following was NOT a consequence of the Fourth Crusade? A. Feudal states were established in Greece. B. The patriarch of Constantinople attended the Fourth Lateran Council. C. Works of Byzantine art were sent to Italy. D. A legacy of ill will was engendered between Muslims and Christians. E. The Venetians acquired a monopoly on Byzantine trade.

(D) The Fourth Crusade never reached the Muslims but was instead diverted against the Christian city of Constantinople, which was sacked in 1204. Thus, the Fourth Crusade did not contribute to the legacy of ill will between Muslims and Christians, as the other Crusades did, but instead poisoned relations between the Latin and Greek Christians, who had already been estranged since 1054.

The Social War (90-88 B.C.E.) A. was the civil war between Marius and Sulla. B. began as an uprising led by Mithridates, the king of Ponrus. C. was fought between Athens and its allies in the Delian League. D. was fought over the extension of Roman citizenship. E. is the name of legislation giving greater freedom to Roman women in the late Republic.

(D) The Social War (90-88 B.C.E.) was precipitated by the assassination of the Roman tribune Marcus Drusus, who sought to extend Roman citizenship to Rome's Italian allies; the Senate opposed the measure because it threatened to dilute its own political power. In response, the Italian allies seceded from Rome, initiating a war that is named after the Latin word socii, which means "allies."

All of the following are true of the Minoans EXCEPT A. They dominated trade in the eastern Mediterreanean. B. Their settlement on the Aegean island of Thera was destroyed by a volcanic eruption. C. They built magnificent palaces adorned with frescoes that depicted women leading ritual events and athletes jumping over bulls. D. They invented the first alphabet. E. Their civilization on the isle of Crete was eventually invaded bythe Mycenaeans.

(D) The first alphabet was devised by the scribes of Ugarit (in the Levant), probably during the fourteenth century B.C.E.—about 200 years after the end of Minoan civilization. (This alphabet was later adapted by the Phoenicians, and then, via the Phoenicians, by the Greeks.) The Minoans, in contrast, used a syllabary—their written symbols represented syllables rather than individual letters. Minoan writing is known as "Linear Script A" and has never been deciphered; another Minoan script, known as "Linear B," has been identified as an early form of Greek. Both scripts were found in ruins on the isle of Crete, where the Minoans lived. Since Linear B seems to have been used only toward the end of Minoan history, scholars have concluded that the Greek-speaking Mycenaeans invaded Crete perhaps around 1550 B.C.E. and tried to impose their rule there (E). It is not known when the Minoans first arrived on Crete, but their civilization flourished from about 2000 B.C.E.; among its finest achievements were a number of magnificent palaces, which were adorned with artwork characterized by the prominence of female figures and athletes (C). The prosperity that enabled the Minoans to build on such a grand scale was due to their control of maritime trade in the eastern Mediterranean (A). Yet even during the time of their prosperity, the Minoans periodically endured terrible setbacks, such as earthquakes which destroyed many of their palaces (c. 1800 B.C.E.) and an exceptionally violent volcanic eruption around 1627 B.C.E. that devastated the Minoan colony on the island of Thera in the Aegean Sea (B).

The strongest monarchy during the twelfth century was A. Germany. B. Italy. C. Spain. D. England. E. France.

(D) The kingdom of England was the most unified monarchy in Europe during the twelfth century. The Anglo-Saxons had united all of England under one king by the eleventh century, and William the Conqueror introduced the highly organized feudal government of Normandy there after his victory at Hastings in 1066. His successors, especially Henry II (1154-1189), continued to strengthen the central authority of the monarchy and established an empire that controlled large portions of France.

The military innovation devised by the Romans that enabled them to conquer the Mediterranean region was the A. phalanx. B. horse-drawn chariot. C. war elephant. D. legion. E. trireme.

(D) The legion was a military formation devised by the Romans that consisted of about 5,000 men organized into smaller units called maniples, which could act independently of one another.

"His father had been the governor of Britain. From his base there, he defeated his rivals in battle until finally his claim to the imperial throne was undisputed. Although he had worshiped the Persian god Mithras in his youth, he converted to Christianity and was baptized on his deathbed. He founded a new city in the east to serve as the capital of the Roman Empire." Who was the emperor described above? A. Diocletian B. Decius C. Marcus Aurelius D. Constantine E. Claudius

(D) The paragraph describes the career of Constantine the Great (306-337 C.E.), who in 330 C.E. founded a city near the site of ancient Byzantium which he called New Rome, but which was later renamed Constantinople in his honor.

The Greek polis, or city-state, was all of the following EXCEPT A. the basic unit of social, economic, and political organization in ancient Greece. B. a force for unity on the local level. C. a cause of endemic warfare among the Greeks. D. a source of inspiration for the establishment of a classless society. E. an institution that prevented unity among the Greeks as a whole.

(D) The polis did not do away with class distinctions, and even democracies like Athens were divided into clearly-defined social groups, which often resulted in tension among the classes.

"Unhappiness is not caused by external events in themselves, but rather by our opinions about external events. It is within our power to change our thoughts about an event, and we can free ourselves from unhappiness by freeing ourselves from desire. Thus, if we no longer desire events to turn out one way or another, we will never be disappointed by them, and we can live a tranquil life, free from worry and unhappiness." A. Epicureanism B. Platonism C. Skepticism D. Aristotelianism E. Stoicism

(E) Stoicism suspected all emotions as a threat to tranquility and recommended a form of enlightened apathy as the cure for unhappiness (apatheia in Greek means "freedom from pain").

Philip IV (the Fair) of France did all of the following to increase his revenue EXCEPT A. exile Jews and seize their wealth. B. destroy the Order of Knights Templar and seize their wealth. C. debase the coinage. D. summon the Estates-General. E. tax the clergy.

(D) The reign of Philip IV of France (1285-1314), called the Fair, was bedeviled by cash shortages due to his expensive wars with England and Flanders. To remedy the problem, Philip tried various measures, but the summoning of the Estates-General in 1302 was not directly motivated by his desire to raise revenue. Philip knew that the Estates-General, as a new body of clerics, knights, and burghers who represented French society, lacked the prestige to serve as a centralized assembly for the gathering of taxes in a nation which respected long-established tradition and where loyalties were primarily regional, so he turned to his growing bureaucracy of lawyers and sent royal ministers to the various provinces of France to negotiate tax arrangements based on the manipulation of feudal law. His reason for summoning the Estates-General was, rather, to muster popular support for his opposition to the pope

All of the following features of civilization were present in the Fertile Crescent around the year 3000 B.C.E. EXCEPT A. bronze-working. B. irrigation. C. writing. D. the alphabet. E. the wheel.

(D) When the earliest civilizations appeared in the river valleys of the Fertile Crescent, they were already making use of the wheel (E), irrigation (B), bronze-working (A), and writing (C). However, the alphabet was not developed until about 1400 B.C.E., when the Syrian city-state of Ugarit adapted the cuneiform writing that was used in 3000 B.C.E. (which represented syllables and entire words), in order to represent individual sounds, which is the hallmark of an alphabet. The Phoenicians replaced the cumbersome cuneiform letters of the Ugaritic alphabet with simpler symbols, and these were eventually imitated by the Hebrews, Greeks, and Romans to form the alphabets that bear their name.

Which of the following Athenians wrote comedies that were critical ofthe Peloponnesian War (431-404 B.C.E.)? A. Aeschylus B. Sophocles C. Euripides D. Thucydides E. Aristophanes

(E) Aristophanes (c. 450-385 B.C.E.) was renowned for his comedies, some of which criticized the Peloponnesian War (such as The Acharnians and Lysistratd).

The Athenian political reformer, Cleisthenes, invented which political unit to serve as the basis of the new government espoused by the Athenians in 508 B.C.E.? A. phalanx. B. phratry. C. thetes. D. boule. E. deme.

(E) Cleisthenes's revolutionary new political unit was the deme, which was based on the word demos ("people") and inspired the word "democracy" (demokratia).

Which of the following is true of Cardinal Richelieu? A. He helped the Hapsburgs restore Catholicism to the Holy Roman Empire. B. He confirmed the traditional privileges of the French nobles in order to prevent civil war in France. C. He decreased military spending in order to balance the budget. D. He used the Inquisition to convert the Huguenots to Catholicism. E. He increased the power of the French monarchy.

(E) Richelieu's central policy was to increase the power of the French monarchy. All of his other policies were but means to this end, and his religious affiliation did not affect his political calculations. Thus, although the Hapsburgs were fellow Catholics, Richelieu sided with the Protestants in the Thirty Years' War because the presence of Protestantism in the Holy Roman Empire weakened the Hapsburgs and allowed France to emerge as the most powerful state in Europe (A)

"Led by ruthless warrior-kings, their empire was known for its brutality. They completely destroyed rebellious cities and deported unruly subjects, such as the Hebrews of the kingdom of Israel, and they depicted scenes of violence in their art in order to discourage rebellion. Their military machine was so effective that they even briefly subjugated Egypt and were thus the first people to control both of the two great river-valleys of the ancient Near East, the Tigris-Euphrates and the Nile." The people described above are known as the A. Babylonians. B. Medes. C. Romans. D. Hittites. E. Assyrians.

(E) The Assyrians were renowned for their effectiveness in war and their harsh methods of controlling their empire. They conquered the Near East during the eighth and seventh centuries B.C.E., including Egypt. However, in 612 B.C.E. they themselves were finally conquered by a Neo-Babylonian dynasty (A), with help from the Medes (B).

All of the following were features of the Counter Reformation EXCEPT A. the convocation of a church council to clarify doctrine. B. the publication of an index of prohibited books. C. the establishment of a new inquisition. D. the founding of new religious orders. E. the weakening of the pope's spiritual authority within the Roman Catholic Church.

(E) The Counter (or Catholic) Reformation strengthened, not weakened, the spiritual authority of the papacy within the Roman Catholic Church. Pope Paul III (1534-1549) took a leading role in organizing Catholic reform in response to the Protestant Reformation.

Which of the following had the fewest theological differences with the Roman Catholic Church? A. John Calvin B. Ulrich Zwingli C. Martin Luther D. John Knox E. Henry VIII

(E) The English Reformation, as initiated by Henry VIII (1491-1547), was more political than theological in nature. In 1529 Henry petitioned Pope Clement VII for a marriage annulment, thinking that his wife, Catherine of Aragon, was responsible for the failure to produce a male heir. However, the pope was a virtual prisoner of Catherine's powerful nephew, the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V and Henry's request was denied. In 1532 Henry divorced Catherine without the pope's permission and was excommunicated, whereupon Henry made himself the head of the Church of England and reorganized its administration. Apart from his unwillingness to accept a subordinate role to the pope, Henry VIII remained theologically conservative even after his break with Rome. It was not until after Henry's reign that England became more typically Protestant in a theological sense.

The first international peace treaty that brought stability to the ancient Near East was negotiated between the Hittites and the A. Sea Peoples. B. Sumerians. C. Neo-Babylonians. D. Persians. E. Egyptians.

(E) The Hittites and Egyptians ended two centuries of warfare in the Levant by signing a treaty after the indecisive battle of Kadesh in northern Syria in 1274 B.C.E. The two empires thereby agreed to share power in the region of Syria and Palestine, which marked their mutual border.

The secular German state of Prussia was founded during the Reformation by A. Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden. B. Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor. C. Count Philip of Hesse. D. Frederick the Wise, Elector of Saxony. E. Albrecht von Hohenzollern, Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights.

(E) The Hohenzollern dynasty ruled Prussia throughout its history as an independent secular state. The state was founded in 1525 during the Reformation when Albrecht (Albert) von Hohenzollern, the last Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights, became a Lutheran and secularized the lands of the religious order.

Italian politics during the Renaissance (c. 1400-c. 1600) was dominated at one time or another by all of the following EXCEPT A. The Valois kings of France. B. The Hapsburg Holy Roman Emperor. C. The Republic of Florence. D. The Duchy of Milan. E. The Lombard League.

(E) The Lombard League was an alliance of northern Italian city-states which banded together in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries to resist control by the German emperors, who claimed Italy as part of the Holy Roman Empire. The League won a victory against Frederick I (1152-1190) at Legnano in 1176 and later resisted his grandson, Frederick II (1215-1250) in protracted wars. During the Renaissance, Italy was dominated by five states: the Duchy of Milan (D), the Republic of Florence (C), the Republic of Venice, the Papal States, and Naples. The Treaty of Lodi (1454) brought Milan, Florence, and Venice into an alliance that established a balance of power against Naples and the Papal States. In 1494 French troops invaded Italy under Charles VIII (1483-1498) of the Valois dynasty (A). The Hapsburg Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V (1519-1558), later also led armies into Italy (B), where he fought the Valois for control of the country.

Spread across three continents, the Hellenistic realms that emerged after a long period of civil war following the death of Alexander the Great were known as A. the Achaean League and the Aetolian League. B. the Peloponnesian League and the Delian League. C. the kingdoms of Pergamum, Bithynia, and Cilicia. D. Magna Graecia ("Great Greece"). E. the Antigonid, Ptolemaic, and Seleucid kingdoms.

(E) The three Hellenistic kingdoms that emerged from the civil war following the death of Alexander the Great were the Antigonid, Ptolemaic, and Seleucid kingdoms, named after the generals who founded these realms in Europe, Africa, and Asia.

The Great Interregnum was a period during which A. no one occupied the throne of the Holy Roman Empire. B. few historical records exist due to a general lack of literacy. C. German groups controlled the throne of the western Roman Empire. D. rival popes attempted to lead the Church from Rome and Avignon. E. national kings had little power in comparison to their feudal lords.

A; The Great Interregnum lasted from 1254 to 1273, during which time no emperor ruled over the Holy Roman Empire. Instead, various groups of nobles fought to win control of the throne, allowing regional lords to strengthen their holds over their own territories. During the Great Schism, two rival popes vied for control of the Church. The other periods described had no particular title.

Which of these statements accurately describes the achievements of Alexander the Great? A. As a conqueror, Alexander reached as far as India B.Alexander unified the Greek penisula in the League of Corinth C.Despite strong efforts, Alexander failed to defeat the Persian Empire D.The empire of Alexander was based in the city-state Athens E.Roman forces repelled Alexander's troops during their invasion of Italy

A; Alexander the Great took on the Persian Empire during the mid-fourth century BCE, successfully defeating its powerful army to become the king of Persia in 328 BCE. The conqueror ruled his holdings from there. By the time of his death five years later, Alexander had built an empire reaching to the borders of India, beyond which point his men refused to travel. Alexander the Great's father, Philip of Macedon, had earlier united the Greek city-states in the League of Corinth. Focused mostly on the East, Alexander the Great had no forays as far west as Italy.

Which of these was NOT a characteristic of the reign of Charlemagne? A.Warring between the Franks and the Byzantines B.Increased interest in literacy and learning C.Expansion of Frankish territory in all directions D.Growth of connections between the papacy and monarchs E.Encouragement of Latin as a common language

A; Charlemagne's lengthy reign saw a number of achievements for the Carolingian Franks. The monarch successfully seized territory in Spain, northern Italy, and near the Danube, among other places. He also oversaw what became known as the Carolingian Renaissance—a time of increased learning and scholarship based at his court. This included the spread of Latin as a common language and support for manuscript legibility and copying. In 800, the pope crowned Charlemagne Roman Emperor as part of his alliance with the papacy. Although the Byzantines were concerned over the growth of Charlemagne's power, they recognized his legitimacy and did not go to war with him.

The Golden Age of Roman literature is most closely associated with the reign of A. Augustus. B. Hadrian. C. Nero. D. Constantine. E. Marcus Aurelius.

A; Historians generally tie Rome's Golden Age to dates of the reign of the first true emperor, Augustus. Augustus supported the work of some of Rome's most important authors, including the poets Virgil, Horace, and Ovid. The later Silver Age included the reigns of Nero and Hadrian. Constantine was mostly influential in governmental and religious matters, and Marcus Aurelius, although a noted philosopher himself, reigned well after the Golden Age had ended.

Which Crusade was most successful in terms of land conquests by the military crusaders? A. First B. Second C. Third D. Fourth E. Fifth

A; Only the First Crusade in the late eleventh century enjoyed any marked degree of success. These early Crusaders captured land stretching from Jerusalem to modern-day Turkey. Later Crusades were generally dismal failures. The Second Crusade failed to regain a lost holding on the First Crusade; the Third Crusade left Jerusalem in the hands of Muslim forces. During the Fourth Crusade, the warriors sacked the city of Constantinople and completely failed to reach Muslim lands. The Fifth Crusade won the Crusaders access to Jerusalem, but relied mostly on diplomatic rather than military efforts.

Which of the following was NOT a change that resulted from the Peloponnesian Wars? A. Sparta became the dominant Greek power B.Classical Greek culture largely declined C.Athens briefly shifted away from democracy D.Sparta developed a powerful naval force E.Infighting amongst competing city-states grew

A; The Peloponnesian Wars between Sparta and Athens reshaped the balance of power on the Greek peninsula. Sparta developed a powerful navy, sponsored by the Persian Empire, in order to bolster its already-superior land forces. The resulting Athenian defeat contributed to a decline of Classical culture and left the city under the control of the Sparta-friendly Thirty Tyrants for a time. But a weakened Sparta lacked the ability to become a truly unifying force, and it competed with other city-states such as Corinth for domination of the Greeks. This conflict further destabilized Greek power and set the stage for the successful invasion of Philip of Macedon.

How did the German and Sassanian invasions shape the Roman Empire during the third century CE? A.The Roman military gained too much power even as the economy suffered B.German puppet emperors took the imperial throne to end the western empire C.Rome list a great deal of land to the north but retained its power in the East D.Imperial troops repelled the attackers and launched a successful expansion campaign E.Invading forces spread Christian ideas to the Roman citizenry throughout Europe

A; The third-century crisis was triggered in the Roman Empire by German invasions from the north and Sassanian invasions from the east. During this period, conflict led to destabilization, largely because of the growth of power of the Roman military and internal warring within that institution. At the same time, the Roman economy weakened, and the government failed to exert control over the empire. But the western empire did not fall for another two centuries. Land losses were not concentrated in the north, nor did the invasions spur a period of fresh expansion. Christianity, although not yet legal in Rome, did exist there, and invading Germans were not primarily missionaries.

"To me it seemed, in passing, to do outrage, Seeing the others without being seen; Wherefore I turned me to my counsel sage. Well knew he what the mute one wished to say, -And therefore waited not for my demand, But said: Speak, and be brief, and to the point. I had Virgilius upon that side Of the embankment from which one may fall, Since by no border 'tis engarlanded;" —From the "Divine Comedy," by Dante Alighieri The excerpt above exemplifies which literary tradition? A. Vernacular B. Classical Greek C. Italian Renaissance D. Roman E. Illuminated

A; This excerpt comes from the famed "Divine Comedy," which recounts author Dante Alighieri's mythical journey through Hell with the Roman poet Virgil as a guide. Originally written in Dante's Florentine dialect, the work is one of the leading examples of medieval vernacular literature. Although it contains references to a Roman poet, it dates from well after the Roman period; the classical reference presages the Renaissance interest in Greece and Rome, but precedes it. Illuminated manuscripts were those featuring ornate drawings rather than those of a particular literary style.

Which of these was NOT a feature of Zoroastrianism as practiced in the Persian Empire? A. Persecution of those of other faiths B. Monotheistic worship of one god C. Belief in a struggle between good and evil D. Reliance on the teachings of a prophet E. Expectation of a last judgment over humans

A;Zoroastrianism, based on the teachings of the prophet Zoroaster—also known as Zarathustra—flourished in the Persian Empire. This religion centered on the worship of the god Ahura Mazda, believed to be the incarnation of good in the eternal cosmic struggle between good and evil. Zoroastrians believed that Ahura Mazda would eventually triumph in a final battle against the forces of evil, resulting in a Last Judgment of believers. The Persians respected religious diversity, however, and allowed those of other faiths to retain their beliefs.

"By pleasure we mean the absence of pain in the body and of trouble in the soul.... It is sober reasoning, searching out the grounds of every choice and avoidance, and banishing those beliefs through which the greatest tumults take possession of the soul. Of all this the beginning and the greatest good is wisdom." The ideas expressed above express the philosophy of A. Aristotle. B. Epicurus. C. St. Thomas Aquinas. D. Zeno of Citium. E. Cicero.

B; Epicurus founded the influential Hellenistic philosophy of Epicureanism, which argued for the dedication of life to the seeking of pleasure. Competing with Epicureanism during this era was Stoicism, founded by Zeno of Citium, which encouraged the pursuit of a state of enlightened apathy. Cicero was an important Roman writer and thinker who espoused Stoicism. The earlier philosopher Aristotle was a leader in ideas relating to logic, scientific reasoning, and politics; the later thinker St. Thomas Aquinas applied Aristotelian ideas to Christianity.

What was one benefit of the Italian Renaissance-era commenda system? A. It helped protect shippers from the loss of cargo. B. It gave investors the ability to diversify their ventures. C. It encouraged more accurate record-keeping. D. It permitted the practice of usury. E. It allowed money to be moved without the use of cash.

B; The commenda system allowed investors to put capital into a project that was actually undertaken by the recipient of the funds. This freed up investors' time, thus allowing them to financially support more varied commercial activities and take advantage of the emerging Renaissance market. Sea loans offered shippers maritime insurance, and double-entry bookkeeping allowed for better record-keeping. Bills of exchange served as the prototype for modern checks. Usury remained technically banned under church law, but practically undertaken through the use of various loopholes.

Which of the following scientists did NOT contribute to the development of the heliocentric theory? A. Nicholas Copernicus B. Andreas Vesalius C. Johannes Kepler D. Galileo Galilei E. Tycho Brahe

B; The development of the heliocentric theory—the idea that Earth orbits the Sun, and not the other way around—emerged during the sixteenth century thanks to the works of several astronomers. Copernicus argued that the theory must be right because it was simpler than the geocentric model. His model was improved upon by Kepler, who drew on the orbital observations of Brahe to perfect the theory. Galileo helped popularize the theory by writing about it in Italian rather than Latin, bringing it to the masses. Vesalius was a doctor who contributed greatly to the study of anatomy, not astronomy.

Solon's leadership of Athens resulted in the A. widespread redistribution of farmland B.development of a formal constitution C.creation of an early written body of laws D. diminishment of power for wealthy elites E.perfection of the use of direct democracy

B; The greatest achievement made by Solon's rule of Athens is generally accepted to be the establishment of the Athenian constitution. This plan distributed political power along lines of wealth and status, with the elites holding the most. The earlier leader Draco had created the city-state's first written body of laws; later reforms, particularly under Cleisthenes and Pericles, further refined Athenian democracy. Although Draco's law codes had left instability relating to agrarian issues and debt, Solon's reforms did not go as far as to redistribute land.

All of the following are true of Hammurabi's Code EXCEPT: A. It meted out very harsh punishments for offenders. B. It served as the most comprehensive body of law in ancient Mesopotamia. C. It was based primarily on religious and moral teachings. D. It dealt mostly with civil, property, and commercial matters. E. It offered needed stability to ancient Babylonian society.

C; Hammurabi ruled the hierarchical civilization of Babylon during the early eighteenth century BCE. During his reign, he developed a comprehensive body of law based on both old and new judgments, mostly to address issues of family, land ownership, and commercial transactions. This code, based on the principle of "an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth," treated violators quite harshly. It was not, however, linked to any particularly religious or moral teachings.

Which was the immediate effect of the Magna Carta? A.France and England went to war under King John B.The English king accepted limitation on his powers C.England was united under William the Conqueror D.The Church of England came under control of the king E.Parliament split into the House of Commons and the House of Lords

B; The signing of the Magna Carta resulted from a minor rebellion by the English nobility after the incompetent King John attempted an unpopular tax increase to raise money to go to war with France. The document placed limitations of the king's power and assured certain rights to the English barons; these rights had generally been enjoyed during the feudal period as a check on the monarch's powers. Later in the century, the first Parliament was called as an advisory body, and was split during the fourteenth century into two legislative bodies. The Church of England did not come under internal control under the time of Henry VIII.

The Delian League was established primarily as a response to A. attacks on the Greek mainland by Philip of Macedon. B. Spartan aggression during the Peloponnesian Wars. C. Greek fears of invasion by the Persian Empire. D. the formation of the competing Peloponnesian League. E. Athenian expansionist politics supported by Pericles.

C; Although the Greeks managed to repel the Persian invasions by 479 BCE, fears of another round of Persian attacks convinced the Athenians of the wisdom of a mutual defense league similar to Sparta's Peloponnesian League. The Athenians thus founded the Delian League, a mostly naval alliance led by Athens and named for the member island of Delos. The Delian League supported Athenian power in the coming years, particularly during the government of Pericles, but fell after Sparta defeated Athens in the Peloponnesian Wars. The League was thus no longer in existence by the time of Philip's invasions.

Which two medieval social and economic institutions traced their roots to Diocletian's reforms? A. Manorialism and subinfeudation B. Fealty and monasticism C. Serfdom and the guild system D. Monasticism and feudalism E. Merchant guilds and joint-stock companies

C; Diocletian's reforms of the Roman Empire during the late third century included the requirement that farmers remain tied to their land and that sons adopt their fathers' trade. These helped set the stage for the later institution of serfdom, which required peasants to remain tied to the land, and the guild system, which passed a trade from master to apprentice, often within the family. Diocletian persecuted Christians and did not encourage a monastic system. Joint-stock companies arose well after the Middle Ages. The term "subinfeudation" describes the pyramid-like medieval social structure as a whole rather than a specific aspect.

Which of the following was NOT part of the medieval quadrivium? A. Arithmetic B. Geometry C. Logic D. Astronomy E. Music

C; During ancient times, thinkers first established the idea of the "liberal arts." These included the trivium, the three linguistic arts—grammar, rheotic, and logic—and the quadrivium, or mathematical arts—arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music. These liberal arts formed the basis of a university education for centuries to come, with the trivium acting as the basis of study for the more demanding quadrivium.

Which Germanic group established a lasting kingdom in Spain during the fifth century CE? A. Franks B.Vikings C.Huns D.Visigoths E. Normans

D; After sacking Rome in 410, the Visigoths established themselves in Spain and southern Gaul. The Franks pushed the group out of Gaul in 507, but the Visigoths' kingdom in Spain endured until 711. At that time, Muslims from North Africa overthrew the Visigoths in order to establish their own kingdom on the Spanish peninsula.

All of the following are true of Roman religion EXCEPT: A. Romans adopted many of the gods worshipped by the Greeks. B. The ponitfex maximus served both religious and political purposes. C. Little religious diversity existed in the centuries before Christianity. D. Divination and ancestor worship were important parts of Roman beliefs. E. Mystery cults often imported foreign traditions and ideas.

C; Like the Egyptians, the Romans practiced syncretism, or the combination of multiple religious traditions. This meant that Roman religious life, despite formally adhering to the principles of the state religion, held a wide variety of religious ideas and practices. The state religion focused on the worship of gods mostly imported from Greece, and combined political and religious functions. Romans also drew on Etruscan ideas such as divination and traditional practices including ancestor worship. In later years, mystery cults from places including Greece, Turkey, Egypt, and Persia also became popular.

What was one effect of the English defeat of the Spanish Armada? A. The Dutch Republic was returned to Spanish control. B. Spain lost its claims to New World territories desired by the English. C. England showed its naval strength and began its ascent to empire. D. France claimed the coastal city of Calais from the English. E. Elizabeth regained control of the throne from the Catholic Queen Mary.

C; The Spanish Armada attacked the English navy in 1588 after the English lent their support to the Dutch rebellion against Spain. Queen Elizabeth, who had ascended to the English throne after the reign of the Catholic Mary I—marked by a failed war against France that forced Elizabeth to give up the city of Calais—faced the Spanish Armada successfully. The English navy repelled the invading fleet, increasing English nationalism and helping to pave the way for its later British Empire.

Which of these was most important to the success of manorialism? A. increased mechanization of industrial works B.extensive road systems and trade networks C.High levels of cheap agricultural labor D.presence of a strong centralized government E.Economic protection from investment risk

C; The economic system of manorialism dominated parts of Western Europe during the Middle Ages as a partner to the feudal system. Under manorialism, unfree peasant serfs performed agricultural labor for a lord on a fief in exchange for the right to grow their own food and subsist. Thus, their labor provided the backbone of the system. Developments such as the rise of towns and increased trade weakened manorialism. By the time of industrialization, it had been entirely supplanted.

The Treaty of Lodi A. joined several northern Italian cities to defeat invading German forces. B. divided the Carolingian kingdom of Charlemagne into three realms. C. created an alliance of northern Italian states against the papal states and Naples. D. formally recognized the independence of the Dutch Republic from Spain. E. established an imaginary line dividing the New World claims of Spain and Portugal.

C;Signed in 1454, the Treaty of Lodi created an alliance of Florence, Milan, and Venice to stand against the powers of the central papal states and the southern Kingdom of Naples. The Lombard League had united northern Italian city-states against the Germans some centuries earlier. The Treaty of Verdun divided the Frankish kingdom among the sons of Louis the Pious. The Dutch Republic achieved independence as part of the Treaty of Westphalia. The Treaty of Tordesillas established the line of demarcation splitting New World claims.

Classical Greek thinkers made all of the following contributions EXCEPT: A. Encouraging the development of tragedy and comedy B. Detailing ideas about proper political structure and processes C. Creating prose accounts of regional historical events D. Writing sacred texts to support monotheistic religious practices E. Innovating lasting medical diagnosis and research techniques

D; Classical Greek thinkers shaped Western thought in a multitude of areas for centuries after their own civilization's decline. Writers created tragic and comic plays in verse that inspired later Roman and European authors along with prose accounts of Greek history that historians continue to rely on today. Hippocrates encouraged the growth of medical evaluation and observation, eventually inspiring the modern medical Hippocratic Oath. Classical Greek society was, however, entirely polytheistic, and had no central sacred text to organize the civilization's religious beliefs.

The Roman government primarily crucified Jesus of Nazareth because A. Jewish citizens had begun threatening active revolt. B. the Pharisees viewed him as a threat to their power. C. the empire did not practice religious toleration. D. his teachings were viewed as dangerous and radical. E. it disagreed that Jesus was the promised Messiah.

D; During the time of Jesus of Nazareth, the Jews believed that a Messiah, or chosen one, would appear to release them from political oppression—at this time, Roman rule. Although Jesus' teachings were not specifically political in nature, he came to be viewed as a dangerous radical and was executed primarily for political reasons. The Roman Empire did practice religious toleration, and held no opinion on the religious validity of Jesus' teachings. It also did not particularly respond to the concerns of the Jewish Pharisees.

The creation of joint-stock companies most encouraged long-distance investment by A. providing a government guarantee of profits B.sponsoring exploration and colonization efforts C.creating markets for raw materials from the New World D.spreading the risks of losses among many members E.generating increased demand for luxury commodities

D; Joint-stock companies emerged during the sixteenth century as a way for multiple investors to buy shares in a pool that financially backed various commercial endeavors. This helped insulate individual investors against devastating loss while guaranteeing a share of any profits. Governments typically backed joint-stock companies by granting monopolies in certain areas of commerce or trade, but did not actually guarantee returns. Joint-stock companies dealt in the production of raw materials through the creation of settlements as well as commodity trading, but this was a result rather than cause of investment.

The primary purpose of the Conciliar Movement was to A. encourage the formation of mendicant orders. B. reassert the political power of the papacy. C. reform monasteries that had strayed from the Rule. D. reunite the papacy into one agreed-upon office. E. address the concerns raised by the Ninety-Five Theses.

D; The Conciliar Movement sought to address the confusion over the office of the papacy that had emerged during the Great Schism, when rival popes ruled Avignon and Rome. The Council of Constance deposed all three of the popes vying for the office and elected Martin V as a mutually acceptable pope to all. But the Schism and the Conciliar Movement had weakened the office of the pope, and it could no longer exert the same level of political power as in the past. The Cluniacs had earlier sought to reform the monastic movement, and pre-Schism pope Innocent III had approved the creation of the mendicant orders. The Council of Trent was the Catholic Church's response to issues raised by Martin Luther, author of the Ninety-Five Theses.

"In [the state of nature] there is no place for industry, because the fruit thereof is uncertain: and consequently no culture of the earth; no navigation, nor use of the commodities that may be imported by sea; no commodious building; no instruments of moving and removing such things as require much force; no knowledge of the face of the earth; no account of time; no arts; no letters; no society; and which is worst of all, continual fear, and danger of violent death; and the life of man, solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short." Which philosopher wrote the excerpt given above? A. René Descartes B. Jean Bodin C. Francis Bacon D. Thomas Hobbes E. Desiderius Erasmus

D; The excerpt here, taken from Hobbes's Leviathan, reflects the idea that humans are unfit to govern themselves without the guidance of a strong monarch. French philosopher Jean Bodin encouraged similar ideas, suggesting that rulers should answer not to human authority, but only to natural law. Descartes was a French rationalist who promoted deductive reasoning and logic. Bacon was an English statesman and writer who support the process of inductive reasoning. Erasmus was a Dutch Humanist who was influential during the Renaissance era.

Which of these changes most contributed to the rise of towns during the medieval era? A. Ideas about the roles of merchants in society began to change. B. Merchants began to form guilds to dominate certain trades. C. New cultural developments increased literacy and learning. D. Increased political stability made travel and trade safer. E. Church reforms revived the institution of the papacy.

D; Towns had held little importance during the height the feudal era as economic and political activity focused on decentralized fiefs. However, as centralized monarchies again began to reassert their power during the eleventh century, towns began to again regain prominence. Centralized powers offered better protection during travel from place to place, and trade became somewhat safer. Towns thus emerged to serve as venues for the exchange of trade goods. As a result of the increased importance of towns, merchants became more accepted in society and began to form guilds to further their interests. Although other reforms and changes affected the Church and overall levels of learning, these developments were tangential to the rise of towns.

What was one direct result of Gutenberg's perfection of the moveable-type printing press? A. Classical literature enjoyed a European cultural revival. B. More workers were needed to produce books and manuscripts. C. Usage of Carolingian miniscule script declined greatly. D. New ideas spread through Europe more quickly and easily. E. Explorers began searching for raw materials in the New World.

D;After the printing press was perfected around 1450, the amount of time and labor required to create printed books declined greatly. As a result, ideas could travel through Europe more quickly via the medium of print. This held particular importance for the spread of Protestant ideas during the Reformation, for example. Printed works employed the Carolingian miniscule style, ending the usage of Gothic lettering. Although Classical literature enjoyed a revival during the Renaissance and the Age of Exploration began soon after, these events were not directly tied to the innovation of the printing press.

Which of these empires was most directly descended from that of Alexander the Great? A. Roman Empire B. Athenian Empire C. Parthian Empire D. Etruscan Empire E. Ptolemaic Empire

E; After the death of Alexander the Great, his generals embarked on decades of war for control of his land and power. Eventually, the conqueror's former holdings were divided into three kingdoms: the Antigonid, centered on Macedonia and Greece; the Seleucid, centered in the east; and the Ptolemaic, centered on Egypt. Although the Roman and Parthian empires both exercised power in the centuries after Alexander, they did not trace their formation back to him directly. The Athenians and Etruscans flourished before the time of Alexander.

Medieval craft guilds performed all of the following functions EXCEPT A.training apprentices B.determining prices C.setting production levels D.Curbing competition E.Organizing trade fairs

E; As trade returned and towns became economically important, craft guilds based around a specific trade began to appear. These organizations brought together all the members of a trade such as weaving or blacksmithing within a certain town to make economic decisions about that trade for all members. Craft guilds thus were involved in the setting of wages, practices, and production levels in order to support the livelihoods of all members. To that end, they usually worked to curb competition to help any qualified member of the trade make a living. However, monarchs or entire towns were responsible for the organization of trade fairs, not specific craft guilds.

Cleisthenes' reforms granted the majority of political power to A.phratries B.Council of 500 C.demes D.Tyrants E.Assembly

E; Coming after the age of the tyrants, Cleisthenes enacted several major political reforms that reshaped the nature of Athenian democracy. Among these reforms were the elimination of the phratries in favor of the new demes as the main method of political organization to more fairly distribute power, and the granting of powers to deal with financial matters and foreign affairs to the Council of 500. Yet the bulk of political power lay with the Assembly, which comprised all adult male Athenian citizens and held the ability to make decisions by direct vote.

The Concordat of Worms sought to resolve conflicts over A. unethical Church practices such as simony and the selling of indulgences. B. the legality of Lutheranism within Prussian territories. C. proper interpretation by monastic orders of the Benedictine Rule. D. doctrinal issues that divided the Church at Rome and Byzantium. E. the appointment of bishops by church or secular authorities.

E; In 1122, the Concordat of Worms resolved the issues stemming from the Investiture Controversy. This crisis pitted secular authorities against church leaders over which body had the power to select bishops and grant, or invest them with, their symbols of authority. The Concordat of Worms provided a compromise solution that allowed the Church to select bishops and endow them with spiritual authority, but required the approval of secular emperors who then granted them political authority. However, the issue continued to generate tensions for many years to come.

The encomienda system was most similar to which Classical institution? A.Pax Romana B.The polis C.Clientage D.The Delian League E.latifundia

E; The Spanish encomienda system in the New World was a harsh form of forced labor on large agricultural estates. In this way, it traced its roots to manorialism, and from there back to the large, Roman latifundia estates worked by slaves. The Pax Romana was an extended period of relative peace and prosperity during the early Roman Empire. The polis was the Classical Greek city-state. Clientage was a Roman social system in which an elite developed a network of formal clients, to whom he often provided financial assistance in exchange for favors or electoral support. The Delian League was a defense league headed by Athens during the Classical period.

Which of these ended the Thirty Years' War? A. Peace of Augsburg B. Treaty of Mersen C. Treaty of Cambrai D. Council of Clermont E. Treaty of Westphalia

E; The Treaty of Westphalia ended the Thirty Years' War in 1648, reshaping the cultural and political landscape of Europe with France emerging as the leading European state. The Peace of Augsburg had sought to quell religious conflict some years before, but its failings had set the stage for the Thirty Years' War to begin. The Treaty of Mersen formalized boundary divisions during the Carolingian era, and the Treaty of Cambrai briefly ended the Valois-Hapsburg Wars. The Council of Clermont launched the Crusade movement

The Germanic group that most threatened the security of the city of Rome in the fifth century CE was the A. Gauls. B. Burgundians. C. Saxons. D. Huns. E. Visigoths.

E; The Visigoths mounted the first successful sack of the city of Rome in 410 CE and, later that century, unseated the final Roman emperor in the West. The Gauls had sacked Rome several centuries earlier. Although the Romans skirmished with the Saxons in England and the Huns in Gaul, neither of these groups managed to capture the city. The Burgundians settled in southeastern Gaul but did not directly threaten Rome.

St. Augustine of Hippo wrote The City of God in response to the A. establishment of the office of the papacy in Rome. B. unseating of the final Western Roman emperor. C. religious divisions over orthodoxy and heresy. D. issuance of an imperial proclamation legalizing Christianity. E. sack of the city of Rome by German invaders.

E;Roman pagans suggested that Christianity had been to blame for the Visigoths' sack of Rome, the first such successful attack on the city in several centuries. St. Augustine of Hippo sought to refute these claims in The City of God, arguing that the works of humans were unimportant in comparison to the rise of Christianity and the providence of God. By Augustine's time, Christianity's legality was well-established in the empire, and the office of the papacy had been formed. Several ecumenical councils had also settled some of the doctrinal issues facing the early church. The western Roman Empire endured for about 50 years after St. Augustine's death.

One short=term result of the conquering of new Roman lands during the second century BCE was... A.the creation of the imperial system to manage distant territories B.the writing of a formal Roman constitution to organize government C.lessened political power for the Republic's top generals D.the relocation of the capital from Rome to Constantinople E.increased economic and social stratification among rural landowners

E;The expansion of Roman holdings after the Punic Wars allowed wealthy farmers to increase their riches and status through profitable overseas trade. Small farmers, however, largely lost their lands as they were bought up to become part of massive agricultural estates known as latifundia. The development of the empire was still more than 100 years away, and the shifting of the capital eastward several centuries off. Military conquests generally increased the power of Roman generals, with leaders such as Marius and Julius Caesar developing much of their political power through military action.