Wetland Ecology Exam 3
Enhancement
- Activities conducted in existing wetlands or other aquatic resources which increase one or more aquatic functions. -This could include: • Hydrologic improvements • Nuisance species control • Improving surrounding lands
On-Site Mitigation
- Wetland mitigation is conducted on the same site where impacts occur - Pros: • Wetland replacement near where wetlands are lost • Often existing wetlands to guide wetland mitigation planning (hydrology, species) - Cons: • Can be small, fragmented, and affected by new surrounding urban land use • Often less likely to be managed properly, less compliance/enforcement
Mitigation banking (off-site mitigation)
- Wetland mitigation prepared by a third-party - Pros: • Normally large, consolidated wetlands • Mitigation banks are normally well managed and closely monitored by regulatory agencies - Cons: • Wetland conditions may not exactly match lost wetland impacts • Wetland functions are removed from the area where impacts occur
Two Major points regarding federal wetland management and policy in the US
-"There is no national wetland law in the United States." -"Wetlands have been managed under regulations related to both land use and water quality. Neither of these approaches, taken separately, can lead to a comprehensive wetland policy"
1849 Swamp Land Act
-"to aid the State of Louisiana in constructing necessary levees and drains to reclaim the swamp and overflowed land therein."
Land lost during Hurricanes
-217 square miles of land and wetlands were lost to open water during hurricanes Rita and Katrina in 2005
Mississippi River Basin
-3,000,000 km² -Gulf of Mexico Hypoxia = 20,000 km² -Miss River, Ohio River, Missouri R. -wetland mitigation of excess N yields in Miss River Basin
Agriculture Drainage of wetlands around the world
-56-65% of wetlands in North America and Europe -29% in Asia -6% in South America -2% in Africa
Acid Mine Drainage Wetlands
-Acid mine drainage from pyrite oxidation: 2FeS₂(s) + 7O₂ (g) + 2H₂O(l) → 2Fe+(aq) + 4SO42-(aq) + 4H+(aq) -wetlands are designed to alleviate low pH and high Fe, S, and Al concentrations from mine drainage -loading rate is often important for wetland treatment
Wetland Design Considerations
-Basin Morphology: aspect ratio, slope -Soil Considerations: plant medium, confining layer, previous use, organic content -Vegetation: often restricted to select species because of their tolerance (Typha, Phragmites) -Wildlife Management -Hydrology: hydroperiod/depth, mosquito control, hydraulic loading rate (HLR), detention time
Federal Wetland Permitting through Section 404
-COE authorization for a project can come in on of three forms 1) Letter of Permission 2) Nationwide permit 3) Individual Permit
Greenhouse gases contributing to global warming and associated with wetlands
-Co₂ -Water Vapor -CH₄ (Methane) -N₂O
Preservation
-Protection of ecologically important wetlands or other aquatic resources in perpetuity through the implementation of appropriate legal and physical mechanisms -Preservation may include protection of upland areas adjacent to wetlands as necessary to ensure protection and/or enhancement of the aquatic ecosystem
Wetland soils and C storage
-Earth's soils: 1,400-2,300 Pg-C (Pg = 10¹⁵) -Estimated that 20-30% is in wetlands
States with provisions for coastal and inland wetlands
-Florida, North Carolina, Tennessee, Virginia
Long-term Tide Gauge Trends
-Galveston, TX: 6.5 mm/yr -NewYork, NY: 2.77 mm/yr -Baltimore, MD: 3.12 mm/yr -KeyWest, FL: 2.7 mm/yr -San Francisco, CA: 2.13 mm/yr -Sitka, AK: -2.17 mm/yr
States without state wetland regulations
-Georgia and South Carolina
Wetland C Sequestration
-Highest C sequestration rates reported in restored and created wetlands (180-305 g-C m² yr⁻¹) -Lower in natural wetlands (20-140 g-C m² yr⁻¹ ) -Lowest in peatlands (12-25 g-C m² yr⁻¹ )
Hydric Soil Indicators
-Land Resource Regions -criteria for all soils, non-sandy and sandy soils Examples: -5 cm Mucky Mineral- a layer of mucky modified mineral soil material 5 cm or more starting within 15 cm of the soil surface -Redox Depressions- >5% distinct and prominent redox concentrations (small masses or pore linings), depressional wetland soils
States with provisions for coastal wetlands
-Louisiana, Alabama, Mississippi
In-lieu fee mitigation (off-site mitigation)
-Mitigation that occurs when a permittee provides funds to an in-lieu-fee sponsor. -Because it is off-site there are similar pros and cons to this method as mitigation banking. -In addition, the mitigation is often not completed until after the permitted impacts have occurred (financial assurances may be provided).
1975 Federal District Court in DC
-Natural Resources Defense Council vs Callaway wetlands were included in "waters of the United States" and thus subject to dredging regulations of Section 404. This invalidated COE's previous interpretation of Act which has excluded 85%
Prairie Pothole Region
-Northern Great Plains of North America (Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, North Dakota, South Dakota, Minnesota, Iowa) -78 million ha -"Duck factory" -primarily surrounded by grasslands
1969
-Passage of the National Environmental Policy Act
Wetland Values
-Population: animal harvest for pelts, waterfowl hunting, fish and shellfish, wood harvest, herbaceous plant, peat production, habitat for endangered species -Ecosystem: flood mitigation, storm abatement, aquifer recharge, water quality improvement, conservation/aesthetics/ecotourism -Global: carbon, nitrogen, sulfur cycles, biodiversity
Restoration
-Re-establishment of wetland and/or other aquatic resource characteristics and function(s) at a site where they have ceased to exist, or exist in a substantially degraded state. -Preferred method for mitigation in the Southeast U.S.
What are the different forms of wetland mitigation?
-Restoration -Enhancement -Creation -Preservation -In-lieu fee -in kind v. out of kind mitigation -on site v. off site mitigation
Creation
-The establishment of a wetland or other aquatic resource where one did not formerly exist -Can be difficult to achieve because predicting the hydrology is often challenging
1977 Comments were requested and received. New definition appeared in July 19, 1977:
-Those areas that are inundated or saturated by surface or groundwater at a frequency and duration sufficient to support, and that under normal circumstances do support, a prevalence of vegetation typically adapted for life in saturated soil conditions. Wetlands generally include swamps, marshes, bogs, and similar areas.
1899 Rivers and Harbors Act
-U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (COE) has responsibility for regulating dredging and filling of navigable waters.
1971 US Court of Appeals
-Zabel v. Tabb -COE denial of a Section 10 Rivers and Harbor Act permit based on wetland impacts
Hydric Soils
-a soil that formed under conditions of saturation, flooding, or ponding long enough during the growing season to develop anaerobic conditions in the upper part -criteria v. indicators
Maintaining Water Quality
-a variety of aerobic and anaerobic biogeochemical processes -large contact of surface water with sediments -accumulation of organic peat causing permanent burial
Human Activities that have resulted in wetland impacts and alterations
-agriculture, urbanization, stream and river channelization, forestry, aquaculture, aquaculture, dam, dike, and seawall construction, groundwater withdraw
Prairie Potholes
-approximately 10 million potholes in Canada, 1.2 million in US -small (most less than 0.5 ha) -melting snow is major source of water -variable conditions year to year -temporary potholes: important habitat for early nesting species -seasonal: important brood habitat -semi permanent: important habitat for diving ducks -wetland complexes
Municipal Wastewater Wetlands
-can be part of the tertiary treatment of municipal waste -most designed to reduce OM (leading to BOD), and nutrients -concern regarding accumulation of heavy metals
Prominent concerns regarding Climate Change and Wetlands
-change in global wetland carbon storage dynamic -wetland loss and alteration from changes in prec. and temperature -sea level rise impacts to coastal wetland
Relative Sea Level Rise
-coastal wetlands experiencing soil subsidence such as Louisiana Delta are expected to have higher losses from combined subsidence and sea level rise
Wetland Hydrology
-compasses all hydrologic characteristics of areas that are periodically inundated or have soils saturated to the surface at some time during the growing season -often the least exact parameter of wetland occurrence -achieved if it is inundated or saturated to the surface continuously for at least 5 % of the growing season in most years (>50% probability of occurrence)
Prairie Pothole Conservation
-conservation measure focus on preserving tracts of suitable wetland/upland -increasing loss of surrounding grassland habitat to agriculture
Water Withdraw and Mineral Mining
-direct and indirect wetland impacts caused by mining -dewatering gw may reduced wetland hydroperiods -examples, phosphorus mining in Florida and coal mining in the Appalachian region
Wetland Valuation Methods
-ecological: habitat evaluation procedure, hydrogeomorphic analysis -monetary: willingness-to-pay, opportunity cost, replacement cost, energy cost
The Ramsar Convention
-established in Ramsar, Iran in 1971 -global treaty for protection of wetland habitats -objectives for member countries: promote wise use of wetlands, have at least one "Wetland of International Importance", establish nature reserves at wetlands, cooperate over shared species and development assistance affecting wetlands
Water Pollutants related to Agriculture
-excess nutrients (N and P) -sediments (erosion) -organic matter (BOD) -pesticides/herbicides -pathogens (ex. Salmonella) -hormones -ex. pond type: Duckweed -riparian/wetland interception of ag runoff
1850 Swamp Lands Act
-extended to Alabama, Arkansas, California, Florida, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Michigan, Mississippi, Missouri, Ohio, and Wisconsin. Minnesota and Oregon were added in 1860.
Conversion of Lower Mississippi River Alluvial Valley
-flood control and conversion of land: 75% loss of forested area (~8.8 million ha)
Ditching, draining, and levee building purposes
-flood control, navigation and transportation, industrial activity -direct and indirect impacts to wetlands
Vegetation in Treatment Wetlands
-free-floating macrophytes -emergent macrophytes -submerged macrophytes -forested wetland systems -multispecies algal systems
Swamp Land Act of 1849
-granted federal wetlands to Louisiana -act was extended next year to Alabama, Arkansas, California, Florida, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Michigan, Mississippi, Missouri, Ohio, and Wisconsin -in 1860, extended to Minnesota and Oregon -encouraged the 'reclaiming' of wetlands
Criteria needed for an area to be considered a wetland
-hydrophytic vegetation -hydric soils -evidence of hydrology
The Hydrogeomorphic Approach (HGM)
-implemented by the National Action Plan (NAP) in 1996 -to assess wetland function in regards to Section 404 of the Clean Water Act -21 guidebooks for different wetlands types across North America
Important conclusions by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2007)
-increased average surface temperature (1906-2005) -global average sea level have risen -snow and ice cover on the planet has decreased
Increase in air, water, and soil temperature
-increased microbial activity -change in natural range of species that are temp. sensitive (native and exotics)(general expansion northward or into higher altitudes -increase in evapotranspiration, lower surface and gw levels -continued melting of permafrost (causes buildings to crack and trees to fall)
Examples of wastewater sources where wetlands have been used for treatment
-municipalities -agriculture -acid mine drainage -stormwater
Activities exempt from Section 404
-normal farm, silviculture, ranching -maintenance or emergency repair of a currently serviceable structure such as dam, riprap, levees, abutments -maintenance or cons. of stock pods or irrigation ditches, drainage ditches -construction of temporary sedimentation basins at construction site
1977 Presidential Executive Order
-on protection of wetlands required all Federal agencies to take whatever action to protect wetlands under the Federal jurisdiction.
Fish and Shellfish
-over 95% of commercially harvested fish and shellfish are wetland dependent -in 2010, $4.5 billion to the GNP
Deepwater Horizon: General wetland impacts from oil exposure
-physical impacts of oil coating wetland plants -toxicity to plants -physical impacts of oil coating soil
Obligate Wetland Plants (OBL)
-plants that occur almost always in wetlands under natural conditions (>99%); ex. Smooth cordgrass
Facultative Wetland Plants (FACW)
-plants that occur naturally (>67-99%) in wetlands, but also occur (1-33%) in non-wetlands; ex. Green ash
Facultative Plants (FAC)
-plants with similar likelihood (33-67%) occurring in both wetlands and non-wetlands; ex. greenbrier
Possible intensification of climatological events
-possible increases in frequency and intensity of extreme weather events (ex. hurricanes) -increased disturbance to coastal wetlands
Stormwater Treatment Wetlands
-potential stormwater pollutants: nutrients, sediments, oils/greases, rubber, salts, asphalt -variable flows into wetland-intermittent flooding, flashy hydroperiod, high energy -treatment efficiency if often dependent upon flow, storm severity
Important regions for waterfowl breeding, wintering, and migration
-prairie pothole region -Northern tundra, boreal forests, and river delta -coastal marshes of Louisiana and Texas -Mississippi Alluvial Valley
1987 COE Wetland Delineation Manual
-presents technical guidelines and methods for identifying wetlands -does not constitute a classification system
USDA Agricultural Conservation Program
-promoted the drainage of agricultural wetlands -approximately 23 million ha were drained b/w 1940-1977 -18.6 million ha in the upper Mississippi River basin -Wetland conversion to agriculture averaged 490,000 ha per year since early 1900s -total=43,500,000 ha
Ecosystem services provided by or derived from wetlands
-provisioning (food, freshwater, fiber/fuel, etc.) -regulating (hydrology, sediment, pollutants, etc.) -cultural (identify, aesthetics, recreation, etc) -supporting (soil formation, nutrient cycling, pollination, climate, etc)
Swampbuster
-provisions intended to discourage the conversion of wetland to agricultural production -persons who do not comply will be ineligible for all or a portion of certain USDA program benefits, including loans, subsidies, crop insurance, and price support programs amendments in 1990, 1996, 2002 -administered by Natural Resources Conservation Service of the USDA -croplands that were "prior converted" wetlands before December 23, 1985 would be exempt from Swampbuster provisions
1985 Swampbuster
-provisions passed with Food Security Act
Protection of Shorelines
-roots of wetland vegetation stabilizes the soil -protect shores and stream banks from erosion -absorb energy from storms
Sea Level Rise
-shift in coastal wetland and submerged aquatic communities (ex. sea grasses, oyster beds) based on increased inundation of wetlands -change in wetland salinities and sedimentation patterns -loss of wetlands due to "coastal squeeze"
Treatment Wetlands
-specifically used to improve water quality -ecological engineering -three general types of treatment wetlands
When >50% of the prevalent vegetation is FAC, FACW, or OBL...
-the plant community meets the hydrophytic criteria of a jurisdictional wetland -districts may employee FAC-Neutral option -Which plants get considered?
Wetland Delineation
-the process of identifying and mapping the upper boundary of a wetland for a particular purpose, such as wetland regulation, inventory, assessment, or management -Procedures used by the Corps of Engineers and other Federal agencies to identify and delineate wetlands as part of their regulatory responsibilities under the Clean Water Act and Food Security Act
Hydrophytic Vegetation
-the sum total of macrophytic plant life that occurs in areas where the frequency of inundation or small saturation produce permanently or periodically saturated soils of sufficient duration to exert a controlling influence on the plant species -Plants that are OBL, FACW, or FAC are considered hydrophytic for wetland determinations
Peat Mining
-top peat producing countries include: Russia, Finland, Germany, Ireland, and Canada -used as horticultural products, soil amendments and fuel -estimated 25,500,000 metric tons extracted per year (1998)
Four Aspects of Economic Value
-use value (ex. hunters) -social value (ex. improved flood protection) -option value (ex. benefits for future uses) -existence value (ex. value irrespective of its use)
Wetland Hydrology Indicators
-visual evidence of current inundation -visual evidence of soil saturation -examination of a soil pit -watermarks -sediment deposits
Water Pollution
-water runoff from anthropogenic sources (urban, agriculture, mining) -potential pollutants: sediments, nutrients, pesticides, acid drainage -potential wetland impacts: eutrophication, alteration in biogeochemical cycles, changes in species composition, wildlife deformities
Problems/challenges of quantifying wetland economic value
-wetland context: landscape position, proximity to other wetlands, ecosystems -anthropogenic bias of value: discounts intrinsic ecological processes -private ownership v. public values -short term gains v. long term returns
Highway Construction
-wetland filling -altered water flow patterns and conveyance under roads -ecological barriers
Methane Emissions
-wetlands emit 20-25% of the worlds methane emissions -reported range for natural wetlands: 115-145 Tg-CH₄ yr⁻¹ (Tg=10¹²) -approx. 21x as effective as greenhouse gas compared to CO₂ -variability b/w and within wetlands-temp and water table are key factors
July 1975 Federal Register
-wetlands were defined as those land and water areas subject to regular inundation by tidal, riverine, or lacustrine flowage. Generally included are inland and coastal shallows, marshes, mudflats, estuaries, swamps, and similar areas in coastal and inland navigable waters..."
1977 Clean Water Act
-wetlands were mentioned but not in conjunction with 404 permits. Section 404(g)(1) provides that a governor of a state could administer a dredge and fill permit program other than for navigable waters used for interstate transport "including wetlands adjacent thereto."
Change in the amount and/or timing of precipitation
-where prec. decreases and temp increases: reduction in surface and gw levels, increase in CO₂ and methane release, northern latitude wetlands appear most susceptible -where prec. increases: increases in runoff and river flow, possible wetland expansion, vegetation shifts
Wetland Alterations: Management by Objective
-wildlife enhancement -agriculture and aquaculture: wildlife, salt hay farms, cranberries, rice production, including wild rice, intercropping aquaculture (crayfish in swamps) -water quality enhancement, low impact development -flood control, gw recharge -restoration
Economic Valuation Techniques
-willingness to pay value-hypothetical market for non-market goods -opportunity cost: net worth of a resources in its best alternative use -replacement value: an economic estimate of the human cost of providing ecological services -energy analysis, energy quality
Other Considerations and certifications for Federal Wetland Permitting
1) Section 401 Water Quality Certification 2) Endangered species 3) Cultural Resources (National Historic Preservation Act)
Hydric Soil Criteria
1. All histosols except Folists 2. Soils in Aquic suborders, great groups, or subgroups, Albolls suborder, Aquisalids, Pachic subgroups, or Cumulic subgroups that are: a. somewhat poorly drained with a water table equal to 0.0 foot (ft.) from the surface during the growing season, or b. poorly drained or very poorly drained 3. Soils that are frequently (>50%) ponded for long or very long durations (7 days to >1 month) suring growing season 4. Soils that are frequently flooded for long or very long durations during growing season