World History

Ancien Regime

("The former system"/"the old order") dating back to 893, the breakdown of france's citizens into the three estates of clergy, nobles and everyone else; lack of equality in representation in the former system during the enlightenment triggers the pursuit of a new body of government (18th c.) • • In the ancien regime the King was not checked by law, and there were three estates o The first estate consisted of about 100,000 Roman Catholic clergy → large lands o The second estate consisted of about 400,000 nobles → only group that carried swords o The third estate embraced the rest of the population → about 24 million • The first two classes were tax exempt, and therefore all the tax burden fell on the 3rd class → this led to serious financial problems that put France on the road to revolution • In the 1780s approximately half of the French royal government's revenue went to pay off war debts and another quarter went to French armed forces o King Louis XVI (1774-1793) was unable to raise more revenue from the overburdened peasantry, so he sought to increase taxes on the French nobility, which had long been exempt from many levies o Aristocrats protested and forced Louis to summon the Estates General in May 1789

Zaibatsu

- Influence and size allowed for control over significant parts of the Japanese economy from the Meiji period until end of WWII o Existed from 19th century- not common until after WWI - Definition: "wealthy clique"- large family-controlled monopolies consisting of a holding company, banking subsidiary providing finance, and several industrial subsidiaries dominating specific sectors of a market (similar to American trusts or cartels, but usually organized around one family) - Heart of economic and industrial activity within Empire of Japan - Great influence over Japanese national and foreign policies - Big four: o Mitsubishi, Yasuda- Meiji restoration o Mitsui, Sumitomo- Edo period o Government employed their financial powers and expertise- tax collection, military procurement, foreign trade - After Russo-Japanese war- "second tier" zaibatsu emerged - American occupation- partially successful attempt made to dissolve zaibatsu o Complete dissolution never achieved- US rescinded orders in effort to reindustrialize Japan as safeguard against Communism in Asia o Changing politics of occupation during reverse course was crippling roadblock to zaibatsu elimination

Songhay Empire

- State located in Western Africa - Early 15th to late 16th century - One of largest African empires in history - Base of power on bend of Niger River - 1340- Songhay took advantage of Mali Empires decline and asserted its independence - Made Gao their capital- began imperial expansion - Thriving cultural and commercial center - Economy- economic trade- strong trading kingdom o Based on clan system - clan belong to ultimately decided your occupation - Criminal justice- based on Islamic principles - Government- upper class converted to Islam, lower classes continued to follow traditional religions o Governors appointed to preside over local tributary states o Tax imposed onto peripheral provinces to ensure dominance, in return provinces given complete autonomy - Sonni Ali- first emperor o Muslim o Conquered many of Songhai's neighboring states o Military strategist, conqueror o Largest empire ever in Africa o Brought great wealth- control of critical trade routes and cities o "Intolerant tyrant" - Askia Muhammad ("Askia the Great") o Managed to bypass the law and take the throne- had no real right to be the king o Devout Muslim- tolerated other religions though o Increased centralization - efficient bureaucracy o Encouraged learning o Brought much stability o Increased trade- building of canals, weights and measures, inspector appointed for each trading center o Kingdom feel to Morocan's in 1591 (Askia's sons and grandsons not as powerful as Askia himself) - Decline o Civil war of succession weakened the empire o Vast empire too much for Saadi Dynasty- soon relinquished control of region- splintered into dozen of smaller kingdoms

Great Game

- When: 1860 - 1914 o Where: Central Asia (from Afghanistan to the Aral Sea) and Southeast Asia o Who: Britain and Russia o What: Fight for supremacy in Central Asia (India mainly) o Why: Russia desired a strong colonial presence in Asia because of its rich markets and in doing so, threatened Britain's control over the area sparking a heated battle between the two great empires. o Historical Significance: Spark in imperialism throughout Asia. The battle between Russia and Britain influenced other European powers to claim a stake in Asia - Spain claimed the Phillipines and the Dutch settled for Indonesia - for fear of coming short. Imperial expansion brought most of central Asia under the control of Russian hegemony that lasted until the fall of the USSR in 1991.

Prester John

8/9th c. to 16th c. mythical Christian leader with a powerful kingdom in Africa who, if found, could help Christian Europeans in their quest against the Muslims. The myth eventually gets transported to the East, with thoughts that maybe Prester John was actually in Asia. Arose out of hope of finding a new way to defeat Muslims after their position as a threat increased • Throughout the middle ages, his legends sparked geographic exploration of Asia and Africa • The legends of Prester John were popular in Europe from the 12th to the 17th centuries and told of a Christian patriarch and king said to rule over a Christian nation lost amidst the Muslims and pagans in the Orient • Written accounts of this kingdom are variegated collections of medieval popular fantasy • He was said to be a generous ruler and virtuous man, presiding over a realm full of riches and strange creatures • At first, Prester John was imagined to be in Ethiopia • Prester John's kingdom was thus the object of a quest, firing the imaginations of generations of adventurers, but remaining out of reach • He was a symbol to European Christians of the Church's universality, transcending culture and geography to encompass all humanity, in a time when ethnic and interreligious tension made such a vision seem distant

Trading Post empires

A series of fortified trade posts established first by the Portuguese Developed at the end of the 15th c. and on in Africa and Asia then the Dutch, French, English and Spanish to command hegemony over large coastal areas.forced merchant vessels to call at the trading sites and pay duties Why: desire to control trading routes Historical Significance: increased and sped up world trade—early formation of global network of trade; emergence of joint-stock companies w/ English and Dutch

Middle Passage

Atlantic slave trade (15th-19th c): Trans-atlantic journey for slaves from Africa on unhygienic, overly crowded ships where they faced brutality and harsh treatment. Conditions were so terrible that slaves often chose death over living through the journey; mortality rate early on of about 50% • Following capture, enslaved individuals underwent a forced march to the coast where they lived in holding pens until a ship arrived to transport them to the western hemisphere • Then they embarked on the dreadful "middle passage," the trans-Atlantic journey aboard filthy and crowded slave ships o Enslaved passengers traveled below decks in hideously cramped quarters → most ships provided slaves with enough room to sit upright, although not to stand, but some forced them to lie in chains on shelves with barely half a meter of space between them o Conditions were so bad that many slaves attempted to starve themselves to death or mounted revolts • Ship crews attempted to preserve the lives of slaves, intending to sell them for a profit at the end of the voyage, but often treated the unwilling passengers with cruelty and contempt • Crew members used tools to pry open the mouths of those who refused to eat and pitched sick individuals into the ocean rather than have them infect others or waste limited supplies of food • Barring difficulties, the journey to Caribbean and American destinations took 4-6 weeks • During the early days of the slave trade on particularly cramped ships, mortality sometimes exceeded 50% → it eventually declined to about 5% as larger ships were built, and were loaded with more water and better nourishment o Over the course of the Atlantic slave trade, however, approximately 25% of individuals enslaved in Africa did not survive the middle passage

Natural rights

Both Natural Rights and the General Will are philosophical concepts of the French philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau of French Revolution fame. Natural rights are the rights that people have in the state of nature. Namely, complete physical freedom and liberty to do whatever they wish. I.e. People are free to rape, steal and kill. People trade in some of their natural rights in order to enter society (and gain civil rights). I.e. In civil society you are not free to steal someone's property, but if someone steals yours, you can go after them in the courts and get it back (with compensation).

general will

Both Natural Rights and the General Will are philosophical concepts of the French philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau of French Revolution fame.To define the general will it is important to understand the idea of the sovereign. The sovereign is the collective grouping of all people who enter into a civil society; a single organism with a unified will. The general will is not the will of the majority. Although an individual may hold different opinions or wants due to his individual circumstances, w hen thinking as part of the sovereign, he will use his natural compassion to act in the collective good of everyone in the sovereign. More concisely, the general will is the collective need of all to provide for the common good of all. It is found in Rousseau's 'The Social Contract'.

James Cook

British explorer, navigator, cartographer who charted E. Australia and New Zealand, also adding New Caledonia, Vanuatu, and Hawaii to the global map Work contributed heavily to the understanding of the world's various populations and geography o Dutch sailors made the first recorded European sighting of the southern continent in 1606 → Dutch explorers were so active in the reconnaissance of Australia that Europeans referred to the southern continent as "New Holland" throughout the 17th century o They concluded that it was barren and arid • However, neither Dutch nor any other European seamen visited the eastern coast until James Cook approached Australia from the southeast and charted the region in 1770, barely escaping destruction on the Great Barrier Reef o Although European mariners explored Australian coastlines in the 17th and 18th centuries, they made only brief landfalls and had only fleeting encounters with indigenous peoples (they considered them wretched savages) • Only after Cook's charting of the eastern coast in 1770 did European peoples become seriously interested in Australia o Cook dropped anchor for week at Botany Bay and reported that the region was suitable for settlement • The experiences of Cook in Hawai'i illustrate a common pattern o In 1778, while sailing north from Tahiti in search of the northwest passage, Cook happened across the Hawaiian Islands o Apart from some early concerns about thievery, Cook and his crew mostly got along well with Hawaiians o When he revisited Hawai'i late in 1779, he faced a very different climate → he lost his life when disputes over petty thefts escalated into bitter conflict between his crew and islanders of Hawai'i o ** Nevertheless, in the wake of Cook, whose reports soon became known throughout Europe, whalers began to venture into Pacific waters in large numbers, followed by missionaries, merchants, and planters o by the early 19th century, European and Euro-American peoples had become prominent figures in all the major Pacific islands groups → brought rapid and often unsettling change to Pacific islands societies

Battle of Omdurman

British victory over the Mahdi in the Sudan in 1898. General Kitchener led a mixed force of British and Egyptian troops armed with rapid-firing rifles and machine guns. When: September 2, 1898 Where: Omdurman, Sudan (near Khartoum on the Nile River) Who: British army commanded by the British General Sir Herbert Kitchener & the Sudanese force at Omdurman What: The British army (with 20 machine guns) encountered a Sudanese force at Omdurman, and they had a violent battle. During the 5 hours of fighting, the British force lost 368 men while machine guns and explosive charges fired from their gunboats killed some eleven thousand Sudanese. Why: The British, knowing that they had an arsenal vastly stronger than any other in the world, used their strong weapons to impose colonial rule on Sudan. Historical Significance: This battle opened the door for British colonial rule in Sudan; it also showed the importance and power of firearms and weapons on imposing colonial rule.

Tenochtitlan

Early 14th to early 16th c., Capital and center of the tribute empire of the Aztecs located on the swampy Lake Texcoco in Mexico; eventually taken over by Cortez when Spanish conquer the Aztec empire significance: second largest city, placed under siege and starvation in order to gain control of the empire by Cortes

Sultanate of Malacca

Established 1401, Portuguese Invasion 1511 Kingdom in modern Malaysia Initially Hindu kingdom, but then converted to Islamic, and shifted focus from maritime to trading post, seeing "all traders from the West and the Orient." Reached and taken over by the Portuguese during their era of naval expansion and trading post empires.

Potato

European colonists discovered the potato in the New World (the Americas), transporting it back to Europe along with the other transported commodities such as the tomato during the Columbian exchange that began at the very end of the 15th c. onward. The introduction of the potato into the diet of the Europeans had a great influence on the population explosion during the first half of the 19th century because it was highly caloric and could be stored for long periods of time without going bad, providing food reserves that could last through winter to keep the family well nourished

The Agricultural Revolution

In the 18th century, new agricultural techniques spread throughout industrializing nations. The use of fertilizing root crops and improvements in land management enabled more land to be kept in productive use. This significantly improved upon previous two- and three-field rotation and made possible the continuance of industrialization by making more efficient use of land and sustaining the growing population. • Based on the increasing production of land - more land is being put under cultivation • How do we get this land? o Can clear marshes, forests, hillsides o ENCLOSURE: if you were rich and you got an enclosure act, you could that land from someone if it was not being used → no compensation for the poor • You can build wall around area and call it yours as long as you cultivate it • Puts in place about 7 million new acres • Four Field Rotation: o Divided land into 4 quarters - used 3 quarters, but left one quarter blank so that it can regain nutrients o Began to use the last quarter to plant clover products, which reintroduce nitrogen back in to the soil (1750) → also give you more products

philosophes

Late 17th c. idea generated by John Locke in which one is born as a "blank slate" and everything one knows comes through senses and experience Signif: con• They appeared in 1720 • Called for religious toleration and freedom to express their views openly • The center of Enlightenment thought was France, where prominent intellectuals known collectively as philosophes ("philosophers") advanced the cause of reason o They were not philosophers in the traditional sense of the term so much as public intellectuals • They addressed their works more to the educated public than scholars: instead of formal philosophical treatises, they mostly composed histories, novels, dramas, satires, and pamphlets on religious, moral, and political issues • The Enlightenment helped to bring about a thorough cultural transformation of European society o It weakened the influence of organized religion, although it by no means destroyed institutional churches o Enlightenment thought encouraged the replacement of Christian values with a new set of secular values arising from reason rather than revelation o Furthermore, the Enlightenment encouraged political and cultural leaders to subject society to rational analysis and intervene actively in its affairs in the interests of promoting progress and prosperity o Enlightenment legacy can still be seen today tradicts idea of original sin, also suggests that society (instead of god) can make a person good or bad; virtue can be taught

Potosi

Located in Bolivia, one of the richest silver mining centers and most populous cities in colonial Spanish America. Founded 1545. In modern Bolivia. Location of the Spanish colonial mint, as it had vast supplied of natural silver ore. The major supply of silver for Spain during the period of the New World Spanish Empire. The transfer of silver out of Potosi and into Europe was a prime example of the Columbian exchange at work, which was notable in its adverse effects on Potosi as seen through the Latin American Holocaust and need for forced labor throughout the Americas in general.

Fall of Constantinople

Orchestrated by Mehmed the 2nd (Mehmed the conqueror) through the Battle of Constantinople from 1451-1481. Significance: The ottomans take over the Byzantine Empire spreading the Muslim tradition; cut off trade routes to the E. for Europe, cuts off access to the Balkans, a major source for slaves→ increases African slave trade; potentially could have led to the development of the renaissance when scholars fled Constantinople to S. Italy

Vasco da Gama

Portugese explorer whose voyage (1497-1499) took him from lisbon, rounding the Cape of Good Hope, he cruised up the east African coast • In 1498 he arrived at Calicut, and by 1499 he had returned to Lisbon with a hugely profitable cargo of pepper and spices sailed around Africa to go to India; voyage exposed Europeans to Eastern markets, with goods and spices such as ginger, cinnamon, gold, and other precious metals and jewels His fleet went more than 3 months without seeing land, and his cargoes excited little interest in Indian markets. His return voyage was especially difficult, and less than half of his crew made it safely back to Portugal • Yet his cargo of pepper and cinnamon was hugely profitable, and Portuguese merchants began immediately to organize further expeditions • By 1500 they had built a trading post at Calicut, and Portuguese mariners soon called at ports throughout India and the Indian Ocean basin

Virgin of Gaudalupe

Spanish settlers in Mexico sought to spread Christianity. After the mid-seventeenth century, Christianity became increasingly popular among mestizo society who began to take the Virgin of Guadalupe as a national symbol. The Virgin of Guadalupe gained a reputation for working miracles on behalf of individuals who visited her shine, which legend tells is located at the spot that the Virgin Mary appeared before a peasant near Mexico City in 1531. The popularity of the Virgin of Guadalupe helped secure the culture and religious importance of the Roman Catholic Church in Mexico.

Jamaica Letter

The Jamaica Letter was written by Simón Bolivar in 1815 while he was in exile in Kingstown, Jamaica. The letter was intended to attract British support for the Latin American independence movement. In it, Bolivar discusses his desire for a united Latin American nation. In the 1820s a few nations (Venezuela, Colombian, Ecuador) formed the Gran Colombia republic, but by 1830 the confederation was disintegrating and Bolivar left for Europe.

King-in-Parliament

The idea of King-in-Parliament is a key concept of the Westminster system of government developed in England in the 17th century. Previously, the government belonged to the king, he could hire and fire his ministers and pass whichever laws he desired. I.e. the king made laws and told people what to do and ministers could accomplish tasks on the ground [like tax collection]. King-in-Parliament fused everything together. The king passed the law, but was subject to it and couldn't change it without help from his parliament.

"the jewel in the crown"

What: Novel published in 1966 written in form of interviews, letters..etc from the POV of the narrator Who: Author of the novel is British novelist, Paul Scott. The novel involves a British woman who goes to India and realizes how she despises British attitudes in India, and she falls in love with an Inidan man. They go through a lot of trouble (violence, rape, etc and eventually death) When: The story is set in 1942 Where: The story is set in a fictional city, Mayapore, in an unnamed British province of Northern India. Why: The author writes this novel in order to express his POV on the socio-political ramifications of the British presence in India. Historical Significance: This is a novel written by a British criticizing British colonialism in India.

Boer War a.k.a South African War

When: 1899-1902 Where: South Africa, in Afrikaner-populated territories Who: Dutch-speaking Boer inhabitants & the British empire What: Brutal war between the Boers (aka Afrikaners) and the British; whites against whites, but lots of black Africans died as well. More than 10,000 dead. In 1902, the Afrikaners conceded defeat, and by 1910, the British govt had reconstituted the four former colonies as provinces in the Union of South Africa. Why: Discovery of large mineral deposits in Afrikaner-populated territories (diamonds in 1867 and gold in 1886). The influx of thousands of British miners and prospectors led to tensions between the British authorities and Afrikaners, culminating in this war. Historical Significance: Racism: British attempts at improving relations between English speakers and Afrikaners centered on shoring up privileges of white colonial society and domination of black Africans.

Sepoy Rebellion

When: May 1857 (1857-1859) Where: India Who: Sepoys (Indian soldiers in the British India Army) against the British officials What: The Sepoys staged a mutiny which transformed into a large-scale rebellion against the British officials (killed British officials, and proclaimed the restoration of Mughal authority). Many British were killed (60 soldiers, 180 civilian men, and some 275 women and children). But fresh British force arrived and exacted revenge by hanging the mutineers and blowing them to bits with a cannon. By May 1858, the British had crushed the rebellion and restored their authority in India. Why: Religious reasons: Sepoy regiments received new Enfiled rifles that fired bullets from cartridges. But the cartridges came in paper waxed with animal fat, and the British officials ordered the Sepoys to tear the paper off with their teeth. Hindu Sepoys refused to comply (concerned that it came from cows, which they value as sacred), and Muslims refused, afraid that it came from pigs, which they considered as foul. Historical Significance: The British form a Crown Company. (To stabilize affairs and forestall future problems, the British govt preempted the East India Company and imposed direct imperial rule in India).

Tabula Rasa

Who: By John Locke When: Late 1600s Where: England What: Based off of a theory of Aristotle, "Blank Slate" theorizes that individuals are born with a blank slate, where knowledge comes from experience and perception. This is reflective of a "nurture" argument. Why: Theory for knowledge and the self Historical Significance: Acted as a base for psychology, emphasized individual freedom to develop character Late 17th c. idea generated by John Locke in which one is born as a "blank slate" and everything one knows comes through senses and experience Signif: contradicts idea of original sin, also suggests that society (instead of god) can make a person good or bad; virtue can be taught

Quinine

Who: European imperialists What: Made from tree bark it was a drug used by Europeans to protect them against malaria, a disease they did not have immunity against but was in Africa and something they would encounter as they sought to overtake, exploit and lay claim to Africa as colonies. Where: Used by European countries for protection against diseases their colonies in Africa and India and their concern was with the people of "lesser developed nations" like Africa and India When: Started with full force in 1830 and would be used by Europeans into the 1900s as imperialism grew and they took control of more areas in Africa. Why: Before 1830 Europeans tried to expand to Africa but they did not have much success. They needed new innovations if they were going to acquire the much-desired African land. Quinine played a significant role in the colonization of Africa by Europe because it was extremely necessary to have in order for Europeans to be able to be in Africa and not die from disease. Historical Significance: Quinine played a significant role in the colonization of Africa by Europe. It was quinine's efficacy that gave colonists fresh opportunities to swarm into the Gold Coast, Nigeria and other parts of west Africa. Along with the steam engine, telegraph, dum dum bullets and maxim gun, quinine was a main tool that allowed Europeans to enter into Africa and take control and make land colonies. It was during this specific time in history that European nations were advancing industrially, technologically, socially and politically. With such events as the French revolution, nationalism was increasing and European rivalries between countries grew and grew. Europe wanted colonies to exploit the people and extract natural resources to fuel industrialization and their expanding economy. However, there were awful ramifications for Africa because of colonization. Just as seen in Things Fall Apart, there was a breakdown of society. Because of ideas like the white man's burden there still exists a lot of racism towards blacks because they are seen as inherently inferior. Today the ramifications of European imperialism are seen today as African politics are still corrupt and society is still nowhere near the advanced level of other countries.

New Imperialism

Who: European powers and African and Indian colonies What: the process by which a superior military strength exerts control on an inferior region and exploits it When: boomed in the 19th century Where: Africa & India Why: Livingston describes the causes as "commerce, civilization, and Christianity;" which included the demand for new markets and raw materials, nationalism and national rivalries, racism/social Darwinism, the idea of a civilizing mission, and the need for struggling countries to have a social outlet; was also made possible through the introduction of new technology that improved medicine (quinine), transportation (steam engine), military (maxim gun), and communication (telegraph) Historical Significance: changed the way people interacted within individual continents and among different continents; spread Christianity; undermined tradition of the colonized areas; created exploitative and plunder economies; led to economic monoculture in which the economy is based on one product, in this case, a raw material (very unstable economic system); created arbitrary borders in Africa that paid no attention to ethnic groups; led to labor migrations, nationalism, and anti-colonial movements

White man's burden

Who: European white men What: Mentality of white European men that the people of Africa and India were inherently lesser developed. They had lesser technology and less sophisticated societies. This was an Eurocentric and racist definition used that put Hebert Spencer's social Darwinism, the idea of "survival of the fittest" into practice. Africans, but really any non European was looked at as childish, inferior and thus the white man, as the superior and technologically superior people, has a duty (or burden) to go to those countries, exploit the people, take control and form colonies. Where: The white men were from Europe and their concern was with the people of "lesser developed nations" like Africa and India When: Late 1800s - early 1900s Why: Europeans needed justification for coming in, taking over and exploiting the people of Africa and India. They created this idea to justify the exploitation of entire societies. They even created pseduscience that said that Africans were genetically closer to chimps and Europeans were closer genetically to Romans. This pseudoscience as well as the entire white man's burden was used as justification for the exploitation of Africa and India. Historical Significance: Along with industrialization and imperialism, social Darwinism/racism was one of the main causes of imperialism. It was during this specific time in history that European nations were advancing industrially, technologically, socially and politically. With such events as the French revolution, nationalism was increasing and European rivalries between countries grew and grew. Europe wanted colonies to exploit the people and extract natural resources to fuel industrialization and their expanding economy. Thus they needed a mentality like this to justify it. This mentality however, increased racism and helped lead to the demise of African society. Old traditions were destroyed in these countries and European ideals were imposed. This would negatively affect Africa because, just as seen in Things Fall Apart, there was a breakdown of society. Today the ramifications of European imperialism are seen today as African politics are still corrupt and society is still nowhere near the advanced level of other countries. Africa because it was a child back then is still a child today and remains inferior. Also they still exists a lot of racism in this world because the belief that whites are inherently superior to blacks was supported by this mentality.

Population Explosion

Who: Europeans What: an increase in the population throughout Europe during which Europe experience a 43% growth in 50 years When: first half of the 19th century Where: Europe Why: increase in different foodstuffs (especially the potato); improved sanitation (public sewers, water filtration, smallpox vaccine); relative peace and stability Historical Significance: gave European countries one of the pre-requisites for industrialization, i.e. demographic growth that increases demand and provides a labor force

Indian National Congress

Who: Founded by Indians under British rule What: Major national party in India created to pave the way for India to free itself of British imperial control that had crippled them since the British East India company came to India in the 1750's. Where: India When: 1885 Why: The objective of obtaining a greater share in government for educated Indians. The British had instituted a system of governance in 1858 when the rule of the British East India Company was transferred to the Crown in the person of Queen Victoria. The British were brutal and harsh. They exploited Indians for their labor and raw materials. India did not manufacture anything, it was simply a land where goods were extracted. Thus India economy was inherently weak. After years of suppression Indian hoped to make a change and thus banded together and created the Indian National Congress. Historical Significance: After going through years of British suppression Indians hoped to make a change. What was remarkably significant was that they used the education system that they British themselves instituted to their advantage. The British educated the Indians so they themselves did not have to run certain things in the country. It was cheaper to educate them then to send Englishmen down to live in India. With this increased education, Indians hoped to end colonization by continuing to educate the people. Its founding members proposed economic reforms and wanted a larger role in the making of British policy for India. At the outbreak of World War II, the Congress voted for neutrality. When India came under Japanese attack, the Congress demanded immediate concessions from Great Britain toward a democratic government in return for cooperation in the war effort. In 1947 India, due to efforts from Indian National Congress, gained its independence from Britain.

Empiricism

Who: Founded by John Locke When: late 1600s Where: England What: philosophy of science Why: emphasizes those aspects of scientific knowledge that are related to evidence Historical Significance: Part of the scientific method, that all hypotheses and theories must be tested. Alters science to become methodological.

Incas

Who: Francisco Pizarro When: 1463-1532 Where: South America What: Highly developed, wealthy South American civilization; the capital was Cuzco; controlled about 11 million people at its peak; Conquered by Spanish conquistador Pizarro in the Battle of Cuzco Why: While the society was relatively flourishing, its political systems were nascent and contained factors, such as religion and land distribution (those who died retained their land-inefficient) that led to instability and civil war. This instability was able to be exploited by the Spanish in conquest Historical Significance: The conquering of the Ancient Latin American Civilizations resulted in large scale death of the native population from the foreign diseases that the Spainards bought; The rich and diverse goods found in these areas were opened up to Europe

Berlin Conference

Who: It was set up by Otto von Bismark and was attended by delegates from 12 European states, the US and the Ottoman Empire What: A meeting of international powers during which they set up the ground rules for the colonization of Africa, which included: each power had to notify the others of its claims in order to claim territory a country had to have effective occupation of the territory free access to Congo River When 1884—1885 Where: Berlin Why: the scramble for Africa created tensions between colonizing European powers and the conference was a response to deal with and dispel these tensions Historical Significance: the Berlin Conference set the stage for the carving up of the African continent, which led to an undermining of African tradition and created an environment poised for conflict, with political borders which paid no attention to ethnic groups

Suez Canal

Who: Muhammad Ali's grandson Ishmael, who later became Abbas I and the people of Egypt What: Artificial sea-level waterway in Egypt, connecting the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea. It allows water transportation between Europe and Asia without navigation around Africa. Where: Egypt When: Opened in November 1869 after 10 years of construction work Why: Muhammad Ali (1805 - 1848) was the viceroy and founder of modern Egypt. He attempted to modernize Egypt by building up an army, industrializing, and attracting foreign investors. Ihmeal, his grandson, who became Abbas I, shared this interest and further built upon his work. He thus started the construction of the Suez canal to link the Mediterranean and Asiatic and to increase Egypt's power in trade and use its great geographic location to its advantage by being able to create port cities and hopefully increase Egypt's power and stimulate its participation in internal trade and increase its own economy. Historical Significance: The Suez Canal was extremely important to trade. It allowed European countries to no longer have to go around Africa. Going around Africa took so long and thus wasted a lot of time and money. Now trade could be fast thus trade increased. What is equally significant if what happened to Egypt because of the Suez Canal. Muhammad Ali and his grandson had the right idea by beginning this process but they and the country they tried to desperately to modernize, were just so far behind Europe that they never caught up. Constructing the canal was a massive project. Ishmael had to take on a lot debt to do it. Britain and France wanted the canal badly and Ishmael took out loans with them. The canal made him bankrupt. Because he was indebted to France and Britain they had power. Britian in particular wanted the canal because it was a crucial link to India. This led to the 1828 take over of Egypt by the British.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

father of the romantic movement who focused on the important of civil liberties (over inherent liberties); A Social Contract (1762); thry. That education needed to be appreciated for its intrinsic value • The most prominent advocate of political equality was the French-Swiss thinker Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who identified with simple working people and resented the privileges enjoyed by elite classes • In his influential book "The Social Contract" (1762), Rousseau argued that members of a society were collectively the sovereign → in an ideal society all individuals would participate directly in the formulation of policy and the creation of laws • Was a major philosopher, writer, and composer of the 18th century Enlightenment • His political philosophy influenced the French Revolution and the development of modern political and educational thought • His novel 'Emile' which is considered his most important work, is a seminal treatise on the education of the whole person for citizenship o Discusses how you teach people to read o 'We're going to go get ice cream at 4:30' - you have to make it beneficial to learn → have to appeal to what is inside o Break from tradition • Many consider him the first Romantic • He thought the other philosophs were ganging up on him • He also reflected some of the Enlightenment conservative views on women's rights, as he advised that girls' education should prepare them for being good wives and mothers

Latin American Holocaust

incredible depopulation of America caused by Columbian exchange influences such as deaths in wars, diseases like small pox and horrific working conditions of the indigenous people in Aztec & Incan empires during the 15th and 16th c. weakened empires and led to their destruction under the Spanish 70-80% of people died

English Exceptionalism

o At the beginning of industrialization (mid 18th c.) in England, the British claimed that although many countries would industrialize, England would do so first because they were "exceptional" → factors/reasons: • Largest colonial possessions of any country in the world • Strong Navy • Stable government • Unified system of weights and measures • Geographic isolationism/relatively safe from invasion • Government linked to mercantile interests/open to mercantile exchange

Nicolaus Copernicus

o Copernicus argued that the sun rather than the earth stood at the center of the universe and that the planets including the earth, revolved around the sun → heliocentric universe o He did not want to overthrow the church, he just wanted to clean up what was already there o Compared with Ptolemy's geocentric universe, this new theory harmonized much better with observational data, but it did not receive a warm welcome o His theory not only challenged prevailing scientific theories but also threatened cherished religious beliefs → it implied that the earth was just another planet and that human beings did not occupy the central position in the universe • To some it also suggested the unsettling possibility that there might be other populated worlds in the universe - a notion that would be difficult to reconcile with Christian teachings, which held that the earth and humanity were unique creations of God • This broke with Ptolemaic theory and pointed European science in a new direction o Inspired some astronomers to examine the heavens in fresh ways • Literacy rights were about 6%, and therefore many did not read this Claudius Ptolemy of Alexandria composed a work known as the 'Almagest' that synthesized theories about the universe o Ptolemy envisioned a motionless earth surrounded by a series of 9 hollow, concentric spheres that revolved around it

Geocentrism v. Heliocentrism

o Heleocentrism - Copernicus 1473 - 1453 • In 1543 he published a treatise "On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres" that broke with Ptolemaic theory and pointed European science in a new direction • Copernicus argued that the sun rather than the earth stood at the center of the universe and that the planets including the earth, revolved around the sun → heliocentric universe o Geocentrism - Ptolemy 200 CE. • In about the 2nd century CE, Claudius Ptolemy of Alexandria composed a work known as the 'Almagest' that synthesized theories about the universe • Ptolemy envisioned a motionless earth surrounded by a series of 9 hollow, concentric spheres that revolved around it • Each of the first 7 spheres had one of the observable heavenly bodies - sun, moon, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn - embedded in its shell • The 8th sphere held the stars, and an empty 9th sphere surrounded the whole cosmos and provided the spin that kept all the others moving. • Beyond the spheres Christian astronomers located heaven, the realm of God • The spheres followed perfect circular paths in making their revolutions around the earth. They also had epicyles

Leopold II

o King of Belgium ruled 1865-1908 o In 1876, he set up The International Association for Exploration of Africa, declared the scramble for Africa, basically a world competition that held that imperialism was a zero sum game, aka my gain is your loss. o Also established a colony called the Congo Free State in the Congo River Basin, with the help of Henry Morton Stanley. Even though the Berlin Conference declared Congo a free trade zone, Leopold ignored this. He set up awful working conditions, high taxes, humanitarian abuse. He wanted ivory and sap from rubber trees. He enslaved the entire population in their own land. Because of him, 8-10 million Congolies died in 20 years. He became one of the wealthiest people in the world because the Congo wasn't Beligians control but Leopold's personal property. o From Study Blue: 1835-1909; sold owner Congo Free State; ran brutally; proxy mercenary force; personal fortune via rubber & ivory; death of million; international scandal; relinquish colony 1908

Robert Owen

o When: 1771-1858 o Where: Scotland o Who: Utopian socialist, businessman o What: Transformed an underperforming Scottish cotton mill town (New Lanark) into a model industrial community. Raised wages, reduced workdays, built comfortable housing and made cost of living affordable. In addition he kept children out of factories and founded a school in 1816 to educate them. o Why: despised competitive capitalism and stressed cooperative control of industry. o Historical Significance: Proved that a factory can be productive without having to treat its workers like slaves.

Spanish American War

o When: 1898 - 1899 o Where: Gulf of Mexico - Caribbean islands and Central America. o Who: US and Spain o What: Protect American business interests in the Gulf, especially Havana's harbor. o Why: US battleship Maine exploded, and thus war ensued. o Historical Significance: US dominated Spanish and claimed Puerto Rico, Cuba, Guam, and the Philippines. In addition, US occupied Central America and most of the Caribbean to quell rising anti-colonial rebellions that would threaten American business.

Indentured labor

o Who: Asia, Africa, and the Pacific island generally traveled as indentured laborers (in contrast to Europeans). Majority of indentured servents came from India o What: A labor system/contract in which labor recruiters offerd workers free passage to their destinations and provided them with food, shelter, clothing, and modest compensation for their services in exchange for a commitment to work for 5 - 7 years. Sometimes recruiters also offered free return passage to workers who completed a 2nd term of service o Where: Indentured laborers went mostly to tropical and subtropical lands in the Americans, Caribean, Africa, and Oceania o When: 19th Century. The indentured labor trade began in the 1820s when French and British colonial officials sent Indian migrants to work on sugar plantations in the Indian Ocean islands.1820- 1914, 2.5 million indentured laborers left their homes and went abroad o Why: As slavery declined, planters sought large numbers of laborors to replace slaves who left the plantations and thus relied primarily on indentured laborers recruited from relatively poor and densely populated lands o Significance: • Like the other large-scale labor migrations of the nineteenth century, the indentured labor migration reflected the global influence of imperial powers. • Was only possible because European and Euro-American peoples had established settle societies in temperate regions around the word • Movements of indentured laborers were possible because colonial officials were able to recruit workers and dispatch them to distant lands where their compatriots had already established plantations or opened mines. • In combination the 19th century labor migrations profoundly influenced societies around the world by depositing large communities of people with distinctive ethnic identities in lands far from their original homes

Prince Henry the Navigator

• 1394-1460 • European explorers acted on 2 different motives: o The desire to expand the boundaries of Roman Catholic Christianity o The desire to profit from commercial opportunities • The experience of Portugal illustrates that mixture of motives • During the 15th century Prince Henrique of Portugal, often called Prince Henry the Navigator, embarked on an ambitious campaign to spread Christianity and increase Portuguese influence on the seas • In 1415 he watched as Portuguese forces seized the Moroccan city of Ceuta which guarded the Strait of Gibraltar from the south o He regarded his victory both as a blow against Islam and as a strategic move enabling Christian vessels to move freely between the Mediterranean and the Atlantic • The pace of European exploration quickened after this event, as Henry sponsored a series of voyages down the west African coast • Portuguese merchants soon established fortified trading posts at Sao Jorge da Mina and other strategic locations • Following the capture of Ceuta, Henrique encouraged Portuguese mariners to venture the Atlantic o During their voyages they discovered the Madeiras and Azores Islands, all uninhabited, which they soon colonized • Because the Atlantic islands enjoyed fertile soils and a Mediterranean climate, Portuguese entrepreneurs soon began to cultivate sugarcane there, often in collaboration with Italian investors → provided a means to distribute sugar to Europeans • * He promoted voyages of exploration in west Africa specifically to enter the gold trade, discover profitable new trade routes, gain intelligence about the extent of Muslim power, win converts to Christianity, and make alliances against the Muslims with any Christian rulers he might find • ** The goal of spreading Christianity thus became a powerful justification and reinforcement for the more material motives for the voyages of exploration (1394-1460) Portuguese Prince who offered gov't money and patronage to sailors for exploration and gathers all the information already available to increase efficiency. Established trading posts in modern Ghana, offering trade in horses, leather, textiles, and metalwares. A symbol of the impressive and farsighted leadership that put Iberia at the forefront of exploration, both in the New World and Africa

Bartolome de las Casas

• 1484-1566 • Bartolemew de las cases: responsible for the protection of the indigenous from the exploits of the Spanish o In doing so he was responsible for the Black Legend o The Spanish abused the indigenous so much and are responsible for depopulation (not disease) o Becomes dangerous to religious authorities as well as the king • A 16th century Spanish Dominican priest, writer and the first resident Bishop of Chiapas • As a settler in the New World he witnessed, and driven to oppose, the torture and genocide of the Native Americans by the Spanish colonists

Galileo Galilei

• 1564-1642 • He showed that the heavens were not the perfect, unblemished realm that Ptolemaic astronomers assumed but, rather, a world of change, flux, and many previously unsuspected sights. • Galileo took a recently invented instrument - the telescope - turned it skyward, and reported observations that astonished his contemporaries o He could see spots on the sun and mountains on the moon - observations that discredited the notion that heavenly bodies were smooth, immaculate, unchanging, and perfectly spherical o He also noticed four of the moons that orbit the plant Jupiter - bodies that no human being had ever before observed - and he caught sight of previously unknown distant stars, which implied that the universe was much larger than anyone previously suspected → again disproves geocentric thought • Galileo also contributed to the understanding of terrestrial motion o He designed ingenious experiments to show that the velocity of falling bodies depends not on their weight but, rather, on the height from which they fall → brought scorn, but helped scientists to better understand how moving bodies behave under the influence of earth's gravitational pull o Also anticipated the modern law of inertia, which holds that a moving body will continue to move in a straight line until some force intervenes to check or alter its motion • He elaborated and consolidated the scientific method, and his works, along with the works of Johannes Kepler, rang the death knell for the Ptolemaic universe

John Locke

• 1632-1704 • Locke was an English philosopher who worked to discover natural laws of politics o He attacked divine right theories that served as a foundation for absolute monarchy and advocated constitutional government on the grounds that sovereignty resides in the people rather than the state or its rulers o Indeed, he provided much of the theoretical justification for the Glorious Revolution and the establishment of constitutional monarchy in England • 1690 - writes the 2nd treatise on government, and treatise on human understanding • Tabula Rasa: every human is born with a blank slate → shows that virtue can be taught o Man's human nature is not inherently bad → contrary to Christian philosophy o Catholic church says that Man is burdened by original sin o Fighting with Hobbs about human nature • 2nd Treatise of Civil Government o Individuals granted political rights to their rulers, but maintained natural rights: life, liberty, and property (pursuit of happiness) • Any ruler who violated those rights was subject to deposition o Government is a contract between those who rule and those who are ruled • Primary role of government is to protect your natural rights o In effect, Locke's political thought relocated sovereignty, removing it from rulers as divine agents and vesting it in the people of a society o This is an old Greek concept, and Locke makes it new • He was one of the most influential Enlightened thinkers who sought to discover natural laws that governed human society in the same way that Newton's laws of universal gravitation and motion regulated the universe • His works influenced Voltaire and Rouseau, and he influenced the American Declaration of Independence

Voltaire

• 1694-1778 • more than any other philosophe, Francois-Marie Arouet epitomized the spirit of the Enlightenment o Writing under the pen name 'Voltaire,' he published his first book at age 17 o By the time of his death at age 84, his published writings included some 10,000 letters and filled seventy volumes • With wit and sometimes bitter irony, Voltaire championed individual freedom and attacked any institution sponsoring intolerant or oppressive policies o Targets of his caustic wit included the French monarchy and the Roman Catholic church → when the king of France sought to save money by reducing the number of horses kept in royal stables, for example, Voltaire suggested that it would be more effective to get rid of the asses who rode the horses • Voltaire also waged a long literary campaign against the Roman Catholic church, which he held responsible for fanaticism, intolerance, and incalculable human suffering • Voltaire's battle cry was 'ecrasez l'infame' ("crush the damned thing"), meaning that he considered the church an agent of oppression • Voltaire was a deist who believed in the existence of a god but denied the supernatural teachings of Christianity, such as Jesus' virgin birth and his resurrection → god was a watchmaker

Adam Smith

• 1723-1790 • Capitalism posed moral challenges → medieval theologians had regarded profit-making activity as morally dangerous, since profiteers looked to their own advantage rather than the welfare of the larger community • Even as it transformed the European economy, capitalism found advocates who sought to explain its principles and portray it as a socially beneficial form of economic organization o Most important of the early apostles of capitalism was the Scottish philosopher Adam Smith, who held that society would prosper when individuals pursued their own economic interests • He is widely cited as the father of modern economics • He published "The Theory of Moral Sentiments" and "The Wealth of Nations" • In the "Wealth of Nations" (1776) he used a pin factory to describe the new system of manufacture → there were 18 distinct operations involved → showed how factories divided labor where workers performed a single task • He turned his attention to economic affairs and held that laws of supply and demand determine what happens in the marketplace • 'laissez faire'

Toussaint L'Ouverture

• 1744-1803 • The only successful slave revolt in history took place on the Caribbean island of Hispaniola in the aftermath of the French revolution → when the French revolution broke out in 1789, white settlers in Saint Domingue sought the right to govern themselves, but they opposed proposals to grant political and legal equality to the 'gens de couleur' → by May 1791 civil war had broken out between white settlers and gens de couleur • The conflict expanded when a charismatic Vodou priest named Boukman organized a slave revolt → in August 1791 some 12,000 slaves began killing white settlers • Boukman died shortly after launching the revolt, but slave forces eventually overcame white settlers, gens de couleur, and foreign armies (British and Spanish) o Their successes were due largely to the leadership of Francois-Dominique Toussaint (1744-1803) • After 1791, he called himself "Louverture" - from the French 'l'ouverture,' meaning "the opening," or the one who created an opening in enemy ranks • He was the son of slaves, and learned how to read and write from a Roman Catholic priest • A free man since 1776, Toussaint was also an astute judge of human character • When the slave revolt broke out in 1791, he helped his masters escape to a safe place, then left the plantation and joined the rebels o He was a skilled organizer, and by 1793 he had built a strong, disciplined army o He played French, British, and Spanish forces against one another while also jockeying for power with other black and mulatto generals o By 1797 he led an army of 20,000 that controlled most Saint-Domingue • In 1801 he promulgated a constitution that granted equality and citizenship to all residents of Saint-Domingue → he stopped short of declaring independence from France, however, because he did not want to provoke Napoleon into attacking the island • Nevertheless, in 1802 Napoleon dispatched 40,000 troops to restore French authority in Saint-Domingue → Toussaint was thrown in jail in France, where he died in 1803 • By the time he died, yellow fever ravaged the French army in Saint-Domingue and Toussaint's successor defeated the remaining troops → late 1803 they declared independence, and on 1 January 1804 they proclaimed the establishment of Haiti, meaning land of mountains

Marie Gouze

• 1748-1793 • She educated herself by reading books • Under the name Olympe de Gouges she won some fame as a journalist, actress, and playwright • She was a revolutionary and strong advocate of women's rights o She responded enthusiastically when the French revolution broke out in July 1789 • When the 'Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen' proclaimed freedom and equality for all citizens, it pertained only to male citizens o They welcomed women's contributions to the revolution but withheld the right to vote and left women under the patriarchal authority of their fathers and husbands • Gouges campaigned fervently to raise the standing of women in French society, and called for more education and demanded that women share equal rights in family property o She appealed to Queen Marie Antoinette • In 1791 Gouges published a 'Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen,' which claimed the same rights for women that revolutionary leaders had granted to men in August in 1789 o She insisted on the rights of women to vote, speak their minds freely, participate in the making of law, and hold public office • Her declaration attracted a great deal of attention but little support • In 1793 she was executed because of her affection for Marie Antoinette and her persistent crusade for women's rights • Yet Gouges's campaign illustrated the power of the Enlightenment ideals of freedom and equality

The Seven Years War

• 1756-1763 • Exploration and imperial expansion led to conflicts not only between Europeans and Asians, but also among Europeans themselves • Commercial rivalries combined with political differences and came to a head in the Seven Years' War (1756-1763) • It was a global conflict in that it took place in several distinct geographic theaters - Europe, India, the Caribbean, and North America - and involved Asian and indigenous peoples as well as Europeans • In Europe the war pitted Britain and Prussia against France, Austria, and Russia. • In India, British and French forces each allied with local rulers and engaged in a contest for hegemony in the Indian Ocean • In the Caribbean, Spanish forces joined with the French in an effort to limit British expansion in the western hemisphere • In North America - where the Seven Years' War merged with a conflict already under way known as the French and Indian War (1754-1763) - British and French armies made separate alliances with indigenous peoples in an effort to outmaneuver each other • Sometimes called "the great war for empire," the Seven Years' War had deep implications for global affairs, since it laid the foundation for 150 years of British imperial hegemony in the world • By no means did victories make Britain master of the world, or even of Europe. Yet victory in the Seven Years' War placed Britain in a position to dominate world trade for the foreseeable future, and "the great war for empire" paved the way for the establishment of the British empire in the 19th century → ensured that North American colonies would prosper

Marx

• 1818-1883 • Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels were German theorists who were the most prominent of the 19th century socialists o They scorned the utopian socialists as unrealistic dabblers whose ideal communities had no hope of resolving the problems of the early industrial era • They believed that social problems of the 19th century were inevitable results of a capitalist economy • They held that capitalism divided people into 2 main classes, each with its own economic interest and social status o Capitalist: owned industrial machinery and factories → the means of production o Proletariat: wageworkers who had only their labor to sell • Intense competition between capitalists trying to realize a profit resulted in ruthless exploitation of the working class • They also said that the state, music, art, and religion served the purposes of capitalists o Police forces and courts of law maintained capitalist power o Music, art, and literature amused the working classes and diverted attention from their misery o Religion encouraged workers to focus on existence beyond this world • He wrote a work called "Capital" and together with Engels wrote the "Manifesto of the Communist Party" (1848), which worked toward the abolition of private property and the institution of an egalitarian society o It asserted that human history has been the struggle between social classes o It argued that the future lay with the working class because the laws of history (overproduction, underconsumption, and diminished profits) dictated that capitalism would inexorably grind to a halt o They believed that socialism would lead to a fair, just, and egalitarian society infinitely more humane than the capitalist order • The doctrines of Marx and Engels came to dominate European and international socialism, and socialist parties grew rapidly throughout the 19th century

Creoles

• All European territories became multicultural societies where peoples of varied ancestry lived together under European or Euro-American dominance o Spanish and Portuguese territories soon became not only multicultural but ethnically mixed as well, largely because of migration patterns where about 85% of migrants were male • Because of the small numbers of European women, Spanish and Portuguese migrants entered into relationships with indigenous women, which soon gave rise to an increasingly 'mestizo' ("mixed") society • There was a social hierarchy • Las casas - new social hierarchies based on race. Social/racial categories o Introduction of peninsulares o Creoles - Spanish who are all white and lived in the New World. Pure blooded Spanish born in new world o In both the Spanish and the Portuguese colonies, migrants born in Europe known as 'peninsulares,' those who came from the Iberian peninsula, stood at the top of the social hierarchy o They were followed by 'criollos' or 'creoles,' those born in the Americas of Iberian parents • In the early days of the colonies, mestizos lived on the fringes of society. As time went on, however, the numbers of mestizos grew, and they became essential contributors to their societies, especially in Mexico and Brazil

Scientific Method

• As evidence accumulated, it became clear that the Ptolemaic universe simply did not correspond with reality • Astronomers based their theories on increasingly precise observational data, and they relied on mathematical reasoning to organize the data • Some of them began to apply their analytical methods to mechanics, and by the mid-17th century accurate observation and mathematical reasoning dominated both mechanics and astronomy • Indeed, reliance on observation and mathematic transformed the study of the natural world and brought about the scientific revolution o During the 17th and 18th centuries, anatomy, physiology, microbiology, chemistry, and botany underwent a thorough overhaul, as scientists tested their theories against direct observation of natural phenomena and explained them in rigorous mathematical terms 17th century creation of Galileo, in which one must accumulate data, develop a hypothesis and prove it using the data itself instead of the other way around still in use today, development of modern approach to science; see it applied to multiple fields of study (astronomy for Galileo)

Encomienda

• As originally developed in Spain during the 'reconquista,' the encomienda system rewarded Spanish conquerors by allowing them to exact both labor and tribute from defeated populations, while requiring the encomenderos to look after the physical and spiritual welfare of their workers • The island of Hispaniola became the base of Spanish operations in the Caribbean • Columbus's original plan was to build forts and trading posts where merchants could trade with local peoples for products desired by European consumers. However, it quickly became clear that the Caribbean region offered no silks or spices for the European market → needed to find something else • The settlers first attempted to support their society by mining gold • Spanish settlers were too few in number, and were also not inclined to perform heavy physical labor - so the miners came largely from the ranks of the Taino • Recruitment of labor came through an institution known as the 'encomienda,' which gave Spanish 'encomenderos' ("settlers") the right to compel the Taino to work in their mines or fields. o In return for labor, encomenderos assumed responsibility to look after their workers' health and welfare and to encourage their conversion to Christianity • Conscription of Taino labor was a brutal business → encomenderos worked their charges hard and punished them severely when they did not deliver the expected quantity of gold or work sufficiently hard in the fields • The encomienda was essential to the Spanish crown's sustaining its control over North, Central and South America in the first decades after the conquest, because it was the first major organizational law instituted on a continent where disease, war and turmoil reigned. • 'you don't own the person, you own their labor' • It is slavery, but isn't called slavery → mistreat them • From the 1520s to the 1540s, the encomienda system led to rampant abuse of indigenous peoples

Coal

• Coal played a crucial role in the industrialization of Great Britain. • Until the 18th century, wood had served as the primary sour e of fuel for iron production, home heating, and cooking o Prodigious uses of wood, however, had also hastened deforestation causing serious wood shortages • Geographic luck had placed some of western Europe's largest coal deposits in Great Britain, within easy reach of water transport, centers of commerce, and pools of skilled labor o The fortunate conjunction of cal deposits and the skills necessary to extract this fuel encouraged the substitution of coal for wood, thus creating a promising framework for industrialization • In that absence of easily accessible coal deposits, it was unlikely that the economy could have supported an expanding iron production and the application of steam engines to mining and industry - both crucial to the industrial process in Great Britain o In China, geography conspired against an important early shift from wood to coal, and therefore its breakthrough to industrialization occurred at a later time

Los Reyes Catolicos

• Fernando and Isabel of Spain were popularly known as the Catholic Kings • The process of state building was most dramatic in Spain, where the marriage in 1469 of Fernando of Aragon and Isabel of Castile united the two wealthiest and most important Iberian realms • Receipts from the sales tax, the primary source of royal income, supported a powerful standing army • Under Fernando and Isabel, Christian forces completed the 'reconquista' by conquering the kingdom of Granada and absorbing it into their state • The Catholic Kings also projected their authority beyond Iberia • When a French army threatened the kingdom of Naples in 1494, they seized southern Italy, and by 1559 Spanish forces had established their hegemony throughout most of the Italian peninsula • Fernando and Isabel also sought to make a place for Spain in the markets of Asia by sponsoring Christopher Columbus's quest for a western route to China • Columbus's voyages to the western hemisphere had unintended but momentous consequences, since they established links between the eastern and western hemispheres and paved the way for the conquest, settlement, and exploitation of the Americas by European peoples founded the Spanish Inquisition to rid Spain of those who were not loyal to Catholicism in 1478. The Inquisition rid Spain of its middle, merchant class, a repercussion still influencing Spanish development today

Enclosure

• If you were rich and you got an enclosure act, you could that land from someone if it was not being used → no compensation for the poor o You can build wall around area and call it yours as long as you cultivate it o Puts in place about 7 million new acres • Enclosure is the process by which common land is taken into fully private ownership and use. Common land is land which is owned by one person, but over which other people have certain traditional rights, such as arable farming, mowing meadows for hay, or grazing livestock. Under enclosure, such land is fenced and entitled to one or more private owners, who then enjoy the possession and fruits of the land to the exclusion of all others. • The process of enclosure has sometimes been accompanied by force, resistance, and bloodshed and remains among the most controversial areas of agricultural and economic history in England. Marxist and neo-Marxist historians argue that rich landowners used their control of state processes to appropriate public land for their private benefit. This created a landless working class that provided the labor required in the new industries developing in the north of England.

Trans-Siberian Railroad

• In Russia the tsarist government promoted industrialization by encouraging the construction of railroads to link the distant regions of the far-flung empire o Most impressive of the Russian railroads was the trans-Siberian line, constructed between 1891 and 1904, which stretched more than 9,000 kilometers and linked Moscow with the port of Vladivostock on the Pacific Ocean o Count Sergei Witte served as finance minister and oversaw construction of the trans-Siberian railroad • Apart from drawing the regions of the Russian empire together, railroads stimulated the development of coal, iron, and steel industries and enabled Russia to serve as a commercial ink between western Europe and east Asia

Luddites

• In some instances, machine-centered factories sparked violent protest o Between 1811 and 1816, organized bands of English handicraft workers known as Luddites went on a rampage and destroyed textile machines that they blamed for their low wages and unemployment • They called their leader King Lud, after a legendary boy named Ludlam who broke a knitting frame to spite his father • The movement broke out in the hosiery and lace industries around Nottingham and then spread to the wool and cotton mills of Lancashire • The Luddites usually wore masks and operated at night • Because they avoided violence against people, they enjoyed considerable popular support o Nevertheless, by hanging 14 Luddites in 1813, the government served notice that it was unwilling to tolerate violence even against machines, and the movement gradually died out • They showed the displeasure that many had with industrialization

The Glorious Revolution

• In the absence of a king, Cromwell's Puritan regime took power but soon degenerated into a disagreeable dictatorship, prompting parliament to restore the monarchy in 1660 • King and parliament, however, soon resumed their conflicts • The issue came to a head in a bloodless change of power known as the Glorious Revolution (1688-1689), when parliament removed King James II and invited his daughter Mary and her Dutch husband, William of Orange, to assume the throne • The resulting arrangement provided that kings would rule in cooperation with parliament, thus guaranteeing that nobles, merchants, and other constituencies would enjoy representation in government affairs

Manchester

• Income determined the degree of comfort and security offered by city life o The wealthy insulated themselves from urban discomforts with elegant homes in the suburbs • The working poor, in contrast, crowded into the centers of cities to live in shoddy housing constructed especially for them o The rapid influx of people to expanding industrial cities such as Liverpool and Manchester encouraged the quick but careless construction of dwellings close to the mills and factories • Industrial workers and their families occupied overcrowded tenements lacking in comfort. o The cramped spaces in apartments obliged many to share the same bed → this increased the likelihood of incestuous relationships and the ease of disease transmission o Whenever possible, the inhabitants of such neighborhoods flocked to parks and public gardens • This highlighted the problems of early industrial cities, and later led government authorities to improve public water supplies, expand sewage systems, and introduce building codes

Mercantilism

• Many historians of mercantilism consider Colbert, who was Louis 14th's financial advisor, a key figure • Mercantilism is an economic theory that holds that the prosperity of a nation is dependent upon its supply of capital, and that the global volume of international trade is "unchangeable." • Economic assets or capital, are represented by bullion (gold, silver, and trade value) held by the state, which is best increased through a positive balance of trade with other nations (exports minus imports). Mercantilism suggests that the ruling government should advance these goals by playing a protectionist role in the economy by encouraging exports and discouraging imports, notably through the use of tariffs and subsidies • Mercantilism was the dominant school of thought from the 16th to the 18th century. Domestically, this led to some of the first instances of significant government intervention and control over the economy, and it was during this period that much of the modern capitalist system was established. • Internationally, mercantilism encouraged the many European wars of the period and fueled European imperialism. • Belief in mercantilism began to fade in the late 18th century, as the arguments of Adam Smith and the other classical economists won out. Today, mercantilism (as a whole) is rejected by economists

Maroons

• No matter where they lived, slaves did not meekly accept their servile status and resisted in numerous ways. Some forms of resistance were mild but costly to slave owners: slaves often worked slowly for their masters but diligently in their own gardens, for example • A more serious form of resistance involved running away from the plantation community o Runaways known as 'maroons' gathered in mountainous, forested, or swampy regions and built their own self-governing communities o Maroons often raided nearby plantations for arms, tools, provisions, and even slaves to increase their own numbers or to provide labor for their communities • Many maroons had gained military experience in Africa, and they organized escaped slaves into effective military forces o Maroon communities flourished throughout slave-holding regions of the western hemisphere, and some of them survived for centuries o → in present-day Suriname, for example, the Saramaka people maintain an elaborate oral tradition that traces their descent from 18th century maroons

Bastille

• On 17 June 1789 representatives of the third estate took the dramatic step of seceding form the Estates General and proclaiming themselves the National Assembly → 3 days later, meeting in an indoor tennis court, members of the new Assembly swore not to disband until they had provided France with a new constitution • On 14 July 1789 a Parisian crowd, fearing that the king sought to undo events of the previous weeks, stormed the Bastille, a royal jail and arsenal, in search of weapons News of the event soon spread, sparking insurrections in cities throughout France July 14, 1783; citizens of paris attack the bastille, a jail and armory in order to obtain gun powder to equip themselves for revolution ag/ the monarchy of King Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette. The success of the raid forces Louis to give up paris and yield to the 3rd estate and allows it to become the national assembly significance: contributes (somewhat indirectly) to the establishment of a representative body in France

Price revolution

• Price revolution refers to a phase of huge inflation, which prevailed across Western Europe from later half of 15th century to first half of 17th century. • Prices on average rose around sixfold over a time span of over 150 years. • Some attributed this high rate of inflation to a huge influx of silver and gold from the New World o In particular large volumes of silver were mined from Peru/Potosi starting in 1545. o People said there was 'too much money chasing too few goods' thus giving rise to classic case of demand-pull inflation. o Large-scale bullion influx from over the Atlantic actually rolled in this price hike phenomenon. There was a quintupling in regards to silver production from central Europe from 1460 to 1530. However by 1610s there was a gradual decline in this output. • Demographic factors were also responsible for this hike in general prices, with the revival of European population growth • Increased trade and availability of manufactured and luxury goods, especially in the 16th century, had also encouraged many landowners to convert their tenants' payments from produce to cash. o Initially, this had helped the wealthy to accumulate more of the trappings of wealth, but as prices rose, those landlords who received payment in cash found themselves in financial straits.

Alexander II

• Reigned 1855-1881 • Modernizes Russia - army, railroad • Singed the Treaty of Paris in 1856, which ended the Crimean War • Abolishes serfdom in 1861 → he suggested to the nobility of Moscow, "it is better abolish serfdom from above than to wait until the serfs begin to liberate themselves from below" o He emancipated the serfs partly with the intention of creating a mobile labor force for emerging industries, and the tsarist government encouraged industrialization as a way of strengthening the Russian empire • He does it very quickly → this makes nation either very radical or national - the fact that they modernize so quickly revolutionizes working class • He was good to his servants - his driver was killed - he went to protect him and was killed

Manila Galleons

• Spanish trading ships that were sleek, fast, heavily armed ships capable of carrying large cargoes • For 250 years, from 1565-1815, Spanish galleons regularly plied the waters of the Pacific Ocean between Manila in the Philippines and Acapulco on the west coast of Mexico • From Manila they took Asian luxury goods, mostly silk, to Mexico and exchanged them for silver → most of this silver made its way to China, where a thriving domestic economy demanded increasing quantities of silver, the basis of Chinese currency • Meanwhile, some of the Asian luxury goods from Manila remained in Mexico or went to Peru where they contributed to a comfortable way of life for Spanish ruling elites → Most, however, went overland across Mexico and then traveled by ship across the Atlantic to Spain and European markets • ** The experience of the Manila galleons illustrates the early workings of the global economy in the Pacific Ocean basin the success of the chinese led to persecution and massacre • ** The Manila galleons constitute the fulfillment of Columbus' dream of sailing west to go east to bring the riches of the Indies to Spain, and the rest of Europe

The Colombian Exchange

• The "Columbian exchange" was the global diffusion of plants, food crops, animals, human populations, and disease pathogens that took place after voyages of exploration by Christopher Columbus and other European mariners • It had consequences much more profound than did earlier rounds of biological exchange • Unlike the earlier processes, the Columbian exchange involved lands with radically different flora, fauna, and diseases o For thousands of years the various species of the eastern hemisphere, the western hemisphere, and Oceania had evolved along separate lines. o By creating links between these biological zones, the European voyages of exploration set off a round of biological exchange that permanently altered the world's human geography and natural environment • Beginning in the early 16th century, infectious and contagious diseases brought sharp demographic losses to indigenous peoples of the Americas and the Pacific Islands o The worst scourge was smallpox, but measles, diphtheria, whooping cough, and influenza also took heavy tolls o In the eastern hemisphere, these diseases had mostly become endemic o Imported diseases took their worst tolls in densely populated areas such as the Aztec and Inca empires, but they did not spare other regions o ** All told, disease epidemics sparked by the Columbian exchange probably caused the worst demographic calamity in all of world history → between 1500 and 1800, upwards of 100 million people may have died of diseases imported into the Americas and the Pacific islands • Over the long term, however, the Columbian exchange increased rather than diminished human population because of the global spread of food crops and animals that it sponsored o Wheat, vines, horses, cattle, pigs, sheep, goats, and chickens went from Europe to the Americas, where they sharply increased supplies of food and animal energy o Maize and potatoes contributed to a sharply increased number of calories in Eurasian diets (potatoes could also be stored for the winter) o American bean varieties added protein, and tomatoes and peppers provided vitamins and zesty flavors in lands from western Europe to China • The Columbian exchange of plants and animals increased the nutritional value of diets, and fueled a surge in world population o In 1500, Eurasian peoples were recovering from the bubonic plague and the world population stood at about 425 million o By 1800 it had surged to 900 million • Alongside disease pathogens and plant and animal species, the Columbian exchange also involved the spread of human populations through transoceanic migration, whether voluntary or forced

The English East Indian Company

• The English East India Company was an early English joint-stock company that was formed initially for pursuing trade with the East Indies, but that ended up trading with the Indian subcontinent and China. • The oldest among several similarly formed European East India Companies, the Company was granted an English Royal Charter by Elizabeth I on 31 December 1600. • The East India Company traded mainly in cotton, silk, indigo dye, saltpeter, tea, and opium. However, it also came to rule large swathes of India, exercising military power and assuming administrative functions, to the exclusion, gradually, of its commercial pursuits. • Company rule in India, which effectively began in 1757 after the Battle of Plassey, lasted until 1858, when, following the events of the Indian Rebellion of 1857, and under the Government of India Act 1858, the British Crown assumed direct administration of India in the new British Raj. The Company itself was finally dissolved on 1 January 1874, as a result of the East India Stock Dividend Redemption Act. • The Company long held a privileged position in relation to the English, and later the British, government. As a result, it was frequently granted special rights and privileges, including trade monopolies and exemptions. These caused resentment among its competitors, who saw unfair advantage in the Company's position. Despite this resentment, the Company remained a powerful force for over 200 years.

Astrolabe

• The astrolabe was a simplified version of an instrument used by Greek and Persian astronomers to determine latitude by measuring the angle of the sun or the pole star above the horizon • It was not possible to determine longitude at sea in the early days of transoceanic navigation, but it was quite easy to determine latitude • European mariners' ability to determine direction and latitude enabled them to assemble a vast body of data about the earth's geography and to find their way around the world's oceans with tolerable accuracy and efficiency

Triangle Trade

• The demand for labor in the western hemisphere stimulated a profitable commerce known as the triangular trade, since European ships often undertook voyages of three legs • 3 legs: o On the first leg they carried horses and European manufactured goods (mostly cloth and metalwares, especially firearms) that they exchanged in Africa for slaves. o The second leg took enslaved Africans to Caribbean and American destinations. Upon arrival merchants sold their human cargoes to plantation owners for 2-3 times what they had cost on the African coast. Sometimes they exchanged slaves for cash, but in sugar-producing regions they often bartered slaves for sugar or molasses o Then they filled their vessels' hulls with American products before embarking on their voyage back to Europe • At every stage of the process, the slave trade was a brutal and inhumane business

James Watt

• The most crucial technological breakthrough of the early industrial era was the improvement and development of a general-purpose steam engine in 1765 by James Watt, an instrument maker at the University of Glasgow in Scotland • Steam engines burned coal to boil water and create steam, which drove mechanical devices that performed work o Even before Watt's time, primitive steam engines had powered pumps that drew water out of coal mines, but those devices consumed too much fuel to be useful for other purposes o Watt's version relied on steam to force a piston to turn a wheel, whose rotary motion converted a simple pump into an engine that had multiple uses • Watt's contemporaries used the term 'horsepower' to measure the energy generated by his steam engine, which did the work of numerous animals • By 1800 more than 1000 of Watt's steam engines were in use in the British isles o They were especially prominent in the textile industry, where their application resulted in greater productivity for manufacturers and cheaper prices for consumers (1765) as part of the industrial revolution, James Watt improves the steam engine by using less fuel and makes it more efficient; steam engine used to drain mines to reach coal more successfully generated terminology still used today to measure work (watts, horsepower)

Salons

• The salon is a 17th century French idea, a gathering of stimulating and attractive people of quality under the roof of an inspiring hostess, partly to amuse one another and partly to refine their taste and increase their knowledge through conversation and readings • In 16th-century Italy some scintillating circles that formed in the smaller courts were often galvanized by the presence of a beautiful and educated patroness such as Isabella d'Este or Elisabetta Gonzaga . • The first literary salons of Paris formed in the 1620s at the Hôtel de Rambouillet by Madame de Rambouillet and at the rival salon that gathered around Madeleine de Scudéry. Here gathered the original " blue-stockings" (les bas-bleues), whose nickname continued to mean "intellectual woman" for the next 300 years. In the salons of Paris, the précieuses refined the French language even before the Académie Francaise was founded. • The 18th century salons brought together Parisian society and the progressive phiosophes who were producing the Encylcopedie

Enlightened Absolutism

• Who o Catherine II of Russia • Great patron of the arts o Frederick the Great of Prussia • Unable to implement enlightened reforms in practice • Modernized bureaucracy, civil service, & promoted religious tolerance o Joseph II - Holy Roman Emperor o Louis XV - France • Best example of an enlightened absolutist • The Sun King • When o Mid 18th century. • What o A form of absolute monarchy, which was heavily, influenced by major enlightenment ideas. o Ruled with the intent to better the lives of their subjects o Voltaire was a big proponent of enlightened absolutism as the best form of government. o Generally allowed religious toleration, private property rights, and freedom of speech and press. o Most still retained absolute power. • Where o Throughout Europe (Esp. France, Prussia, Russia) • Why o Product of enlightenment thought sweeping through Europe, originating in France o Emphasis on value of the individual - monarchs make more effort to please their subjects • Historical significance o In France, failure of later kings to maintain the system of Louis XIV directly led to the French revolution. o In general, better lives for people but short lived, step on the path to democracy.

Grievance List (Saint Domingue)

• Who o Free citizens and colored landowners of French colonies • When o September 1789 • What o Demands that the Declaration of the Rights of Man apply to all free blacks and mulattos in French colonies. o Essentially demands that these people receive the same treatment (legally etc.) as white men. • Where o French colonies particularly Haiti (saint domingue) o Demands delivered to the National Assembly • Why o To make sure the voices of those living in the colonies was heard and to demand rights for those minorities not originally considered in the Declaration of the Rights of man • Historical significance o Many concessions gained o Slavery abolished in France in 1794. (not all colonies) o Eventual revolution in Haiti which declares itself independent and outlaws slavery in 1804