Wildlife Trade
wildlife forensics in action
• A dead white rhinoceros was found in South Africa with its horn removed. Its horn, weighing more than10 kilograms, was worth more than $600,000 on the black market • Was the last killing of the Ndlovu Gang, who had been implicated in nine previous crimes. Three poachers arrested with a bow saw, a tranquilizer dart gun, and a freshly removed rhino horn. They were implicated via cell phone records and ballistics from the dart gun. Each gang member sentenced to 25 years in prison • A key piece of evidence was the rhino's DNA, found in the horn and on the saw. Extracting DNA from rhino horn was once thought impossible. Requires drilling into the horn's core to extract cells with viable DNA • The scientist who spearheaded the DNA extraction now has a rhino DNA database called RhODIS. The database contains about 100,000 DNA fingerprints from both black and white rhinos, both alive and long dead
CITES appendix 1: no trade examples
tiger, lady slipper orchid, scarlet macaw
CITES appendix 2: controlled trade examples
whale shark, American black bear, emperor scorpion
CITES appendix 3
- Species are protected in at least one country, and that country has asked other CITES Parties for assistance in controlling the trade • Any trade in Appendix III species standardly requires a CITES export permit (if sourced from the country that listed the species) or a certificate of origin (from any other country) to be granted before the trade occurs
CITES appendix 1
- Species is in danger of extinction. No trade • Exception: when the purpose of the import is not commercial, for instance for scientific research. In these exceptional cases, trade may take place provided it is authorized by the granting of both an import permit and an export permit
CITES appendix 2
- Species may be in danger of extinction if trade is not controlled. Controlled trade. • Also includes so-called "look-alike species", i.e. species whose specimens in trade look like those of species listed for conservation reasons
how many appendices does CITES have?
3
the name of the multilateral treaty to protect endangered plants and animals from the threats of international trade
CITES
examples of lookalike species
The longfin mako (Isurus paucus) was listed based on it being a look-alike for the shortfin mako (I. oxyrinchus)
CITES appendix 3: single country has appealed for help examples
northern tamandua, aardwolf, hoffman's two-toed sloth
reason 6: plants in demand for furniture, medicines, or other reasons
• Big-leaf mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla) is one of the most commercially important trees in the Amazon. Mahogany has been the wood of choice for furniture and cabinetry for centuries. Also highly sought by guitar makers for its strength and resistance to changes in humidity and temperature • Deforestation has reduced big-leaf mahogany ranges by over 60% in Central America and 30% in South America • Level of exploitation have decimated all but a few old-growth stands. In the Amazon, much of it occurs in remote protected land and in areas set aside for indigenous groups who have little to no contact with the outside world • Listed on Appendix II of CITES & Vulnerable on IUCN Red List • Lacey Act was amended in 2008 to include a prohibition on trade in plants and plant products, such as timber and paper, harvested in violation of international law. Constituted the world's first ban on trade in illegally sourced wood products
CITES drawbacks
• CITES restrictions are not enough to protect vulnerable populations • The convention lists <10% of all described plants and terrestrial vertebrates. Less than 1% of all fish and invertebrate species • No international regulatory framework exists to monitor the trade of the many unlisted species. An analysis of a decade's worth of data showed that 3.6x the number of unlisted species in US imports compared with listed species (Watters et al. 2022). More than a quarter of unlisted species faced conservation threats. One example is the Asian water dragon native to SE Asia
why do people engage in wildlife trade?
• Certain species are wanted as pets - E.g., African grey parrot, squirrel monkey, Asian otters • The meat may be in demand as a delicacy. In many cases, the rarer an animal, the greater people's desire to eat it! - E.g., pangolin meat, shark fins • Animal skins or hides can be used as rugs or as leather for handbags or clothing - E.g., giraffe, crocodile • Body parts used in traditional Asian medicines - E.g., pangolin scales, bear bile, tiger bones, rhino horn • Body parts used for status symbols or decors - E.g., elephant ivory, animal trophies • Plants, including wood from trees that are already excessively logged, are in demand for furniture or ornamental or medicinal purposes African grey parrot - E.g., mahogany
reason 3: skins or hides used to make rugs, bags, and clothes
• Crocodile. Its leather is a high-fashion material used in handbags, boots, watch straps, etc. Much comes from legal farming, but demand shifts some to illegal market. 10 out of 24 species of crocodilians are now listed as Critically Endangered, Endangered or Threatened on the IUCN Red List • Giraffe. Hides are made into leather for custom shoes and clothes. Giraffe tails are coveted in many parts of Africa. Their hairs are also used in fly-swatters, bracelets and sewing kits • Leopard. Hides are very much in demand on the global market. Can be used to make luxury carpets or for home decoration
reason 5: body parts used for status symbols or decoration
• Elephants (largely African savanna elephant, Loxodonta Africana). Killed for their tusks. The ivory is in high demand in Asia and among antique dealers around the world. Can be carved into decorative items • Numbers:1.3 million in 1979 to 600,000 in 1989. In that year (1989), international trade in ivory banned • Another 100,000 killed between 2010 and 2012, when one-off sales of ivory stockpiles were approved from African to Asian countries. Why do we think this happened? There is a desire to legalize the international ivory trade under CITES for profit
reason 2: meat
• Hunting for bushmeat impacts over 500 wild species in Africa. Includes great apes such as gorillas, chimpanzees, and bonobos. Driven by upscale urban African market, illegal logging that offers access to remote habitats, plus impoverished hunters in need of cash livelihoods • Pangolins are the most-trafficked mammal species on earth. Scales are an important part of Traditional Chinese Medicine. Thought to decrease swelling and boost lactation. Also large desire for meat in South and Southeast Asia. All eight species are threatened by extinction • Many shark species are being killed for shark fins. A necessary ingredient of shark fin soup, a traditional luxury food that has become more widely consumed as more people could afford it. Nearly 100 million sharks are killed every year, according to the United Nations. Almost a third of shark species are threatened or near threatened with extinction. Common shark species include hammerhead, mako, and blue. Hammerhead and shortfin mako are endangered
United States V. Duncan
• Involved illegal harvesting and trafficking in American wild ginseng. American wild ginseng is a root that is valued in many cultures as a dietary supplement or a medicinal ingredient. Has become increasingly rare and can cost more than $1,000 a pound. The root can reproduce only once it has reached maturity, which takes several years. Illegal trafficking in the valuable root has become rampant • U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service embarked on Operation Native Root, an investigation into illegal ginseng trafficking in Indiana and Illinois • Duncan, the owner of Duncan's Botanical Products, Inc., purchased approximately $54,000 worth of illegal ginseng between 2008 and 2010, and then sold it to an exporter in New York • Duncan was sentenced after pleading guilty to a Lacey Act violation for illegally trafficking in ginseng. Duncan will pay a $15,000 fine and $55,000 in restitution to the National Fish and Wildlife Fund. He also will complete a two-year term of probation, perform 50 hours of community service, and forfeit approximately1,708 pounds of ginseng that were seized
the wildlife trade is very profitable and complex
• It is a multi-billion dollar a year industry. Unregulated fisheries trade estimated to be between $4.2 billion and $9.5 billion per year. Illicit wildlife trafficking is estimated to be between $7.8 billion and $10 billion per year. Illegal timber trade is estimated as much as $7 billion per year (WCS) • At the heart of illegal activities are international criminal gangs with a long supply chain. Those who get prosecuted the most (i.e., poachers on the ground) are often the bottom rung of organized crime syndicates based elsewhere • We know that wildlife trade is regulated by the United Nations' Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). Wildlife trafficking continues despite these regulations
operation Kuluna
• Led by Homeland Security Investigations • Began with a sting. Undercover US investigators purchased African ivory advertised online. Team spent $14,500 on 49 pounds of elephant ivory that was cut up, painted black, mixed with ebony, and shipped to the US with the label "wood". The next year, they purchased about five pounds of rhino horn for $18,000. Expressed interest in more inventory, including pangolin scales • Lured two sellers from the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) to the US. Upon arrival, they were arrested • Tusks were linked to other seizures, leading to raiding of warehouses in the DRC. Seized <2000 pounds of ivory and 75 pounds of pangolin scales. Worth more than $1 million
what are some questions wildlife forensics specialists can answer?
• What is the species? E.g., from shark fins to wood to bear bile to meat. Use mitochondrial DNA • Is this individual X? Do two samples match? Use repetitive sequences called microsatellites in DNA in the cell's nucleus • Is it real? E.g., is it real ivory or fake?
United States V. LI
• Li, based on China, was in the business of selling raw rhino horns to factories where they would be carved into fake antiques and then resold. The horns were smuggled across international borders and hidden by a variety of means, including wrapping them in duct tape or hiding them in porcelain vases that were falsely described on customs and shipping documents. Rhino carvings valued at as much as $242,500 were sold to Li's customers in China • Shortly after his arrival to the U.S., he had purchased two endangered black rhinoceros horns from an undercover U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service agent in a Miami Beach hotel room for $59,000. He was arrested on federal charges. Prior to his arrest, Li pleaded guilty to conspiracy to smuggle and to violate the Lacey Act, six smuggling violations, one Lacey Act trafficking violation, and two counts of making false wildlife documents • Li admitted to being the organizer of an illegal wildlife smuggling conspiracy in which 30 raw rhinoceros horns (worth approximately $3 million) were smuggled from the United States to China. Was sentenced to serve 70 months' incarceration. Will also forfeit $3.5 million in proceeds from his criminal activity
the Lacey act
• Prohibits trade in wildlife, fish, and plants that have been illegally taken, possessed, transported, or sold. This applies to wildlife, fish, and plants beyond U.S. borders • A 2008 amendment added coverage for timber and timber products • Various provisions of the Act are enforced by - U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service - National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) - U.S. Customs and Border Protection - Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) - U.S. Forest Service
CITES
• Regulates the international trade of 5,800 animal and 30,000 plant species via a permitting system • There are 183 members or parties to CITES
wildlife forensics in action continued
• Researchers at the University of Washington sequenced DNA microsatellites from African elephants, as well as seized ivory. Built a database and a geographical map of where different genetic markers occur among elephants. Can help determine the geographic source of trafficked tusks seized by law enforcement • Elephants travel in matriarchal herds, and DNA markers run in families. Researchers can determine relatedness of different tusks. If tusks from the same elephant or clan are found in different shipments with a common port, it suggests they were sent from the same criminal network. This is important for law enforcement
impact #1: the extinction crisis
• Since 1970 the planet has lost 60% of its vertebrate wildlife populations • The United Nations Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) Report concluded that one million species face extinction due to human causes. Many of these predicted extinctions are set to occur within decades • Wildlife trade considered the second-biggest threat to the vital biodiversity on earth, following habitat loss. 958 species listed as at risk by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) were in danger of extinction because they are being traded internationally
impact #2: human health
• Species extinctions can result in cascading effects that reduce overall ecosystem functioning. We depend on biodiversity for healthy soil and crops for our food, the water we drink, the clean air we breathe, and the stability of weather patterns • An estimated four billion people rely on natural medicines for their health care
reason 1: for pets
• The exotic pet trade is a multi-billion dollar industry • The internet has increased the ease with which people can find and purchase wild animals for private use • Very young animals are often taken from their mothers at an early age so they can be sold to people who wish to keep them as pets • Reptiles and birds are among the most commonly trafficked species because they are easily transported
impact #3: global instability
• The illegal wildlife trade is used to finance conflict and contribute to instability in countries that are already economically disadvantaged. Armed groups in Central Africa raise funds for their operations by poaching and selling animals and illegally extracted timber • Logging and other deforestation can impact national economies. E.g., Kenya and its ability to grow tea, which brings in millions of dollars as an export
impact #4: disease
• The illegal wildlife trade spreads disease and invasive alien species. Invasive species are plants and animals introduced by humans to areas outside their natural habitats. Number of invasive alien species has increased 70% since 1970 (IPBES report 2019) • Smuggling animals across borders without proper inspection can increase rates of disease spread such as Ebola or avian influenza. Do we remember what causes these diseases?
reason 4: body parts used in traditional Asian medicine
• Tiger. Tiger bones have been used in wines and manufactured medicines to threat arthritis and other joint ailments. African lion and jaguar bone is now starting to replace tiger bone due to tiger rarity • Rhinoceros. Rhino horn is used to treat fever, convulsions, and delirium. Among the most expensive substances on the planet. Within poaching circles, it is said that a kilo of rhino horn is worth more than its weight in gold. All five rhino species threatened with extinction • Asiatic black bear (Ursus thibetanus). Used to treat a variety of illnesses and injuries, including liver ailments and headache. Bear farming introduced in 1984, where bears are confined to small cages and bile is extracted through catheters
what does enforcement look like?
• Wildlife crimes are often similar to drug trafficking and other smuggling schemes • Wildlife investigators, particularly special agents of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), use techniques similar to those used in narcotics enforcement. Controlled deliveries of contraband wildlife, followed by anticipatory warrants, often result in overwhelming evidence against consumers of illegal wildlife. With the evidence piled up against them, these defendants sometimes are willing to cooperate against their suppliers. When suppliers are convicted, the government sees the greatest deterrent effect • One of the great challenges for wildlife prosecutors is to work in the United States, where demand for illegal wildlife is highest, to shut down international suppliers
new challenges
• Wildlife forensics is still a small field. Society for Wildlife Forensic Science has fewer than 200 members in more than 20 countries • Ability to identify species or individuals is only as good as the genetic databases researchers can compare their samples to. For many species, they don't exist. A substantial portion of wildlife trade crimes may go unprosecuted because researchers don't know what they're looking at • Need to refine techniques in order to identify more challenging evidence samples, such as hides that have been tanned or otherwise degraded. Cannot get DNA sequence out of a tanned product. Potential to use proteins, as they are more resistant than DNA is to heat or chemistry
wildlife forensics
• Wildlife forensics uses tools from human crime investigations • By building DNA databases, similar to the FBI's CODIS database for human crimes, forensic geneticists can identify samples by species. Can also pinpoint a specimen's geographic origin or family group. Can also link an animal or animal part to a crime scene
What is the wildlife trade?
• Wildlife trade is taking and selling dead or living plants and animals and the products derived from them. Some of it is legal, but much of it isn't • All illicit wildlife trafficking, including fisheries and timber, comprise the fourth largest global illegal trade. This is after narcotics, human trafficking, and counterfeit products • Wildlife trafficking alone totals $10 billion per year (ICE)
